中東硏究 2006년 제25권 1호, 103-138
Trans-Yellow Sea Global Trade
during the Middle Ages as an Extension
of Maritime Silk Road to Korea *
6)
Shim, Ui-Sup **
Contents
I. Foreword
Ⅱ. Major Expeditions for the Maritime Silk Road
III. Background and Influences of Expeditions
Ⅳ. Extension of East Boundary of Maritime Silk Road
Ⅴ. Conclusion
<Abstract>
Trans-Yellow Sea Global Trade
during the Middle Ages as an Extension of
Maritime Silk Road to Korea
Shim, Ui-Sup
Myongji University
The trade and travel during the Middle Ages between Middle
* Revised article delivered at the 6th AFMA Conference, "Middle East
Perspectives from East Asia: Diversifying the Middle East and Islamic
Studies", Tokyo University of Foreign Studies, 13-14 May 2006:
Tokyo Japan.
** Professor of Myongji University
104 중동연구 제25권 1호
East and East Asia through the Indian Ocean and the China Sea
are studying in various fields. The famous travelers such as
Sindbad(written around 987), Marco Polo(travel period 1271∼
1295), Ibn Battuta (1304∼1368), and Korean Chang Po-go
(790 ?∼846) and Chinese Cheng He(1371∼1433), etc are the
historical pioneers in this perspective. However, the eastern end
of maritime silk road should be extended to Shilla(Korea) across
the Yellow Sea and South China Sea in those days.
In this paper the Middle ages covers about one millenium from
5th century to 15 century. It starts in Korean history from
3-kingdom of Shilla(BC 57∼AD 935), Baekje (BC 18∼AD
660) and Koguryo(BC 37∼AD 668), and Unified Shilla (661∼
935) to Koryo Dynasty(918∼1392). The major trade goods
such as china, spices, etc through maritime silk road were
stimulated exchanges between Orient and Western world. In this
paper the historic travel, trade and its influences through the
trans-Yellow trade and Muslim activities as the extension of
maritime silk road to Korea analysed.
Key
Word:
Silk
Road,
Maritime
Silk
Road,
Yellow
Sea
management, Indian Ocean trade, Cheng He, Chang
Po-go, Cheoyong
Ⅰ. Foreword
The trade and travel during the Middle Ages between Middle
East and East Asia through the Indian Ocean and the South
China Sea are studying in various fields(이븐 바투타 2001, 정수
Trans-Yellow Sea Global Trade during the Middle Ages as an Extension of Maritime Silk Road to Korea 105
일 2001, 정수일 2002). The famous travelers such as Sindbad(?
∼987∼?), Marco Polo(travel period 1271∼1295), Ibn Battuta
(1304∼1368), and Korean Chang Po-go(790 ?∼846) and
Chinese Cheng He(1371∼1433), etc are the historical pioneers
in this perspective. However, the eastern end of maritime silk
road should be extended to Shilla(Korea) across the Yellow Sea
and South China Sea in those days.
In this paper the Middle Ages covers about one millenium
from 5th century to 15th century. It starts in Korean history
from 3-kingdoms of Koguryo(BC 37∼AD 668), Baekje(BC 18
∼AD 660) and Shilla (BC 57∼AD 935), and Unified Shilla (661
∼935) to the Koryo Dynasty (918∼1392).
The major trade goods such as china, spices, etc through
maritime silk road were stimulated exchanges between Orient
and Western world. In this paper the historic travel, trade and
its influences through the trans-Yellow management and Muslim
activities as the extension of maritime silk road to Korea will be
analysed.
Ⅱ. Major Expeditions for Maritime Silk
Road
1. East Bound Expeditions
The silk road has two types with four roues. First type is
overland silk road such as Tianshan south-road, Tianshan
north-road, and trans-Mongolia steppe routes. Second type is
maritime silk road passing through Indian Ocean and China Sea.
106 중동연구 제25권 1호
The whole maritime silk road is about 15,000 km long through
the Mediterranean Sea ⇔ Red Sea/Arabian Sea ⇔ Indian Ocean
⇔ Southeast China Sea/West Pacific Ocean to China. Following
the major trade items such as silk, china, spices and tea, the
silk road has couple of different names such as china road and
spices road.
(1) Marco Polo(voyage period 1271∼1295)1)
Marco Polo traveled from Europe to Asia during 1271∼1295,
and stayed in China 17 years. He wrote the book "Milione II"
known as Travels of Marco Polo. In 1292 Marco Polo sailed
through the China Sea, the Malacca Strait and the Indian Ocean
on his way home to Venice from China. His mission, on behalf
of Yuan ruler Khubilai Khan at age around 80, was to escort and
deliver a bride for the Mongol Ilkhanid sultan Argun, then ruling
the Islamic heart lands.
He traveled the routes from southern China -> Vietnam ->
Malaya Peninsular -> Sumatra where he stayed 5 months to
wait typhoon passing away. The following routs are through
Ceylon, west Indian coast and arrived Hormuz. Then he visited
Khorazm
and found that Ilkhanid Sultan Argun died, so he
delivered the bride to his son Mahmud. Then he continued his
travel and arrived Venetia in 1295. Marco Polo died in 1324, the
year before Ibn Battuta set off from his native Tangier.
Although Marco Polo never visit Java, he mentions Java was
the biggest island in the world: a very rich island, producing
pepper, nutmegs, spikenard, galingale, cubebs and cloves and all
1) Refer to Paul Lunde(2005b), The Explorer: Marco Polo, Saudiaramco
World, July/August 2005.
Trans-Yellow Sea Global Trade during the Middle Ages as an Extension of Maritime Silk Road to Korea 107
the precious spices. The great numbers of ships and merchants
who buy a great range of merchandise, reaping handsome profits
and rich returns visited there at that times. The merchants of
Zaitun and Manzi [Southern China] in general had derived and
continue to derive a great part of their wealth from Java island,
and it was the source of most of the spice that comes into the
world’s markets.
(2) Ibn Battuta (1304∼1368)2)
Ibn Battuta set off at age 21 from his native Tangier just
before Marco Polo died in 1324. Though they never met, Ibn
Battuta almost certainly encountered people in his Indian Ocean
travels who had seen Marco Polo and his entourage, for in 1292
Marco Polo sailed through the China Sea, the Malacca Strait and
the Indian Ocean on his way home to Venice. Ibn Battuta's
travel started to visit Tunis and Tripoli and reached in Egypt.
From there he decided to visit many places as possible as he
could but not twice the same place. From Cairo, Red Sea, Syria
and Mecca(1326), he continued to Iraq, Iran, Azerbaijan and
Baghdad(i4 이븐 바투타).
Arriving at Jeddah he traveled Yemen by land and arrived
Aden. From there Ibn Battuta set first foot in a boat in 1330.
He was 27 years old and an experienced resourcefully as a
traveler. After visiting Aden, Ibn Battuta sailed in 1331 to the
East African coast, where he found another kind of state—port
cities
that
might
almost
be
called
merchant
republics.
Mogadishu, now in Somalia, was the first he visited.
2) Refer to Paul Lunde(2005e), The Traveler: Ibn Battuta, Saudiaramco
World, July/August 2005.
108 중동연구 제25권 1호
After Mogadishu, he sailed further south to Mombasa and
Kilwa, both important trading cities. The wealth of these cities
was later to strike the Portuguese, for it was based on the
export not only of gold, but also of iron, which was sent to
India, worked into steel, then re-exported to the Middle East.
From Kilwa he sailed to Dhufar, on the coast of the Arabian
Peninsula, now in Oman. In Dhufar he found local manufacturing
industries were based on imported raw materials from India by
regular shipping through Indian Ocean. After visiting Oman, Ibn
Battuta sailed across the Gulf to Hormuz.
On September 12, 1333, after a two-year detour through
Iran, Anatolia and Central Asia, Ibn Battuta finally stood on the
banks of the Indus River, the western border of the domain of
Muhammad Shah II, Sultan of Delhi.
After staying in Delhi Ibn Battuta leapt at the chance for a
graceful exit from a difficult situation combined with the
opportunity to visit a new country, He reached the towns along
the Malabar coast, the main source of the pepper that
commanded such high prices in the markets of China, Alexandria
and Venice but also of the teak used for building ships. At that
time instead of the spice trade Indian Ocean shipping was
devoted to cargoes like rice, hardwoods, tin, iron ore, horses,
weapons, textiles and other essential commodities. From the
Calicut he decided to continue to China on his own. After
multiple stops and multiple mishaps, he reached Sonargaon, in
today’s Bangladesh, where he bought passage on a junk for
Sumatra.
China at the time was ruled by the Mongol Yuan Dynasty
whose most famous ruler had been Kubilai Khan, who ruled
Trans-Yellow Sea Global Trade during the Middle Ages as an Extension of Maritime Silk Road to Korea 109
during the years Marco Polo traveled in China. Although not
Muslim, the Yuan relied heavily on Muslim officials and military
advisors and encouraged Muslim trade. The harnessing of the
hugely productive Chinese economy to the overseas maritime
routes stimulated the growth of the new Muslim principalities in
the Indonesian archipelago and the establishment there of
Chinese merchant communities. Malaya and Indonesia became
the
turntable
through
which
Chinese
manufactures
were
distributed to the West.
Though Ibn Battuta was impressed with China, particularly
with paper money and the quality of Chinese silks and porcelain,
it was the only country he ever visited that affected him with
culture shock. His stay was brief, and by December 1346 he
was back in Quilon, en route to his native Tangier, Morocco,
where he died 1368/1969.
2. West Bound Expeditions: Cheng He(1371∼1433)3)
Zheng He(1371∼1433)4), a Chinese Ming Dynasty admiral for
3) Refer to Paul Lunde(2005a), The Admiral: Zheng He, Saudiaramco
World, July/August, 2005.
4) Zheng He (Traditional Chinese: 鄭和; Simplified Chinese: 郑和; Hanyu
Pinyin: Zhèng Hé; Wade-Giles: Cheng Ho; Birth name: Ma Sanbao 馬三
保, 馬三寶, 马三宝; Ma Ho, Ma He, Chinese version of Muhammad,
pinyin: Mǎ Sānbǎo; Arabic name: Hajji Mahmud) (1371–1433), is the
most well-known Chines mariner and explorer who made the voyages
collectively referred to as the travels of "Eunuch Sanbao to the Western
Ocean" (三保太監下西洋) or "Zheng He to the Western Ocean", from
1405 to 1433. Life magazine ranked Zheng He the 14th most important
person of the last millennium. He was a Muslim Hui
Chinese(Wikipedia). Mahe, as he was originally known, was born in
1371 to a poor ethnic Hui Chinese Muslim family in Yunnan Province,
110 중동연구 제25권 1호
28 years(1405∼1433) of his life, commanded seven fleets that
visited 37 countries, through Southeast Asia to faraway Arabia
and even Africa(see Map 1).
Six centuries ago5), a mighty armada of Chinese ships crossed
the China Sea, then ventured west to Ceylon, Arabia, and East
Africa (and even to America)6). The fleet7) consisted of giant
nine-masted junks, escorted by dozens of supply ships, water
tankers, transports for cavalry horses, and patrol boats. The
armada's crew totaled more than 27,000 sailors and soldiers.
The largest of the junks were said to be over 400 feet long and
Southwest China. Ma upon his conversion to Buddhism was given the
surname Zheng and the religious name Sanbao.
5) China celebrated the 600th Anniversary of Zheng He's Voyages to the
South Seas in 2005. Singapore also had the exhibition for the maritime
trade from the Tang Dynasty to mark the beginning of the Maritime Silk
Road Development, its peak during the Ming Dynasty and up now. It
focused on trade, culture, foreign relations, maritime technology and its
influence brought about by the impact of the voyages between the
trading countries of Maritime Asia.
6) In 2005 during the 600 anniversary event for Zheng He, Chinese news
media reported that Zheng He had discovered most parts of the world
by the mid 15th century and reached America 72 years earlier than
Columbus. Philip Bowring described Chinese historians generally do not
subscribe to the ill-supported claims in the best-selling "1421: The
Year China Discovered America" that Zheng He got there 71 years
before Columbus. Columbus sailed to America in St. Maria (eighty-five
feet) in 1492. Zheng He sailed from China to many places throughout
South Pacific, Indian Ocean, Taiwan, Persian Gulf and distant Africa in
seven epic voyages from 1405 to 1433, some 80 years before
Columbus's voyages((Philip Bowring 2005; Xinhua Agencies 2005)
7) The figures given for the size of Zheng He’s first fleet were 317 ships
of different sizes, 62 of them “treasure ships” loaded with silks,
porcelains and other precious things as gifts for rulers and to trade for
the exotic products of the Indian Ocean. The ships were manned by a
total of 27,870 men, including soldiers, merchants, civilians and clerks—
equivalent to the population of a large town(Paul Lunde 2005a).
Trans-Yellow Sea Global Trade during the Middle Ages as an Extension of Maritime Silk Road to Korea 111
150 feet wide8).
The emperor Yong Le sent his admiral on ever-longer
voyages seven times for unknown lands. On and on he went,
following his orders to travel as far as he could. He reached
Arabia, where he full-filled a personal dream. He made the
pilgrimage to Mecca that is the duty of every good Muslim once
in his lifetime. He also visited Muhammad's tomb in Medina. On
the fifth voyage, he reached the coast of Africa, landing in
Somalia on the east coast(Peoples' Daily 2005; Wang Xiaoqiu
2002).
Zeng He’s first argosy called at Java, Sumatra, Aceh, Sri
Lanka, Calicut, Champa, Malacca, Quilon and other ports. It
brought so many goods to Indian ports that pricing them took
three months. His second expedition, said to have set off in
1407 and returned in 1409, consisted of 249 ships; it visited
Thailand, Java, Aru, Aceh, Coimbatore, Kayal, Cochin and
Calicut, where it spent four months. The third expedition sailed
in 1409 and returned in 1411, and although it was composed of
only 48 ships, it allegedly carried 30,000 troops, stopping at
Champa, Java, Malacca, Sumatra, Ceylon, Quilon, Cochin and
Calicut.
In the fall of 1413, Zheng He set out with 30,000 men to
Arabia on his fourth and most ambitious voyage. From Hormuz,
at the mouth of the Persian Gulf, he coasted around the Arabian
peninsula to Aden at the gates of the Red Sea. It was the first
of the seven expeditions to go west of India, and its objective
was Hormuz9). Ma Huan’s notes10) on the ports visited on this
8) The Santa Maria, Columbus's largest ship, was a mere 90 by 30 feet and
his crew numbered only 90.
9) Hormuz was linked by overland routes to the major cities of Iran,
112 중동연구 제25권 1호
and the three later expeditions were published in 1433, the year
the final fleet returned.
In 1417, after two years in Nanjing and touring other cities,
the foreign envoys were escorted home by Zheng He. On this
his fifth trip, he sailed down the east coast of Africa, stopping
at Mogadishu, Matindi, Mombassa and Zanzibar and may have
rounded the Cape of Good Hope. The sixth voyage in 1421 also
went to the African coast.
Emperor Yong Le died in 1424 shortly after Zheng He’s
return. Yet, in 1430 the admiral was sent on a final seventh
voyage. Now 60 years old, Zeng He revisited the Persian Gulf,
the Red Sea and Africa and died on his way back in 1433 in
India.
During the Zheng He's voyage the Emperor put foreign trade
under a strict imperial monopoly by taking control from overseas
Chinese merchants. Command of the fleet was given to his
favorite Zheng He. On board were large quantities of cargo
including Chinese silk goods, porcelain, gold and silver ware,
lacquer ware, copper utensils, iron implements and cotton goods.
Here, Arab and African merchants exchanged the spices, ivory,
medicines, rare woods, and pearls so eagerly sought by the
Chinese imperial court.
Central Asia and Iraq. According to the record there are foreign ships
from every place, and foreign merchants traveling by land all come to
this country to attend the market and trade; hence the people of the
country are all rich.
10) Zheng He’s latter four expeditions were recorded under the title The
Overall Survey of the Ocean’s Shore (Ying-yai Sheng-tan) by a
Muslim Chinese named Ma Huan, who was attached as a translator to
the fourth armada, which sailed in 1413 with 63 ships and 28,560
men(Paul Lunde, 2005a).
Trans-Yellow Sea Global Trade during the Middle Ages as an Extension of Maritime Silk Road to Korea 113
Map 1. Zheng He's Naval Expeditions
Source : Friends of Admiral Zheng He.
http://www.admiralzhenghe.org/id4.htm[2006.01]
Ⅲ. Background and Influences of
Expeditions
1. Background for Expeditions11)
Gold was one of the most important key factors to adventure
the east bounding maritime silk road for Muslims12) and
11) Refer to Paul Lunde(2005c), Monsoons, Mude and Gold, Saudiaramco
World, July/August 2005.
12) In the Islamic world, gold was a tool. Mocenigo’s equation, in which
fear and respect could be had for gold, would have sounded
blasphemous to Muslims, for whom it is God alone who commands fear
and respect. Muslims believed that gold and silver must circulate, and
114 중동연구 제25권 1호
Europeans13) in middle ages. The flow of precious metals from
West to East is a constant of pre-modern world history. From
classical times until the late 18th century, the West had a trade
deficit with the East. The imbalance was caused by the failure
of European products and manufactured goods, with a few
exceptions, to find buyers in the East. European merchants who
wanted the textiles, ceramics, metalwork, dyestuffs and spices
of the Islamic world generally had to pay cash. Monsoons, early
had to pay cash. On the eve of the Islamic conquests in the
early seventh century, there was a large and powerful state14)
in which gold, the regulator of the affairs of men, was
imprisoned.
On the other hand, the European merchants funneled African
gold into the rapidly monetization for European economy. Just as
in Roman times, both silver and gold then flowed eastward to
pay for imported luxuries, ultimately reaching India and China.
The gold that flowed to India never returned. It was hoarded, in
the form of temple treasure or jewelry, rather than circulated.
Just as Sasanian Persia had been, India was the graveyard of
gold.
However, China was the graveyard of Silver. Gold held no
this circulation, called rawaj, was a social and religious duty. Hoarding
gold and silver was forbidden by the Qur’an.
13) “Gold equals fear plus respect” is a peculiarly Venetian equation. In the
feudal world, fear and respect were attributes of kingship. Venice,
which had neither king nor lands, made do instead with the king of
metals, to which the traditional fear and respect were transferred.
14) It was Sasanian Persia. Luxury goods from India, Southeast Asia and
China passed through Sasanian hands on their way to Byzantium, but
the gold the Byzantines paid for them never returned. The Sasanians
themselves only circulated silver.
Trans-Yellow Sea Global Trade during the Middle Ages as an Extension of Maritime Silk Road to Korea 115
monetary value to the Chinese, and China always exchanged
gold for silver at an advantageous rate, thus sucking silver from
the world economy. Although it did not serve as currency15)
China absorbed vast quantities of silver, which was used as
bullion for major payments. And because China paid for her
imports with silks and ceramics, silver rarely left the Chinese
empire. Just as India was the graveyard of gold, China was the
graveyard of silver.
Gold is incorruptible, a metaphor for purity and eternal life. It
seemed logical to the men of the Middle Ages that this purest
of metals should abound in, or near, the Earthly Paradise, which
scripture placed in the East, where the sun rose. Four rivers
flowed from the Earthly Paradise and one of them was the Nile.
To find others Portuguese explorers moved down the western
African coast, they identified each of the great rivers they
encountered—the Senegal, the Niger and the Congo—in turn with
the Nile. With these geographical misconceptions the Portuguese
began to explore around Africa that finally led to the sea route
to India. The myth of the Earthly Paradise had a powerful
political dimension as well. When the legend first arose in the
12th century, his kingdom was located in Asia, and is so marked
on some maps.
The Mediterranean trading network, led by the commercial
republics of Italy, was thus driven to a constant search for new
supplies of silver and gold. It was this search that led to the
Portuguese exploratory expeditions down the west coast of
Africa in the 15th century, journeys that culminated in 1498 in
Vasco da Gama’s discovery of the sea route to India. It was the
15) The standard currency was copper as cash.
116 중동연구 제25권 1호
search for gold that led Columbus to seek an Atlantic route to
Japan and China, lands he mistakenly believed to be rich in gold.
Another important factor for the maritime silk road is to find
new routes instead of the unstable risky overland silk road for
both the east and west world.
In Asia the late 1300’s, the armies of Tamerlane16), a
descendant of Chinggis Khaan, swept over Iran, Iraq and Syria.
The major cities of the Islamic heart lands were destroyed with
great loss of life. To the east, Delhi was sacked in 1398, and
China was spared only by Tamerlane’s death. The overland Silk
Roads from China to the West were disrupted as the cities they
had linked were destroyed. Concerned at the disruption of their
overland
export
trade
and
anxious
to
explore
maritime
alternatives, the Chinese in 1402 sent an embassy to the newly
founded city of Malacca, in what is today Malaysia, a port that
would grow to be the linchpin of trade between the Indian Ocean
and the Pacific.
In 1405, the year Tamerlane died, the Ming emperor of China
dispatched the first of seven great argosies to the Indian Ocean
under the admiral Zheng He. At the same time that the vast
Chinese fleets crossed and recrossed the Indian Ocean, Muslim
sultanates began to appear in Malaysia, Indonesia and the
Philippines. Ahmad ibn Majid17) composed his navigational works
16) Timur(also known as Temur, Taimur, Timur Lenk, Timur i Leng,
Tamerlane, Tamburlaine, or Taimur-e-Lang, which translates to
Timur the Lame, as he was lame after sustaining an injury in battle;
1336–February 1405) was a great 14th century Turkic-Mongol
conqueror, ruler of the Timurid Empire (1370–1405) in Central Asia,
and founder of the Timurid dynasty, which survived until 1506. The
Timur
or
Tumur
means
iron
in
the
Chagatai
word
language(http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Timur).
Trans-Yellow Sea Global Trade during the Middle Ages as an Extension of Maritime Silk Road to Korea 117
and, in the West, European ships sailed into the Atlantic. The
simultaneity of this sudden burst of maritime activity is
fascinating. The Orient was reaching out to the Occident at the
very time. The Occident was “desiring to go east, to the regions
of India.”
The political instability following Tamerlane’s death
in
January 1405, made the search for a sea route to India
imperative, both for Europeans and for the Chinese. As
Tamerlane lay dying, the Yong Le emperor of the Ming was
already assembling an Indian Ocean fleet so large it would not
be surpassed until World War II. And in 1405 the first of what
would become seven major Chinese naval expeditions set sail to
explore the Indian Ocean. The admiral of all seven fleets was
Zheng He(Paul Lunde 2005a).
The Ming expeditions overawed many local rulers and
established a long-lasting relationship between China and the
key port of Malacca. A Chinese state monopoly of Indian Ocean
trade thus gave way to private enterprise, which the Ming had
vainly tried to stamp out. It is probable that leading merchants
in China used their wealth to support the court faction opposed
to state-sponsored trade.
Had the Ming maintained their naval presence in the Indian
Ocean, the Portuguese would have been faced with a formidable
rival. From the point of view of geographical discovery, the
17) Ahmad ibn Majid was born in Oman, probably in 1432, the year Zheng
He’s junks docked at Jiddah. His last compositions is dated 1500 when
a single voyage linked Europe, the New World, Africa and Asia in. Ibn
Majid's life was spanning the most critical century in the history of the
ocean whose currents, winds, reefs, shoals, headlands, harbors,
seamarks and stars he spent a lifetime studying.
118 중동연구 제25권 1호
Ming voyages must rank as the earliest state-sponsored effort
to seek out new lands, markets and spheres of political
influence. That the same idea occurred to the rulers of both the
Far East and the Far West almost simultaneously is intriguing,
and it shows that—long before the emergence of a “global
economy” in the late 20th century—East and West were
responding to the same rhythms of political and economic
change.
Chinese motivation for exploring the Indian Ocean differed
from the motivation of the other explorers. The former
expeditions were motivated above all by the desire of the Ming
to display their power18) and gain token allegiance from the
rulers of Indian Ocean emporia.
2. Influences on the Global Trade
In ancient times as in Sindbad adventure(story written period
assumed ∼942∼) it is not easy to match the places named in
the story to the places we know. Yet, these islands of our
imaginary archipelago correspond to the period of Islamic
expansion into the waters of the Indian Ocean, roughly the years
AD 750 to 1500. This era of intense maritime activity saw the
establishment of Muslim communities in China, India, Southeast
Asia, East Africa, Madagascar and the Philippines. Muslim
merchants and ship owners held a virtual monopoly of the
18) If the submission was not forthcoming, Zheng He did not hesitate to
intervene militarily: The ruler of Sri Lanka refused to recognize the
emperor and was taken to China as a prisoner. The same fate befell
two rulers in Sumatra. Some 37 countries and principalities sent
representatives to China to make formal obeisance(Paul Lunde 2005a).
Trans-Yellow Sea Global Trade during the Middle Ages as an Extension of Maritime Silk Road to Korea 119
maritime transport trade in the western reaches of the Indian
Ocean,
trading
in
spices,
aromatic
gums,
dye
woods,
tortoiseshell, precious gems, textiles, silk, timber, horses, rice,
coir, metals and pharmaceuticals, as well as such bulk cargoes
as grains, vegetable oils and dried fish. Muslim traders
established merchant colonies in Chinese ports like Canton and
Hangzhou.
gradually
A
complex
developed
system
on
sea
of
and
Asian
land,
trading
one
that
networks
involved
merchants of many different faiths—Hindus, Jains, Buddhists,
Christians, Jews, Muslims—and a bewildering variety of ethnic
and linguistic groups, including not only Arabs and Persians and
Chinese but also Gujaratis, Malabaris, Cholas, Kelings, Bengalis,
Malays,
Indonesians,
Bugis
and
East
Africans(Paul
Lunde
2005f)
The “global economy” of the Middle Ages was created by
linking the Indian Ocean trading networks with those of the
Mediterranean
Sea
and
its
African
and
European
hinterlands(William Facey 2005). By the 8th century, Spain and
the African shores of the Mediterranean were part of the
expanding empire that Muslims called Dar al-Islam (the house
of Islam) and had commercial links, both maritime and overland,
with Egypt and Syria. Between the years 800 and 1000, the
Mediterranean was dominated by Muslim shipping(Paul Lunde
2005c).
Synchronized to the clock-like regularity of the monsoon
winds in the Indian Ocean was the equally regular sailing of the
Venetian convoys, the mude, which set out toward the end of
August and made their way slowly through the Adriatic and the
Aegean to Cyprus and Alexandria, timing their arrival there to
120 중동연구 제25권 1호
coincide with the availability of monsoon-borne goods from the
East, and returned to Venice 11 months later. The economies of
northern Europe were similarly linked—indirectly, like a train of
interlocking gears—to the Indian Ocean monsoon: From Venice,
after the return of the mude, spices and textiles traveled
overland and by internal waterways to the trade fairs of
northern Europe. The way back by using the monsoon linked the
Indian Ocean economies with China(Paul Lunde 2005c).
Even if it were so long dream for Venice and other European
powers to break the Muslim monopoly of the Indian Ocean
trade,
they
have
to
wait
until
Portuguese
exploratory
expeditions culminated in 1498 in Vasco da Gama’s discovery of
the sea route to India.
Ⅳ. Extension of East Boundary of
Maritime Silk Road
1. Trans-Yellow Sea Management
(1) Chang Po-go (790 ?∼846) in Unified Shilla
Around the early 9th century Yellow Sea basin in East Asia
the international political situation was unstable. However, the
international maritime transportation was very busy for trade
and other business. At that time history produced Chang Po-g
o19), in Shilla, the marine emperor controling the trans-Yellow
19) Names are written as 장보고, 張保皐, 弓福, 張寶高(Japanese), Jang
Bogo, Chang Po-go, or 궁복, Gungbok or Kungbok.
Trans-Yellow Sea Global Trade during the Middle Ages as an Extension of Maritime Silk Road to Korea 121
Sea lines and managing maritime business on the Yellow Sea.
The trans-Yellow Sea lines connecting the lower Chang Jiang
River(Yangzi River) or Shandong Peninsula ⇔ West Sea of
Korea ⇔ Wand-Do in South-west Coner of Korea ⇔ North
Kyushu(Dazaifu, 太宰府) was the extension of maritime silk
road to Korea(朱江 2001).
It seems that Chang Po-go was born in around 790 based on
the
historical
materials.
Since
A.D.
828,
he
developed
Ch'onghae-jin(a kind of special military and administrative
base) in Wando island, Jeonnam Province, Korea into an
international trading port which made free trade possible. He
then established a global network which dominated not only
triangular trade among Korea, China, and Japan, but also the
trade between the South and North areas within China, as well
as merchants from Persia and Southeast Asia. From that on, he
was the first person who controlled the maritime trade in the
East in history(i6).
Also his maritime activities were not just trade, but also they
were comprised of various commercial activities concerned with
trade.
Through
combining
military,
manufacturing,
and
commerce, he presented a new model of trade and business for
various fields and made Ch'onghae-jin, Korea the trading hub of
Northeast Asia(see Map 2).
122 중동연구 제25권 1호
Map 2. Chang Po-Go's Management of Yellow Sea and Ch'onghae-jin
Source : 정수일(2005a), (32) 문명교류기행, 한겨레, 2005.1.17
After the establishment of Ch'onghae-jin, Chang Po-go's
trading activity toward Japan set in full-scale force. The trading
envoys
that
he
sent
to
Japan
were
called
'Hoe-Yeok-
Sa'(commissioner of trade), and they performed their trading
activities under the approval of ‘Dazaifu’(regional administrative
office in Kyushu) and Japanese central government.
Chang Po-go's Ch'onghae-jin established an international
network among Korea, China, and Japan through private trade
and had an active trading relationship with Arabian merchants; it
became an international maritime trading hub and grew into a
maritime power that had military, administrative, and economic
independence. Under his authority, Chang Po-go secured a
Trans-Yellow Sea Global Trade during the Middle Ages as an Extension of Maritime Silk Road to Korea 123
strong position at Wando island which was the intermediary
center of East Asia at that time and controlled trading routes.
In some sense the most of the leading countries in the world
history were naturally the powerful maritime countries which
had control over the sea. Chang Po-go is now revaluate a
pioneer who saw through the importance of advancing to the
ocean and took a leading role in shifting tribute trade (public
trade) to private trade(KBS World 2006b).
(2) Pyugrando as Trade Hub in Koryo Dynasty
Koryo Dynasty is the successor of Unified Shilla. International
activities of the Koryo Dynasty, especially on Yellow Sea, were
continued steadily all around countries. From the first stages
after its founding, Koryo enforced a policy to march northward
in order to recover the territories of old Koguryo. Thus, Koryo
often clashed with the kingdom of Qidan20). The exchanges
between Koryo and northern states such as Qidan, Nuzhen and
Yuan were not active compare to southern countries Song,
Japan, etc(KBS World, 2006a; 홍성민 1991).
The Muslim merchants from the Saracen Empire in southwest
Asia engaged in active trade with Shilla, Koryo and China. The
Arabian merchants of the Saracen Empire carried on commerce
with Shilla by sailing to Ulsan, southeast port in Korean
Peninsular, near the Shilla capital Kyongju via China. During the
20) Because of the hostile relations between Quidan and Koryo the
merchants of two countries used the southern trans-Yellow Sea lines
reaching to the lower Chang Jiang River instead of north road which
used until 70s in 11th century to go Song, It takes only 7∼8 days
during the summer(조희승 104).
124 중동연구 제25권 1호
Koryo Dynasty, large groups of Arabian merchants arrived at
Pyugrando(碧瀾渡),21) port in
middle of west coast of Korean
Peninsular, near the Koryo capital Kaesong to engage in trade.
Pyurando prospered as an international trading hub at the mouth
of the Yesong River.
Thus the ports Ulsan in Unified Shilla and Pyugrando in Koryo
Dynasty were the Far East destination of maritime silk road
across the Yellow Sea linking China∼Korea∼Japan. Pyugrando
was growing as international free port, and as one of the
trans-yellow sea boundary of east bounding maritime silk road
extended.
2. Trade and Cultural Influence
(1) Global Trade
1) Sea Trade in Shilla
As relations between Shilla and Tang became closer, the two
countries' sea trade increased. Shilla exported silk fabric, ramie
fabric, ginseng, and gold and silver items and imported silk,
books and medicine from Tang.
Many Shilla people frequented Tang to engage in trade. As a
result,
people
of
Shilla
settled
in
villages
known
as
"Shilla-bang" around Shandong and the lower Yangzi River, and
21) Originally it called as Yesung port named after Yesung River which is
12km away the Kaesong, Koryo capital. It has peep sea and fast
current good for the sailing, and growed as international free port.
Pyugrando port(碧瀾渡) named after Hotel Pygranjung(碧瀾亭) where
the foreign VIP and rich merchants stayed.
Trans-Yellow Sea Global Trade during the Middle Ages as an Extension of Maritime Silk Road to Korea 125
a supervisory agency known as "Shilla-so" and a Shilla people's
temple like "Shilla-won" were established as well. Japanese
monks traveling in China frequently visited these Shilla-wons.
As Shilla's sea trade activities increased, pirates became
rampant, harassing sea traders. Chang Po-go, who served th the
Tang navy for a time, came back home to establish the
Ch'onghae-jin and develop the Shilla naval force. He protected
the trade activities of Shilla sailors with convoys to oversee the
three seas around the Korean peninsula and the Eastern Sea of
China. He became a leader of maritime and trading activities.
Being recognized for his merits he was appointed Ambassador to
Ch'onghae-jin, but afterwards, as a result of his involvement in
political
disputes,
he
suffered
a
tragic
death
(http://rki.kbs.co.kr/english/index.htm).
The trade goods are listed the buying record from Shilla in
Shoshoin(正倉院), Todaizi(東大寺, built in 745) in Japan. This
source listed 12,000 items bought from Shilla of which originally
come form Southeast Asian archipelago and Arabia. From this
fact the trade between Shilla and Arabia was a real business
activity during that period(조희승 91∼94).
2) Sea trade in Koryo
There are four kind of foreign trade partner between Koryo
and other countries. First type is trade between Koryo and
Song. Two countries established friendly relations for a long
time. Koryo enforced pro-Song policies in order to import
advanced culture from Song, and Song wished to join with Koryo
in order to confront the threat from the northern tribes, so
exchanges were active. Merchants also traveled to Song
126 중동연구 제25권 1호
frequently. Koryo exported gold, silver, ginseng, mats woven
with flower designs and works inlaid with mother of pearl and
imported
brocades,
medicines
and
books
from
Song
(http://rki.kbs.co.kr/english/index.htm).
Second type is the trade between Koryo and Muslim. The
merchants of the Saracen Empire in southwest Asia engaged in
active trade with China, and the Arabian merchants of the
Saracen Empire carried on commerce with Shilla by sailing to
Ulsan via China. During the Koryo dynasty, large groups of
Arabian merchants arrived at Pyugrando(碧瀾渡) to engage in
trade. Pyurando prospered as an international trading port at the
mouth of the Yesong River. At Pyugrando Song and Arabian
merchants brought mercury, spices, joiner, emerald, corals and
horse, and Koryo gave them gold, silk, deer antler, aloe, saddle,
Chinese
ware,
ghoraib,
camphor,
ginger
and
brocades
in
exchange. Through their visits, Koryo became known to the
West and that is how Korea got its Western name.
Third type is the exchanges with Japan and the Southeastern
Islands. Between the 9th and 12th centuries, diplomatic relations
with Japan had been severed. Traders of western Japan and
Tazaifu actively engaged in relations with Koryo.
In the last days of Koryo, the Loochoos and Thailand of
southeast Asia sent envoys to Koryo to offer their native
products, and Koryo returned the gesture by also sending them
gifts. In this way, there were some exchanges with the
Loochoos and Thailand.
The last fourth type is the exchanges with northern states
Qidan, Nuzhen and Yuan. Exchanges between Koryo and Qidan
were not active. Trade between Koryo and Nuzhen began, but
Trans-Yellow Sea Global Trade during the Middle Ages as an Extension of Maritime Silk Road to Korea 127
not actively. Koryo imported silver, fur and horses from Nuzhen
and exported farm implements and grains. In the 13th century,
relations between Koryo and Yuan became closer, and they
engaged in active cultural exchanges up to the mid-14th
century. Visitors coming and going did not cease for 80 years
and customs were exchanged.
Though sources from the medieval Orient record Arab
Muslims called "Ta-shi" travelling to and from the Korean
peninsula in the early part of the 11th century. There are many
grass cups excavated from the 5∼6 century Shilla toms in
Kyungju. Most of glass cups unearthed from the Shilla tombs
were either from the fertile Cresent region or Persia. From
these facts Muslims apparently attempted to make contact with
the Korean peninsula from the latter part of the Unified Shilla
period(Lee, Hee-Soo 1993).
According to Koryosa(book name for the Koryo History),
many
"Ta-shi"
and
Persian
merchants
visited
Korea
concentrating in 1023, 1024, 1025, 1040 and 1048. The total
number of Song's envoys and delegation visited Koryo during
260 years(1014∼1287) recorded 120 times with more than
5,000 persons. From this fact the trade between two countries
was very systematic and well organized by the government
rather than sporadical or occasional events. Sometimes the
Muslims visited Korea directly through marine road, maritime
silk road, without stops on Song land(조희승 109).
From that time Muslims introduced Koryo to the West as
Corea named after Qouri(까우리) in Chinese indifferently for the
Koguryo and Koryo.
128 중동연구 제25권 1호
(2) Cultural Influence
1) Cheoyong
Korea was known for the first time to Arabian could be
inferred during three kingdoms(Koguryo, Baekje and Shilla) by
the historian. According to the most important surviving
document on the Shilla appeared on the Muslim world in the
ninth century called Kitab al-Masalik wa ’l-Mamalik (Book of
Roads and Kingdoms 845). It describes the overland and
maritime routes that linked the Abbasid Empire to the world,
including a description of the sea routes to India, Malaya,
Indonesia, China and Korea. However, it might be inferred that
Koguryo was the first kingdom contacting Muslim world, Turk in
central Asia, through overland silk road before the Shilla's
contact(이희수 1989).
Korean history book records about "The Legend of Cheoyong"
in Sam-guk-yu-sa(三國遺事), the oldest Korean history book.
Although Cheoyong was described as the sun of Dragon King in
East Sea in the part of King Heongang(875∼886), he is
regarded by the historian's inference as an Arabian or Persian
from the facts of his face features and clothes wearing(이희수
2005b; Lee Hee-Soo 1993; Lee Hee-Soo 1996).
The legend takes place during the Shilla dynasty (688∼935),
in the reign of the 49th monarch known as King Heongang. The
king was visiting the eastern provinces when suddenly the area
became overcast with clouds and fog. So the king asked his
aide, "Isn't this caused by the Dragon of the East Sea? We
should pay homage to gain some relief from this." So the king
ordered his emissary to establish a temple for the dragon. As
Trans-Yellow Sea Global Trade during the Middle Ages as an Extension of Maritime Silk Road to Korea 129
soon as he made the decree, the clouds and fog immediately
lifted. This place is called Gaeunpo, which means "place where
the clouds cleared". The East Sea Dragon was pleased and
appeared in front of the king with his 7 sons who began to
dance and give praise to the king for his righteousness. One of
the dragon's sons followed the king to Seoul and assisted with
government assessment, his name was Cheoyong.
The king wanted him to stay in Seoul and so gave him a
beautiful wife and a government office. But one day, Cheoyong
came home to find his wife making love with the spirit of
smallpox and was moaning. So Cheoyong went outside and began
to sing the 'Cheoyongga'22) and dance to ward away the evil
spirit. At that moment, the spirit revealed itself to Cheoyong and
supplicated itself before him and said, "I was lusting for you wife
and laid with her but you did not express anger. I am moved and
impressed by your admirable deed. Henceforth, I swear that I will
never enter any door that bears your image or shape."
From then on, people fixed Cheoyong's image on their doors
to ward away evil spirits. Since then, whenever you put the
image of Cheoyong outside your door, bad things can never
happen and mirth can flourish because evil spirits cannot enter.
We can also notice that Cheoyong wears a crown of peach tree
branches
and
peony
blossoms.
The
peach
tree
branches
symbolize the casting out of the evil spirit and the peony
blossoms signify opulence and prosperity.
It was is the 39th anniversary(October 15∼October 19, 2005;
22) Cheyong's Song : Seoul is bright moonlit, My night spent in revelry,
Coming home there is my bed I see, Bare legs I count four to my
dismay, Two I know are mine but, Two I know not whose, Originally,
the two are mine, though taken, now what will I do?(i5 처용문화제).
130 중동연구 제25권 1호
Ulsan, Korea)
of Ulsan's Cheoyong Cultural Festival which is
held every year in early October. It first started as a private
industrial festival and now it has evolved into a cultural refuge
for the people to reflect on Cheoyong's magnanimity and spirit
of harmony; reborn as a festival of good will to promote
Cheoyong's hometown; the city of Ulsan.
Picture 1. Warrior Statue in front of King's Tomb
Source : 정수일(2004), (24) 무언의 증인, 무인석, 한겨레, 2004.11.29
http://blog.dreamwiz.com/siansarang/4547941
2) Stone warrior statue
Guaereung(known as the tomb of 38th King Wonseong of
Shilla, 785∼798), one of the representative king's tomb, is
Trans-Yellow Sea Global Trade during the Middle Ages as an Extension of Maritime Silk Road to Korea 131
located on the way to go Ulsan from Kyungju. In front of the
tomb the stone statues of officialdom and warrior are arranged
along both right and left side. The interesting statue among the
warrior statues are very unfamiliar with the residents shape at
that time, but much resemble to the Arabian with deep, big and
glaring double-edged eyelid eyes, high and big nose, and curly
hair with Arabian turban(손대성 2005).
Besides the Guaereung many similar warrior statues are easily
founded in front of the 33th King Seongduk(702∼736) tomb in
Kyungju and 42nd King Geungduk(826∼835) tomb in Ahngang.
These stone warrior statues are very clear evidences that there
were frequent exchanges between Korea and Arabian or Persian
looking for the paradise in the Eastern World, and some of them
were served for the royal family of Shilla Kingdom and lived
with the citizens in Shilla community(무함마드 깐수 1990,160 ;
정수일 2004).
Ⅴ. Conclusion
When we voyage farther into the Middle Ages, there are
land-marking great exploring expedition, navigators, travelers,
admirals and merchants for exploring the maritime silk road
crossing the Mediterranean ⇔ Red Sea ⇔ Arabian Gulf ⇔ Indian
Ocean ⇔ China Sea ⇔ Yellow Sea. In this paper we looked land
marking sea heros, Sindbad(story written period assumed ?∼
942), Marco Polo(travel period 1271~1295), Ibn Battuta (1304
∼1368) for the east bounding and Cheng He(1371–1433) for
the west bound and Chang Po-go(790 ?∼846) for the Yellow
132 중동연구 제25권 1호
Sea management as the extension of Far East boundary of
maritime silk road.
Of these expedition heros to exploring for the maritime silk
road, Ibn Battuta's for east bounding, Zheng He for west
bounding, and Chang Po-Go for the extension of east boundary
should be spotlighted in this paper.
Chinese Muslim admiral Zheng He commanded the largest
fleets and the largest ships ever to sail the Indian Ocean until
World War II, leading seven 15th century expeditions that must
rank as the earliest state-sponsored efforts to seek out new
lands, markets and spheres of political influence(Paul Lunde
2005a).
Amazingly, the leaders of the fleet apparently discussed the
possibility
of
sailing
to
Europe,
Europeans
had
nothing
interesting to offer. This decision changed history. Only a few
years later, vessels of the European powers appeared on Asian
shores, ushering in centuries of bloody colonization. One can
only wonder how history might have unfolded if Asia had gone
to Europe, instead of the other way around.
For the extension of far eastern boundary of east bounding
maritime silk road to Korea and Japan, Chang Po-Go's historic
role should be relighted. The trade and exchanges between
Muslims and Koreans can be traced back the 9th century or
earlier, even some Korean sources wrote the Arabs arrived in
Korea in 1024 AD for the first time23).
23) In spite of the records of Korean sources, it is very likely that Shilla
peoples came into contact with Muslims before the 10th century
through various channels. these facts can be borne out by references to
Shilla found in 20 Islamic sources written between 9∼16 century(이희
수 1989).
Trans-Yellow Sea Global Trade during the Middle Ages as an Extension of Maritime Silk Road to Korea 133
Abu Mohammad Jarad, Palestanian Historian, insists that
Arabian navigators and Muslim merchants arrived to Unified
Shilla via maritime silk road directly during end of 8th century
and early 9th century. Since Unified Shilla as the successor of
advanced shipbuilding technology and shipping transportation of
Baekje, she extended trade like global trade to the Arabian
countries which influenced the economic development of Unified
Shilla(朱江, 2001, 209).
The mutual relations are regarded as an outcome of the
ancient China-Arabia commercial contacts through the Maritime
Silk Road. Those Muslim merchants who resided in the coastal
cities of the South-Eastern China might have extended their
trade routes for globalization in some sense to the Korean
Peninsula.
Traditionally the trans Yellow Sea road has two ways. One is
the seacoast line, the round-about line, surrounding the west
sea coast of Korean Peninsular, Bohai and eastern sea coast of
China. The other one is the crossing Yellow Sea road sailing
along the current way running along the South-Western of
Korean peninsular to the lower of Chang Jiang. Chiang Po-go
preferred to this direct crossing line. Chiang Po-go contributed
through the managing the Yellow Sea business to the extension
of maritime silk road to Korea Peninsular as well as to the
North Kyusu, Japan, and for the global trade between far east
Korea and far west Europe.
Key
Word:
Silk
Road,
Maritime
Silk
Road,
Yellow
Sea
management, Indian Ocean trade, Cheng He, Chang
Po-go, Cheoyong
134 중동연구 제25권 1호
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▶ 심의섭
명지대학교 경제학과 교수
Tel : (02)-300-1576/ 019-9770-8586
[email protected]