Theuseofambleand
gaitedhorsesformounted
combat
Part 1: Introduc on and ambling horses in medieval sources
Xavier Baecke
Introduction
A mounted fight was perhaps the most characteristic feature of knightly combat. Within the practice
of reconstructing traditional western martial arts, a lot of progress has been made on the subject of
longsword combat, and also medieval wrestling and dagger fighting have been analyzed with great
scrutiny. On the other hand, our understanding of mounted fighting, leave alone its practice, is still
rudimentary. One of the main reasons – next to the practical and economic reasons related to horse
ownership – relates to the additional complexity accompanying such a way of fighting. Mounted
combat cannot be merely investigated from the perspective of the martial arts, but also requires the
insights and practices of good horsemanship.
Within horsemanship, the precise mechanics and attributes of different gaits have always
played an important role. For instance, trot holds a particular place in classical dressage, since this
gait offers enough impulsion to work the hind quarters, but is not as exhausting and more
controllable when compared to canter. For vaqueros, stationary agility, often learned from a rein
back, combined with swift transitions in and out canter are crucial to their cow work. These examples
indicate that we need to pay particular attention to how the different gaits were used in medieval
source material as well to identify their effect on particular techniques and in order to determine
their place in the dynamics and the structure of a fight as a whole.
There are some horses which have the ability to execute gaits such as amble or a pace next
to the ordinary gaits (walk, trot, canter and gallop). These gaits are characterized by a more distinct
lateral synchronicity of the movement of the feet and are mostly performed by gaited horses. During
the Middle Ages, gaited horses seemed to be particular popular and were often identified as palfreys.
Recently, Tuuli Salmi published an article which suggested the use of the gaited horses and their
distinctive gait, the amble, in mounted combat during the Middle Ages. Salmi came to this conclusion
by comparing specific images of the Liberi corpus to snap shots of modern gaited horses
(http://www.hroarr.com/gaited-horses-in-fiores-manuals/).
The evidence presented by Salmi indicated that ambling appeared possible and, in some
cases, even preferable for mounted combat. However, a proportion of the indicated imagery did not
resemble ambling horses whatsoever and in most cases it was hard to make any differentiation
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between walk and amble. In order to overcome the problems of differentiating between several
gaits, a multi-perspective approach is required. In this article, I will conduct several analyses in order
to assess whether ambling and gaited horses were represented in medieval manuscripts.
Furthermore, I will explore the utility of ambling and gaited horses for mounted combat from a
biomechanical perspective.
Because of the variety of the analyses, this article will be presented in four parts; each of
these parts will focus on answering a specific research question. The first part, “Ambling in medieval
sources”, will give a general overview of the occurrence of ambling horses in medieval sources. This
part will especially focus on the iconographic representation of gaits and the problems such
representations might render for gait specific analyses. Consequently, the conclusions of the first
part need to be taken into account during the analyses of the fighting manuscripts. In the second
part, “Ambling in the manuscripts of Fiore de’i Liberi”, I will address the manuscripts of the Italian
fencing master Fiore de’i Liberi and whether some images could rightfully be considered as
representing an ambled gait. This inquiry will not limit itself to the particular images in which ambling
seems to be likely. Rather, it will use a quantitative approach that determines all the gaits within the
images and subsequently compare the images where ambling might be the case with the images
from different manuscripts representing the same play. Finally, the results of the quantitative and
comparative analyses will be further discussed in light of iconographic topoi, manuscript tradition
and discursive contexts. The research of the second part will thus result in a general consideration
whether or not the use of ambling horses was likely in the manuscripts of Fiore de’i Liberi. In the
third part of this article, “Ambling in other fighting manuscripts”, I will investigate whether ambling
seems to occur in other fighting manuals as well. In the cases where ambling seems to occur, I will
study these images more closely in order to determine what these images seem to represent. In the
fourth and last part of the article, “The implications of an amble and gaited horses for fighting
purposes”, I will question whether the amble and gaited horses are useful for fighting purposes. By
considering the biomechanical implications of the amble and of gaited horses, and by relating these
implications to some specific techniques demonstrated in the manuscripts, I will assess the
consequences of using an amble and gaited horses during a fight.
Although the use of the amble is central in this article, the multi-perspective nature of this
article will require particular attention for the horsemanship for mounted fencing, and it must focus
on the manuscript tradition and the discursive context of the documents under consideration. As
such, this article will also – in the margin however – forward some insights concerning the practice of
medieval horsemanship, the technical aspects of mounted combat and the contexts of the fighting
manuals.
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Amble and walk
Most horses nowadays have three distinct natural gaits: walk, trot and canter. Next to these three
natural gaits, gallop and backing are often considered separate gaits. However, some horses do not
perform a trot but amble instead. The movement of these ambling horses, indicated as gaited
horses, produce, resembles a faster, more rhythmic and more cadenced walk. Although some
ordinary horses can be taught to amble or to pace (which is a two beat gait resembling the amble),
ambling seems to be genetically determined and therefore breed specific (see Andersson L.,
“Mutations in DMRT3 affect locomotion in horses and spinal circuit function in mice” in: Nature, 488
(2012) 642-646).
Walking horse Ambling horse (Eadweard Muybridge, “Horse Walking Bareback Nude Male Rider” in:
‘Animal locomotion’ collection (1887)
The walk is a four beat movement without a moment of suspension, when all legs are lifted at the
same time. The sequence of the beats goes as follows: left hind leg, right foreleg, right hind leg, right
foreleg. This sequence is clearly visible on the figure taken out of the Muybridge collection (see
above). It should be noted that, contrary to popular perception, also walk can have distinct moments
where two legs are kept in suspension: the front or hind leg on the same side, or the front leg on one
side and hind leg on the other side. In the classical art of dressage, the latter form was even
advanced in training, leading to the so-called school walk, which is very recognizable in the teachings
of William Cavendish and François Robichon de la Guerinière. The frames of Muybrdige also
demonstrate that such ‘snap shot’ moments occur even in an ordinary walk. Alois Podhajsky, the
former director of the Spanish Riding School, therefore noted on the walk:
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"Two or three feet are always on the ground at the same time; the horse steps from one leg
to the other and there is no moment of suspension."
(Alois Podhajsky, Horse and Rider. In the Principles of Classical Horsemanship).
Ambling horse (Eadweard Muybridge, “Horse Ambling Bareback Nude Male Rider” in: ‘Animal
locomotion’ collection (1887)
The amble, as often observed in its most natural form, follows a four beat rhythm in the same way as
the walk. Again, the Muybridge collection demonstrates this perfectly (see above). Some snap shots
of the amble will therefore show no difference with that of the walk. Consequently, the comparisons
provided by Salmi in her article, where she compared some images of Fiore’s work with some snap
shots of ambling horses, do not necessarily prove that the horses were ambling. They could be simply
walking as well. To solve the dilemma of differentiating between the walk and the amble, we should
look for frames where ambling differs from walking. Since both gaits are so strongly related, this is
often a burdensome task when working with static images. Nonetheless, the work of Muybridge
points to some differences. First, the main difference is not to be found in an expressive uplift of the
fore legs, but rather in a distinct raise of the hind legs. After all, it are the hind legs which produce
the propulsion of the horse and it is because of their more distinct activity that an ambling horse is
allowed to move faster than a walking horse. Second, because of the higher rhythm there is a
considerable longer time when both legs of the same side are lifted and they seem to be more alike
in their phase of movement (retracting or protracting / lifting or being placed down). Although a
comparison of the pictures might suggest that the head position could be an indicator, it cannot be
considered a valuable parameter for walk (although it seems to be for an amble), since performing a
collected walk would result in a comparable head posture.
Furthermore, Salmi is mistakenly attributing some characteristics to the ambled gait. In her
article she stated: "Notice that the front leg moving forward is very high, and already past the other
front leg and breast. The horse's head is high and its weight is over its back legs." What she - in fact
very correctly - is describing, has nothing to do with an amble per se. She gives a good description of
collection. During collection the haunches are lowered and hind legs are more bend, whereby they
can carry more weight, resulting in an 'uphill' posture of the horse. This causes a lift of the
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forequarters and frees up the forelegs, significantly increasing the agility of the horse. It is a common
misconception that walk cannot be collected. It is, in fact, a requirement of modern Grand Prix riding,
although it is rarely ridden with great perfection nowadays (some attribute this to the different
breeds of horses). Nonetheless, walk can be ridden with a great degree of collection. This is for
instance beautifully demonstrated in the famous Spanish walk (see below).
The Spanish walk performed at the Royal Andalusian Riding School (source: Mail Online
(http://www.dailymail.co.uk/travel/article-2521942/Jerez-city-break-Horsing-like-Olympian-Spanishcapital-dressage.html))
In the Middle Ages, horse trainers took particular care of having good lifting motions in their horses’
limbs, as Jordanus Rufus, a knight in the service of the marshalcy of emperor Frederick II, explains in
his work (ca. mid 13th century):
"Troctare dixi saepius per arata, quam alia plana loca, eo guod propter valliculos et
monticulos, qui sunt in magissis et in campis aratis, more solito assuescit equus et instruitur
quotidie crura et pedes altius et levius in suro egressu decenter levare; et hoc similiter fieri
potest per loca satis arenosa consimili ratione."
"I tell you to trot more often in tilted soil, than on straight places, who go past valleys and
hills, who lay in the meadows and plowed fields. By constant practice, the horse gets used and
is instructed to properly lift his legs and feet highly and lightly when moving out. You can do
this also with the same logic in places with sufficient sand."
(Translation by Xavier Baecke)
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This work clearly accentuates the importance of well-raised feet during Middle Ages and, as we will
see later in this article, explains why most medieval depictions of horses have at least one front leg
raised, even sometimes when standing still.
It is often assumed that gaited horse require less training to fare well, since the gait appears
easy-going in its natural form. However, classical dressage masters clearly indicate that also ambling
requires further training. They considered the amble ideal when the legs of both sides were clearly
lifted and when the horse moved with a fair degree of collection, at least in the form of lowering the
haunches. William Cavendish, the duke of Newcastle, is particularly clear in this matter. In his first
work written in 1658, La methode et invention nouvelle de dresser les chevaux par les tres-noble,
haut, et tres-puissant prince Guillaume marquis et comte de Newcastle, he made the following
remark on the amble:
"L'Amble: le cheval en cette action remue les deux jambes du mesme côté; par example, il
remue les deux jambes de dehors le montoir; celle de devant, et celle de derriere, en mesme
temps, cependant que les deux jambes de devers le motoir sont aretées; e quand les deux
jambes qu'il removoit sont à terre, et qu'elle la touchent, il remue l'autre côté; la jambe de
devant et celle de derriere de devers le montoir; et les deux jambes de dehors le montoir sont
aretées. Ainsy la Haquenhée remue ses deux jambes d'un côté, et change de côté en mesme
temps; qui est l'amble parfait."
“The amble: In this action, the horse moves the two legs on the same side. For example, he
moves the two legs on the outer side, the one in front and the one behind, at the same time,
while the two legs on the inner side are stopped. When the two legs, which moved, are
grounded, he moves the other side: the leg in front and the leg behind on the inner side, and
the legs on the outer side are stopped. In this fashion the Haquenhée moves both his legs on
one side, and changes side in the same time, that is a perfect amble.”
(Translation by Xavier Baecke)
In his subsequent work, written in 1667, he makes an exact English translation of the
aforementioned fragment. However, in the posthumous translation of that work in 1677, a
considerable addition was made for the amble:
"si en marchant il plie les hanches, autrement il n’amblera point commodement ny bien. Il est
à notter qu’on connoit qu’un cheval va sur les hances à son amble lorsqu’il pose les pieds de
derriere plus avant de beaucoup qu’il n’a posé ceux de devant à terre du mesme costé ; c’està-dire que le cheval allant l’amble, leve les deux pieds de mesme costé en l’air, et remettant à
terre ces deux mesmes pieds d’un costé, il faut qui pose celuy de derriere un quart de toise
plus avant qu’il n’a posé celuy de devant à terre du mesme costé, s’il va comme cela, il ira
bien l’amble car il pliera les hanches, et s’il ne les plioit, le pied de derriere ne pourroit estre
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posé plus avant que celuy de devant à terre du mesme costé, s’il va comme cela, il ira bien
l’amble car il pliera les hanches, et s’il ne les plioit ; le pied de derriere ne pourroit estre posé
plus avant que celuy de devant à terre car prenez garde que quoique les deux pieds d’un
mesme costé foient en l’air en mesme temps pour aller l’amble, celuy de devant se est levé ;
et il faut qu’il se pose bien plus avant sur la terre que celuy de devant ne s’est posé, s’il va de
la forte il ira sur les hanches, tout cheval d’amble qui va sur les hanches va bien, cela soit dit
en passant comme je n’auray pas lieu de parler de l’amble, je vous ay voulu donner cette
remarque comme tres bonne."
“When he bends the haunches, otherwise he is not ambling adequately nor good. It is
noteworthy that one recognizes that a horse goes on his haunches during his amble if he puts
his hind legs down earlier, since he has not yet grounded the forelegs on the same side. That
is to say that the horse which ambles, lifts his two feet on the same side in the air, and puts
those two feet on one side back to the ground. It is necessary that he moves the hind legs a
‘quart de toise’ [this is ca. 45 cm] before the fore leg on the same side is grounded. If he goes
this way, he is ambling well because he bends the haunches. If he is not bending them, the
hind leg cannot be positioned before the fore leg, because, regarding the fact that both legs
are in the air at the same time to be in an amble, the fore leg is lifted. It is necessary that the
hind leg is put down well before the fore leg is grounded. If he goes with impulsion, he will go
on the haunches, and all horses which amble on their haunches go well. This I needed to say,
since I will have no more space to talk about the amble, and I would like to give you this
comment as a very good one.”
(Translation by Xavier Baecke)
Cavendish is not alone in this view, since François-Robichon de la Guerinère, although much less
appreciative of the gait, made a comparable description of the ambled gait in his Ecole de la
Cavalerie (1733) and even provided an image showing what a perfect ambled gait should look like.
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L’amble (François Robichon de la Guerinière, Ecole de la Cavalerie)
It is thus noteworthy that both Cavendish and de la Guerinière stress a lowering of the haunches to
achieve a good ambling gait. It is in fact by the same way the other gaits are further perfected,
namely by increasing the carrying capacity of the hind quarters and by increasing the movability of
the forehand, in other words, by collection. Much to the contrary to what Salmi stated, also the
amble requires collected work to amount to an advanced state. In other words, there will be no clear
advantage in using an amble as to using different gaits in terms of training required to get the gaits
properly prepared for mounted combat.
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Ambling and gaited horses in medieval iconography
Gaited horses were particularly popular during the Middle Ages and some medieval images clearly
portray horses performing the gait. One of the most popular examples we find in the Ellesmere
manuscript of the early fifteenth century, which depicts the wife of Bath from the Canterbury Tales
on an ambling horse.
Wife of Bath on an ambling horse (San Marino, Huntington Library, Ms. EL 26 C 9)
An earlier example is rendered by a late thirteenth century apocalyptic manuscript kept in the British
Library. Although not always as clear, the manuscript seems to depict the four horsemen seated on
ambling horse. The clearest example of such an ambling horse is given by the black horse,
representing famine.
Ambling horse in a 13th century manuscript (London, British Library, Add., Ms. 35166)
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Another, even older example, which has gone unnoticed, is given by the Bayeux tapestry, fabricated
in the 1070’s. This amazing work holds three clear depictions of ambling horses in combat and is
perhaps one of the best pieces of evidence for the use of ambling horses during the Middle Ages,
since the amble can be clearly differentiated from the walk. The first image of the understanding
compilation shows both gaits side by side. However, it should be noted that ambling is not the only
gait represented in the Bayeux tapestry. For instance, there is also one horse distinctively trotting. In
fact, the use of ambling is sporadic at best, since most gaits depicted on the tapestry are walk, canter
and gallop. Another interesting feature about the Bayeux tapestry is that each walking gait is
depicted by a raised foreleg, often in a prominent way, further substantiating the fact that this
cannot be considered a characteristic of an amble and indicating the raised foreleg as an early
iconographic topos in the depiction of horses in medieval iconography.
Compilation of the ambling horses in the Bayeux Tapistry (Bayeux, Musée de la Tapisserie de Bayeux)
However, great care must be taken in identifying the amble in medieval manuscripts. Salmi gives an
example of an allegedly ambling horse in the Queen Mary’s Psalter, compiled in the early fourteenth
century. However, the horse depicted is clearly walking since the right hind leg is firmly positioned on
the ground, which is indicated by a clear line. Notice that the hind leg is not lifted or bend as to be
expected from a true ambled gait and as indicated in the aforementioned examples.
Walking horse in Queen Mary’s Psalter (London, British Library, Royal Ms. 2 B VII/151b)
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Although the horse from the Queen Mary’s Psalter can be clearly identified as a walking horse, other
images prove far more troublesome. One example is given by the Codex Manesse, compiled in the
early fourteenth century, which only seems to depict horses that are either cantering or ambling.
However, when looking at the context of certain images, it becomes clear that a walking gait is
intended, even though the drawing resembles an amble more closely. The image underneath
demonstrates this argument. It portrays master Rumslant assisting a young lad to mount his horse.
The horse has both right front and hind leg lifted, thus suggesting an amble. However, ambling seems
very unlikely given a context where the horse is being mounted, while held closely by the reins and
obstructed by the good master. Unless this image shows the undesirable event of a horse ambling
straight over the distinguished master, a situation where the horse takes a few steps while being
mounted, probably to readjust his balance, is far more reasonable.
Horse taking a few steps while being mounted in the Codex Manesse (Heidelberg, University of
Heidelberg Library, Codex Palatinus Germanicus 848)
There is a comparable problem with the Morgan Bible, compiled in the second half of the thirteenth
century, where all horses seem to be either cantering or ambling. Nonetheless, the context in which
these horses are depicted make an ambling gait sometimes very unlikely. The image below proves
such a point once more. Here, the kingly figure, no-one less than king David, is riding a horse that
appears to be ambling. Its left front and hind legs are clearly moving at the same time and the hind
leg is clearly retracted. However, if the horse would indeed be ambling, would the good man holding
the horse, the venerable prophet Samuel, who stands firmly with both legs on the ground, not be
dragged all over the courtyard? Although this might provide us with some exquisite Pythonesque
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humor, I rather doubt that this was ever intended by the illuminator. Again, the context of the image,
rather than the specific rhythm of the horse, makes walk the only reasonable option.
Horse walking in the Morgan Bible (New York, The Pierrepont Morgan Library, Ms. M 638)
The Codex Manesse and the Morgan Bible indicate some severe problems for those who want to
study medieval horsemanship, and some explanation must be offered as to why the walk is often
represented as an amble. A first possible reason is that a specific type of walk was favoured in the
Middle Ages; a gait we could describe as an ‘ambled walk’. In such an ambled walk, the lateral
synchronicity of the movement of the legs – meaning the hind and front leg on one side – is
accentuated. That such alterations can be made on the standard, evenly beated walk is clearly
demonstrated by the school walk, heavily used by the old dressage masters, whereby the diagonal
synchronicity (meaning the foreleg of one side and the hind leg of the other side) rather than the
lateral synchronicity is advanced. However, the existence of the school walk, favoured as the most
desirable form of walk by the classical dressage masters, poses a strong argument against the
hypothesis of the ambled walk, because the masters developed the school walk for its increased
balance, allowing for an advanced collection. An ambled walk would in fact reverse the effects of the
school walk, resulting in less balance and lessened effects of collection. It would be peculiar that
medieval horsemen, leave alone knights in dire need of balance and collection during fighting, would
favour such a walk.
Another and more likely explanation lies with the iconography itself. It must be remembered,
especially in the context of medieval iconographic culture, that images intend to convey more than a
mere reality. Symbolic expression and esthetics were equally important. In terms of symbolism,
good horsemanship as an element of knightly identity and prouesse needed to be expressed within
these illuminations. The almost obsessive tendency to depict collected horses with their feet raised is
thus a typical expression of a skillful horseman. Furthermore, these images intended to convey a
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sense of motion, which is not easily depicted in a static image. By representing the walk in moments
when two feet are lifted instead of one, the image attains a certain sense of life and movement.
Moreover, such iconographic techniques to implement symbolism and to convey motion, just
as literary formulations, could easily become topoi, meaning that a certain way of representing a
certain object became standard and formal. Medieval writers and illuminators were particularly keen
on the use of topoi and creativity more than often lied in a specific use and a particular combination
of topoi. The fact that popular works such as the Codex Manesse and certainly the Morgan Bible used
a dynamic walk as a topos must have consolidated such a representation beyond any doubts. We
must be careful to interpret these depictions as wrong. They only contain a faulty message if
contemporary observers were to interpret them as fully realistic images. However, if these images
became topological, contemporary observers would recognize the meaning of the depictions
because of the iconographic convention. To put it simpler, because images depicting a walking horse
were often portrayed them with two feet raised, it becomes part of a collective cultural perception.
People seeing these pictures understand that a walk is represented because they share a common
way of perceiving and interpreting these images. However, when these images are represented to
people not sharing this culture, they will be inclined to interpret the image in the most realistic
fashion, dismissing the cultural semiotic layer present within that picture, in fact leading to a faulty
interpretation of the picture. What the Morgan Bible and Codex Manesse make clear to modern
students is that we should refrain from just interpreting individual imagery without taking the
discursive and iconographic context of the manuscript into account.
Conclusion to the first part
In this part I investigated the occurrence of the amble, and by generalization of gaited horses, in
medieval manuscripts, focusing particularly on the iconographical representation of the amble in
these sources. It is clear that ambling and walking are hard to distinguish in medieval iconography,
because of the static nature of an image. However, if the illuminator had the clear intention of
representing an amble, he could do so by stressing the lateral synchronicity in the movement,
accentuating a clear lift of the hind leg on the same side the fore leg is lifted. Contrary to popular
assumption, the sole lift of a foreleg or the raised neck of the horse are no indicators of ambling
whatsoever.
Although these indicators prove invaluable for detecting an amble, the examples taken from
the Morgan Bible and the Codex Manesse indicate that they should not be used lightly. When
identifying gaits, the iconography of a manuscript entirely, rather than focusing on separate images,
should be studied closely and the influence of iconographic topoi should be taken into consideration.
This research indicates that raised forelegs and upheld necks were particularly popular in medieval
iconography and related to an expression of skills in horsemanship, an element pivotal to the knightly
identity. Furthermore, the investigation also isolated a specific topos that I termed a ‘dynamic walk’,
which closely resembles an amble.
Although the amble remains difficult to distinguish from walk, my general survey has isolated
clear examples of an amble, likely performed by gaited horses, in medieval sources. The clearest
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example, previously unknown, comes from the Bayeux Tapestry, which not only depicts ambling
horses as such, but also demonstrates that they were used in combat. Although this source provides
remarkable evidence in favour of the use of ambling horses in combat, it should be remembered
that the amble is only depicted sporadically in the Bayeux Tapestry and that other gaits such as walk,
canter and gallop were far more important for combat purposes.
Notwithstanding the fact that ambling horses and possibly gaited horses were used in
combat situations, the question whether they were preferable for fighting remains unanswered.
Medieval fighting manuscripts are more adequate in answering such a question, because they can be
assumed to represent real and optimal fighting situations more closely. Therefore, in the next two
parts of this article, these manuscripts will be examined more closely on the subject of gaits,
particularly the amble. However, because of the findings of this part, such an investigation can only
be conducted truthfully when all iconographic material of such manuscripts is analyzed and when the
iconographic, discursive, historical and technical context of these manuscripts are implemented in
the investigation.
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