IRRIGATION AND DRAINAGE
Published online
Irrig. and Drain. 60 (Suppl. 1): 4–10 (2011)
in Wiley Online Library (wileyonlinelibrary.com) DOI: 10.1002/ird.666
LAND. IF YOU DON’T HAVE IT, CREATE IT. THE CASE OF IJBURG, AMSTERDAM†
J. J. M. STEENBERGEN* and R. J. VAN BEMMELEN
City of Amsterdam, Department of Engineering, Amsterdam, the Netherlands
ABSTRACT
Ever since Amsterdam was founded, a key characteristic was the lack of space. Amsterdam is located in-between water bodies
and bogs. If the people of Amsterdam needed habitable land, they had to create it themselves. In 1996 the municipality decided
to embark on a new land reclamation project, a group of islands called IJburg. Several major issues had to be overcome. The
project site has extremely weak subsoil. In order to create a stable island, the ‘pancake’ method was used. An inventive solution
to prevent silt from dispersing using silt curtains is currently being tested for application during the construction of IJburg
phase II. IJburg was designed with a system of internal waterways to manage the groundwater levels of the islands. IJburg also
has a system of sluices, dykes and embankments in order to protect IJburg from the IJmeer and rising sea levels. Environmental
aspects are very important. IJburg is located next to a severely polluted former dumping ground for chemical waste, which
had to be rehabilitated. Furthermore, several nature development projects (man-made mussel beds and dams to create sheltered
waters) are being realized. Upon completion, IJburg will offer housing for approximately 45 000 inhabitants and jobs for
12 000 people. Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
key words: IJburg; land reclamation; water management; water; groundwater; climate change; flood protection
Received 3 October 2011; Accepted 3 October 2011
RÉSUMÉ
Amsterdam a toujours manqué d’espace depuis tous temps. Poussé par le désir de se développer, le peuple d’Amsterdam a une
longue histoire de l’aménagement des terres. Amsterdam est situé entre des plans d’eau et des tourbières, donc si le peuple
d’Amsterdam avait besoin de terrains constructibles, il a dû se les créer lui-même, et ce depuis 1250 en convertissant tourbières
et marécages. Le besoin en zones résidentielles est à nouveau apparu dans les années 60. En 1996, la municipalité a décidé de
se lancer dans un projet de récupération de nouveaux terrains dans un groupe d’îles appelé IJburg. Certains obstacles politiques
majeurs ont dû être contournés. Plusieurs questions techniques et environnementales ont dû également être surmontées. Le site
du projet a sous-sol extrêmement peu consistant, sur un ancien bras de mer. Afin de créer une île stable, la méthode de la crêpe
a été utilisée. Elle consiste en des projections sous marines de fines couches de sable directement sur le sous-sol instable, suivie
d’une courte période de consolidation avant de pulvériser la couche suivante. Les dommages écologiques causés par la dispersion
du limon dû être évités. Une solution inventive en utilisant des filtres à limon est actuellement testée pour une application pendant la
construction d’IJburg phase II. IJburg a été conçue avec un système de voies navigables internes pour gérer les niveaux des eaux
souterraines sur les îles. IJburg possède également un système d’écluses, digues et remblais pour protéger IJburg de l’IJmeer et du
niveau de la mer. Les aspects environnementaux du projet sont très importants. IJburg est situé à côté d’un remblai fortement
pollué, en l’occurrence une décharge de déchets chimiques. En outre, plusieurs projets de renaturation (des bancs artificiels pour
les moules et des barrages pour créer des eaux abritées) sont en cours de réalisation. Une fois achevée, l’offre de logement de
l’IJburg sera d’environ 45.000 habitants et créera environ 12 000 emplois. Il y aura des magasins, des écoles, des restaurants,
une marina, des zones de loisirs et même une plage.
mots clés: IJburg; aménagement des terres; gestion des eaux; eau; eaux souterraines; changement climatique; protection contre les inondations
* Correspondence to: J.J.M. Steenbergen, City of Amsterdam, Department of Engineering, Amsterdam, the Netherlands. E-mail: [email protected]
†
Land. Si vous ne l’avez pas, créez. Le cas de IJburg, Amsterdam.
Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
WATER MANAGEMENT PRACTICES LAND RECLAMATION PROJECT IJBURG, AMSTERDAM
HISTORY
The city of Amsterdam is located in-between water bodies and
bogs. Ever since Amsterdam was founded, the people of
Amsterdam have had to reclaim wetlands and turn them into
habitable land in order to expand the city. This often resulted
in the creation of dams, which also gave the city its name.
The name ‘Amsterdam’ originates from ‘Amestelle-Damme’,
first recorded in 1275 (Jonker et al., 1984), when the people
who lived in Amestelle-Damme were granted the right of free
passage on the waterways in Holland. Amestelle-Damme
means ‘dam in the river Amstel’.
Water was (and still is) a major driving force in the development of Amsterdam. Amsterdam thrived on trading all
sorts of goods. Most of the trading took place via the
rivers and canals. At the same time, water presented
Amsterdam with a problem, because whenever the people
of Amsterdam felt the need to expand their city, land reclamation was required.
INCENTIVE FOR IJBURG
During the 1960s, the need for additional residential areas
once more became apparent. In 1964, two architects (Van
den Broek and Bakema) presented a plan called the ‘Pampus
plan’ (Pampus is a small island close to Amsterdam). They
created the plan independently; it was not commissioned
by the municipality of Amsterdam. The plan entailed the
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creation of three islands in the IJmeer. Altogether, these
islands would offer housing for 350 000 people.
Eventually, the government decided to follow a different
strategy, implementing a new spatial policy which entailed
that people in search of housing had to move to growing
municipalities surrounding Amsterdam. During the 1980s
the policy changed again. The new ambition was to create
a compact city instead of overflowing into neighbouring
communities. The search for suitable areas for expansion
continued. Several developments followed, but the need
for a large expansion became ever so apparent.
Eventually, in 1996 the municipality decided to embark
on a new land reclamation project, a group of islands called
IJburg. Some major political hurdles had to be overcome
first. Those opposing the development of IJburg feared that
it would be detrimental to the environment. They therefore
requested a referendum, which was approved in 1997.
Although a majority of the voters voted against the construction of IJburg, the total number of voters did not meet the
minimum requested by the municipality of Amsterdam.
The project got the green light. The layout of IJburg is
shown in Figure 1.
Project Bureau IJburg was established to function as
commissioner for IJburg. The project bureau falls under the
supervision of the portfolio for spatial planning and the city
council. The Department of Engineering of the municipality
of Amsterdam (Ingenieursbureau Amsterdam) was responsible
for the technical design, part of which was the required land
reclamation project.
Figure 1. Layout and location of IJburg (Ingenieursbureau Amsterdam, 2011)
Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Irrig. and Drain. 60 (Suppl. 1): 4–10 (2011)
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J. J. M. STEENBERGEN AND R. J. VAN BEMMELEN
LAND RECLAMATION
In former times, swamps and wetlands were levelled up by
dumping large amounts of waste, rubble, soil and/or sand,
until the desired surface level was reached. Later also
‘polders’ were created, depending on the local conditions.
Polders are land reclamations situated below the water
level in the surrounding areas. They are always enclosed
by dykes to prevent them from flooding. Within the polder,
a system of ditches, waterways and drainage is required in
order to maintain the (ground-) water level.
IJburg is special because it differs significantly from
the commonly accepted method of creating polders. IJburg
consists of artificial islands. IJburg has a water system,
which is separated from the surrounding lake by a system
of four sluices (Figure 2). No pumping is necessary to
maintain required water levels. The water level on IJburg
is connected to the surrounding water levels so that
excess water from IJburg can flow out through the
sluices into the IJmeer, by means of gravity. In order to
make sure that water can be drained from IJburg at all
times, backup pumping stations are part of the water
management system.
One of the technical challenges of the construction of
IJburg was the behaviour of the subsoil during and after construction. It was unclear how the weak top layer of subsoil
(especially the silty sediments of the old sea channel) would
behave under the pressure of the new island and how the
settlement process would evolve, short term as well as long
term. In order to obtain answers, a smaller ‘test’ island was
created. Here, several methods of rapid land reclamation
were compared.
Eventually, phase I of IJburg was constructed using the socalled ‘pancake method’. Layers of sand were sprayed directly
onto the very weak subsoil where centuries ago an old sea
channel was located (Bakker and Locher, 1990). In order to
prevent this subsoil from shifting, sand was sprayed under
water in layers of approximately 0.5–0.75 m. In-between
spraying the layers of sand, periods of consolidation took
place in order to create a stable platform for the next layer of
sand. Gradually, the thickness of each new layer was increased to approximately 1 m. The spraying continued until the
required surface level was reached (Bemmelen et al., 2008).
During the construction of phase II of IJburg, ecological
damage from dispersing silt during spraying has to be
prevented. A special silt curtain is currently being tested for
application at IJburg (Figure 3). The so-called floating curtains
have already proved their functioning in several calculation
models used in Japan (Yasui et al., 1999). The floating curtain
functions as a film, separating the land-reclamation area from
its surroundings. While spraying sand within the curtain area,
the sediment is contained within that area. The sediment
settles onto the underwater subsoil, reducing the dispersion
of silt into the IJmeer.
WATER MANAGEMENT
In the urban development plan for ‘Haven Eiland’ (Harbour
Island) and ‘Riet Eiland-oost’ (Reed Island) several design
principles were established with regard to (ground-) water
management (Municipality of Amsterdam et al., 2003). The
inland water of IJburg is fully separated from the surrounding
IJmeer. The water level of the IJmeer usually fluctuates
Figure 2. Schematization of the (geo-)hydrology of IJburg (Ingenieursbureau Amsterdam, 2011)
Figure 3. Placement of the silt curtains (left) and prevention of dispersion of silt (right) (Project Bureau IJburg, 2010)
Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
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WATER MANAGEMENT PRACTICES LAND RECLAMATION PROJECT IJBURG, AMSTERDAM
between 0.4 m-NAP and 0.2 m-NAP2. The inland water level
of IJburg is maintained at 0.2 m-NAP in order to make sure
that excess water always can be drained into the IJmeer.
The surface level of IJburg is designed in such a way that
groundwater levels do not exceed a dewatering level of
0.5 m below the surface level more than once every two years.
The water authority requires a dewatering level of at least
0.5 m for buildings without a crawl space. For buildings with
crawl space the required dewatering level is at least 0.9 m. For
roads and tram tracks, the required dewatering levels are 0.7
and 1.2 m respectively. Therefore roads are constructed with
a higher surface level than the surrounding areas.
One of the conditions of the government agency
Rijkswaterstaat was that IJburg and the construction of
IJburg would not have a negative effect on the water
quality of the IJmeer. This is referred to as the ‘Stand
Still principle’. Following this principle is consistent with
the European Water Framework Directive (WFD). The
aim of the WFD is that all European water bodies will
be in good chemical and ecological condition by 2015.
In order to meet these demands, several design principles
were implemented in the urban development plan.
The water management system is designed in consultation
with the local water authority (Waternet) to cope with peak
precipitation levels and also to guarantee a good water quality.
In the following paragraphs, examples of design principles applied to Harbour Island are given. For other parts of IJburg similar design principles are applied, tailored to local conditions.
Approximately 11.5% of the surface of Harbour Island
consists of water bodies at least 10 m wide and 1 m deep.
There are no dead ends in the water management system.
The system is connected to the IJmeer via two sluices.
Part of the embankments of the internal water system is
developed as ‘natural embankments’. One of the main
canals on Harbour Island is called the ‘green tunnel’ because
of the reed fields on both sides of the canal. At least 50% of
the embankments of this canal are constructed as a ‘natural
embankment’. In the green tunnel a number of small islands
with ‘natural embankments’ were created. Overall, 25% of
the embankments are constructed as a wet /dry zone with a
slope of 1:10 to create a zone where land and water interact,
in order to benefit flora and fauna. All embankments are
designed to withstand a water level fluctuation of 60 cm.
The ‘Stand Still’ principle also has consequences for the
drainage of excess precipitation. Three classes of precipitation
are distinguished:
• polluted precipitation drained from for example highintensity roads (> 5000 vehicle movements a day)
2
Nieuw Amsterdams Peil (New Amsterdam Level), calibration point for
measurement of elevation levels in the Netherlands, for reasons of convenience often equated to mean sea level.
Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
7
and busy parking lots is collected in a sewage system
and transported to a sewage treatment plant, where it
is purified;
• precipitation which falls onto low-intensity roads
(< 5000 vehicle movements a day) is infiltrated into
the phreatic zone, using infiltration and transport
sewers;
• clean precipitation from for instance rooftops is
contained as much as possible using green roofs. If that
is not possible, it is infiltrated in the phreatic water or
drained directly to the canals.
By infiltrating rainwater into the phreatic zone, it is purified
by the sand it flows through, before reaching the surface water.
By constructing this infiltration–sewerage system at least 15 cm
above the average highest groundwater level, it ensured that
water can always infiltrate. Wherever the sewerage system is
located beneath roads, there has to be at least 70 cm of ground
coverage on top of the sewerage pipes in order to protect the
roads from frozen groundwater.
In order for the groundwater to drain into the surface water,
adequate hydraulic conductivity of the phreatic zone is a
prerequisite. IJburg on average has a hydraulic conductivity
of approximately 8 m day 1, which also allows for infiltration
to take place. In addition, in the urban development plan it is
incorporated that basements, cellars and for instance underground parking facilities cannot exceed a maximum depth of
1 m-NAP to make sure that the groundwater flow is never
blocked (Municipality of Amsterdam et al., 2003).
NATURE DEVELOPMENT
Together with the development of IJburg, several nature
development projects have taken place. Natuurmonumenten,
a Dutch nature conservation organization, was an important
partner in these projects. Some of them are still ongoing.
IJburg is located north of a severely polluted former dumping
ground for chemical waste, which had to be rehabilitated
before the construction of IJburg could start (Figure 4).
The area has been remediated by covering the contaminated
subsoil layers with an upside-down ‘box’ with a circumference
of approximately 5 km. The sides of the box rest in an impermeable clay layer, 26 m-NAP (Gemeente Amsterdam, Stadsdeel
Oost, 2011). A park was designed on top of the covered
package. The Diemerpark is now well known for its populations of bats and grass snakes.
The 2.5-km-long zone south of the Diemerpark, adjacent
to the Amsterdam-Rijn canal, has been redesigned into a
nature area as it is part of the provincial ecological main
structure. Breeding mounds have been created to create a
suitable and natural environment for the grass snakes
(Natrix natrix) to lay their eggs. The grass snake population
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J. J. M. STEENBERGEN AND R. J. VAN BEMMELEN
Figure 4. Location of Diemerpark (white border) with IJburg on the right (Ingenieursbureau Amsterdam, 2010)
on IJburg is one of the largest in the Netherlands. The sand
martin (Riparia riparia) has found its home in special walls
of dirt and sand. Artificial wetland zones have been created,
which form a natural habitat for the spined loach (Cobitis
taenia), the European water shrew (Neomys fodiens) and
several amphibian species.
The IJburg area is famous for its zebra mussels (Dreissena
polymorpha). These mussels serve as food for foraging birds,
like the tufted duck (Aythya fuligula), the common goldeneye
(Bucephala clangula) and the coot (Fulica atra). Artificial
mussel beds have been created along the islands to create new
living ground for the mussels. This will ensure that the food
requirements of the birds can be fulfilled. In total 132 ha of
artificial beds will be placed onto the underwater subsoil.
Since the first beds were created, the mussel population has
grown tremendously (Figure 5). After 3–4 years of measurements, results show a tenfold increase in the expected mussel
Figure 5. Artificial mussel beds (Project Bureau IJburg, 2010)
Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
population. Even the quaga mussel (Dreissena bugensis)
which has only been recorded a few times in the nearby area,
is likely to be present in larger numbers. The densities and
bio-volumes have increased significantly compared to the
reference areas elsewhere in the IJmeer and surrounding
lakes. The artificial beds have had a significant stimulating
effect on the growth of the mussel population (Bouma
et al., 2010).
STEPPING STONES
North of IJburg, near Durgerdam, nature has been created bordering the coast of ‘Waterland’, an area which is characteristic
for its cultural and historical landscape. The Hoeckelingsdam
has been designed to create sheltered waters (Figure 6). The
nearly 2-km-long Hoeckelingsdam was built in 2005 and
nowadays forms a perfect spot for breeding birds. The dam
regularly floods, creating a rich land–water interaction. Plans
are being made to build a second dam in the near future,
further south-east, along the coast of Muiden. The shallow
water behind this dam will be connected to the Bay of Ballast
by means of a creek. The neighbouring artificial peninsula
‘Diemer Vijfhoek’ was refurbished in 2006. The western part
is accessible for recreational purposes; the eastern part has
been developed as a nature area.
In 2009, north of IJburg, a nature island was created on the
shallow side of a dam. This 2-ha island is primarily for water
birds and forms a stepping stone between ‘Waterland’ and the
coast of Muiden. Originally, this dam prevented the harbour
channel from silting up. An opening in the dam functions as
the gate to the harbour channel. Nowadays, several species
of breeding birds, amphibians, fish and snakes have been
spotted on the island. In front of the nature island a natural
bank of armourstone was constructed. This bank prevents
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WATER MANAGEMENT PRACTICES LAND RECLAMATION PROJECT IJBURG, AMSTERDAM
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Figure 6. Nature island (elongated rectangular island in front) and the Hoeckelingsdam (indicated with white border) (Ingenieursbureau Amsterdam, 2010)
young birds from drifting too far to return to the island under
windy conditions.
Furthermore, on the west side of IJburg ecological corridors
of ‘westside Zeeburger island’ and ‘Bovendiep’ will be
created, crossing the highway below. Shallow water with reed
and small islands will provide a natural habitat for amphibian
and other species.
MULTIPLE LAND AND WATER USE
An excellent example of multiple land use on IJburg are the
(semi) hidden flood defences. Parts of the dykes on IJburg
are constructed in such a way that they are not visible. These
dykes are called ‘verholen waterkeringen’, which roughly
translates as hidden dykes. Especially in areas with a lack
of space these hidden dykes are often applied. The hidden
dykes are part of an elevated area and provide protection
against flooding from adjacent water bodies. The dykes
are designed to withstand circumstances which occur once
every 4000 years. This means that the water can rise up
to approximately 0.7 m+NAP (as opposed to the usual
0.4 m-NAP to 0.2 m-NAP). It also allows for a future water
level rise of 1 m in 100 years.
What Amsterdam excels at is multiple water use. This is
not limited to IJburg but applies to all parts of Amsterdam.
The canals in Amsterdam serve a multitude of purposes.
They are used to drain excess precipitation and for transport
and recreational purposes. They facilitate trade and other activities like garbage collection using boats. They serve a
valuable ecological and natural purpose. On IJburg, reed
beds in the canals are used to improve water quality.
The canals and other water bodies in Amsterdam are also
used as living spaces. At IJburg an island has been created
with an 8-ha internal water body, designated for floating
housing (Figure 7). This area is created to give IJburg the
Figure 7. Floating housing Steigereiland (Ingenieursbureau Amsterdam, 2010)
Copyright © 2011 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.
Irrig. and Drain. 60 (Suppl. 1): 4–10 (2011)
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J. J. M. STEENBERGEN AND R. J. VAN BEMMELEN
city character of Amsterdam with its houseboats. The area
provides space for some 165 floating houses, suitable for
self-construction and initialized by project development.
IJburg is a long way from being completed. Phase I is
now nearing completion. The realization of Phase II is currently subject to political decisions because of the current
economic climate. Phase II will be less of a challenge technically; however, from an environmental perspective there
are some challenges ahead. When completed, IJburg will
offer housing for approximately 45 000 inhabitants and jobs
for 12 000 people. There will be shops, schools, restaurants,
a marina, recreational areas and even a recreational beach.
IJburg shows how multiple land use in densely populated
areas is possible, as long as there is a cooperative and
innovative mindset in all those involved.
CONFLICTS OF INTERESTS
None of the authors have any conflicts of interest to declare.
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