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English, Department of
1-1-1988
Prescribed Passivity: The Language of Sexism
Julia Penelope
University of Nebraska-Lincoln
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Penelope, Julia, "Prescribed Passivity: The Language of Sexism" (1988). Faculty Publications -- Department of English. Paper 89.
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Published in A FEMINIST ETHIC FOR SOCIAL SCIENCE RESEARCH by the Nebraska
Sociological Feminist Collective (Lewiston/Queenston: Edwin Mellen, 1988), pp. 119-138.
Prescribed Passivity: The language of Sexism
Julia Penelope
The
recent
reference
co nt rove rsy
reveals the
investment
if
extent.
at
reference.
arguments
~~~_~!E~'
Before
general
~2_t
are not
clues
to conclude
with
are
ignore because
my
to the
to
human
those nouns
*
that
this
and
that
the
!l~..!! •
and
those who
nouns
articles
as
will
"generics"
fa r.
designate
in
two unequal
set of
choose
to
On the basis
English.
that
I
refers
sub-classes.
larger sub-class
the affairs
prevail,
another
that we will
portion of our vocabulary
the
have
(those definitions
is embarrassing.
no
I
controversy.
become
will
beings is divided into
By
~2..!!·
power backing them)
the r e a r e
that
b s e rv a t ion s
if linguistic history
popular misconceptions
the evidence
that
0
masculine
of
course.
outcome of
political
ev ide n c e.
found
generalized
emphasize
political.
but
use
Of
"interesting" historical
of
the political
and
data
to
and
language
relying on popular misconceptions.
data.
that
the most
the
and the data} present here
have
of
especially
generics,
substantive.
references
my
w 0 u 1 d 1 ike
to maintain
1 i n g u i s tic
provides
the nature.
offer
I
I
supporting
like
not
use
the
the English
stake in preserving the myth of
reg a r din g t his my t h •
would
concerning
of so-called "generics" in
contains
of men.
This article first appeared in Reza
Ordonbadian
and
Wa1 bu r ga
Von- Raf f1 e r E ng e L
Y. LeY-§' ___~I2. __ 1-_~I2.g~2Jte (1975);
Murfreesboro.
Tenn:
Inter-University
Publishing.
Pp.
96-108.
-----------------------------120 ---------------------------As others have observed.
the
actors.
men
have been the doers and
central figures in their histories.
the
and
those nouns that refer to traditionally prestigious social
positions and
semantic
Only
occupations
feature.
(+male)
carry
~~~£!.
e.g ••
1~~~.
as an inherent
iud~.
a few nouns carry the inherent feature
-male
as Geoffrey Leech would mark
£~~_~r~~~.
(+female)
them) •
(or
e. g ••
As
consequence. when women take up
roles
as
wife
seman!.!_,=--~~_~.
When a
woman
reserved
space
and/or
men.
covered
Instead.
iti on
we
move
outside their
in t
E~f.!.~!.Y~
0
semantic space that does not exist for us.
occupies
for
activities
mother.
a
a
posi tion usually
professional
she does not move into
by
the
"standard"
semanti c
the
label.
oc cu pa ti onal
her anomalous position must be marked by the add-
of
special "female marker";
a
femalelJl~
in
occupations
insert
front of the occupational term.
fem_~~~!M_QE. •
docto!.
we
.!~...Y.
or
e.g ••
wom_f.!.~ __~f.!.'!.Y~.!:.
1~
Those
with less social prestige must have a special
"femi ni ne"
suffix
attached
to
them.
e. g ••
We understand any term
that
occurs in its "standard" unmarked form to refer to a
male.
and
person is
hearer.
failure to provide the
a
appointment
assume
woman
often
For example.
that
with
my
that
"Do
in
results
I
tell
is
you think E~ would see me?"
term is marked ( +female) it acquires
the
space
and into the domain
ordinarily
price
exacted
reserved
therapist.
and
male.
the
confusion for the
I have an
she will
indicate
"Oh. why are you going
ati on.
that
a friend that
lawyer/doctor/
person
assumption by asking.
or
if
information
that
to see him?"
In contrast. when
a
negative
a
connot-
for moving out of our semanti c
of
man.
Those
occupations
--------------------------121
s e_~~!~.I..Y.
!~a_~h~ ..!:.
ma r ked e xp 1 i cit 1 y.
se_~~~!2.I..Y.
r e qui r e t hat
as i n
the f eat u r e (+ In ale) be
~a l_~._ n u_r_s e •
~21_Lp.!_0_~!.i.!y_~.
(There were fewer examples in this
.!!.l21~
category
since men have not shown as much interest in traditionally
"female
occupations" as women have shown in those of men.
presumably
money.)
because the jobs that women
That
we
need
to
gender indicates to me that
determined
of us
by
goes
mark
pay
less
occupational terms for
our semantic space is rigidly
culturally defined sex roles.
and when one
beyond the boundary of the space provided for
us by the English lexicon. we move into
space.
occupy
negative semantic
and special linguistic accomodations must be made.
It is fair to ask at this point what the existence of
special
gender
markers
generics in English.
has
to
do with the question of
Just this: the
place of women in our
society is reflected in the semantic space that we occupy.
a small
space
!!ou_se!!i. Le.
the
that
contains
such labels as
.!!lot~~.!:.
!!E.I_s e. and ~~_c_~~!~.I..Y;
the remai nde r of
semantic space. including those terms called
English
"generics." belongs to the male sex.
the explicit
only
way
the
E.!~_~!.i.!yye.
semantic
It would appear that
markers (+female) and (+male).
most obvious and superficial indicators of
in which English semantic space.
are
the
our cognitive space.
reflects male dominance.
As I have sai d earlier.
and
~~~- __ ~_~~~
pol i tic a 1 .
in
as
its definitions of
and
modern apprehensi on
sex •
the
are
arguments that favor man
not
substantive.
Th e .Q x f_<?.!.~_~_~s.1i~_~_'pj_'2-!.i.9~_<!'!'Y
is "obsolete."
mal e
generics
~2~
the
~~~
s tat esc 1 ear 1 y
that generic usage of the
editors
go
but
noun
on to note that "in
as thus used primarily denotes the
!E~_~gE_.1>..Y__ iE1..E..~!.£~_1:..i_£E __r_~~~_rJ_i_~.B__C!..~~~ __1:..'2. __ ~_o_~~E
"
-------------------------------122 -----------------------------(my italics).
Note that women are included in
!! 0 t__!. n f
imp 1 i cat ion.
!!~.
the
eI~!!£'£
Wit h res p e c t
!
OED is equally explicit:
"q ua si -pronomi na 11y." f or
.Q~.
was
blunt
And.
only by
t o t h e ph r a s e
phrase
~__ ~!!~.
or
a reference to the male sex only."
Otto Jespersen
The
~~
is
but it "i mp1ies
as early as 1924.
in his judgment that: "This is
decidedly a defect in the
English
language." and he went
on to mention that "the tendency recently has been to
unambiguous.
"
if
clumsy expressions like
(Jespersen.
1985:
~
used
231).
~
E~m~
~~i~
use
•
Authorities notwithstanding.
the men in the media have been making a lot of noise about
recent
attempts to alter or bypass the traditional mascu-
line "generics." and their trivia1izations of
have taken various forms.
have been
put
down
with the language.
class
ai~~
with
degree to
bastion
In general.
feminist suggestions
and categorized as illicit tampering
as fads.
or
as
grotesque errors in a
and double negatives.
in
defense
One
of
the
"purity"
of
the
English
p.
79). while L.B.
in his article "Plastic English."
says that such
tampering is
and
as
he
corrupt(ing)
threatening
further
the
innocuous.
has
to
Ei~~e1i.'
"distort(ing)
and
savaged by the
locution.
'Everyone knows he
and to substitute the odious
." (Sissman.
1972:
37).
most recent example of the violent reactions
to conscious language change were
~~~___ ~2~_k
of
American Communist
when they conspire to eliminate
'chairperson'
Possi b1y the
the
the language already
and correct.
decide for
New speaki sm
as
accuses feminists
Establishment politicians
the
depending upon the
writer has called feminist remodeling of
the language "the new Sispeak" (Kanier.
Party.
issues
which the writer identifies himself as the last
language.
Sissman.
the
the
letters written to
Times protesting the detailed and explicit
--------------------------123
Mc G raw - Hill .Q.Ei_<!~!i..P_~~ ___~C?.!. ___t_~ ~ ___~~~1____'!.!~..?_~1!!.~E~ __ ~i__~!!~
Se_x~.
Men.
however.
language
change.
pedagogues.
Nilsen.
and
tion.
they
Ms.
to
get
rid
Robin Lakoff
opposed
provide
all
resisting
and
the press
AIleen
eliminating
to
Pace
masculine
interesting
for
the
into the mechanisms of justifica-
although
argues that
of
ones
only
opponents only
their reasons are
Nilsen.
t e r ms 1 ike ~~..P'
the
our
are
women,
a1 so
are
"generics. "
insights
nor
Two
not
are
of
she suggests that we avoid
"it is unrealistic
them
Therefore.
it makes more sense
1973: 9).
The murkiness of
difficulty
of
to
expect
(generic masculine terms).
to adjust
to them"
(Nilsen.
this type of argument and the
rationalizing neutrality are illustrated in
their concluding statement:
Educational and psychological damage occurs only
when people think that generic terms refer exclusively
to males.
And.
unfortunately.
increasing awareness in the general
nature of the generic terms.
ically feminine
~'p..9_k e ~l"_~I!!.~.!! •
rather than
public of the
the invention of specif-
terms such as ch..?_i!.~E~yn.
etc..
has
the
0
i~_~h!E~yn.
p p 0 sit e e f f e c t
g i v i n g the
impression that women cannot be included in any
incorporating a masculine marker.
long run this will
I
fear
that
term
in the
serve to exclude women even
further from the mainstream of thought and action.
(Nilsen.
As
I
10).
have already mentioned.
exclusively
can only
p.
to
infer
males.
that
generic
terms
except by implication.
she
is
included
in
~2
refer
and Nilsen
them.
But
----------------------------124
inference
is not the same as denotation.
"generi cIt
has
to
do
with
what
indicates that people think of a
~~.
hear
male
£E~5r~2~~n
like
choices and
give
For
are
Finally,
not
when they write or
if
that women
this
~2~_~~~_~~~E
and
correctly
anything
are
use
of
conscious
asserting that
is likely to
exclude
women
from
it will be the perpetuation of the notion
are included in terms like
high-sounding statements like "All men
"God
reason.
included in terms with masculine markers.
worldly spheres.
or
of
and usage
us a social visibility in roles outside
the home that we have never had.
women
issue
think.
except for those who have something invested in
having us believe otherwise.
terms
The
peo~le
created
!2J_~~~~E~r.
or that
are created equal"
man in his own image" include women
as
references.
Robin Lakoff's argument follows that of Nilsen in its
studied neutrality.
assertions.
counseling
change.
she
"generics"
but
Lakoff
is not as careful in her
While she is quite frank about her pessimism.
a
conservative approach to conscious language
blithely
refer
to
accepts and supports the myth that
women
as
well
as
men.
without
consulting more carefully researched sources •
~~
• in English we find
and
~~_~~E~.
which of
course refer to women members of the species as well •
• but more seriously.
oneself to be realistic:
I think one should force
certain aspects of language
are available to the speaker's conscious analysis.
and others are too common.
throughout the language.
each time he uses them.
too thoroughly mixed
for the speaker to be aware
(Lakof£.
1975: 45)
- - - - - - - - - - - - - - 125 - - - - - - - - - - - - - Does Lakoff
want us to believe that she was not conscious
of it when she used
What
is
the pronoun he in that last sentence?
saddening
side-stepped the
about
her
statement
that
is
she
issue she raised:
It is precisely
those aspects of language use that are not
conscious that
we
have
cannot
major
the most trouble eliminating from our speech.
be
satisfied
continue to
with
pass as such.
want to think about what
letting
so-called
I
generics
just because some people do not
they're
saying.
One
becoming
aware
of something is to talk about it.
make our
usage
conscious.
way
of
and
to
It would seem that as long as
linguistic change is "accidental." linguists can afford to
be nonchalant.
But.
in the cause of
"political
realism"
we are cautioned to exert pressure on those areas of usage
that
Or.
are "available to the speaker's conscious analysis."
as Nilsen would have it.
because "Educational
and
we
people think that the generic
males."
If
Nilsen
is
need
soc i al
not
be
disturbed
damage occurs only when
terms
correct.
refer exclusively to
then a great deal
educational and social damage has been done.
of
especially in
public school and college textbooks.
At this
point
we have no way
available to conscious analysis.
of determining what is
nor can we ascertain when
people think generic terms refer to women and
further
proof
so-called
is
forthcoming.
generics
refer
especially when
the
opinion.
have
"generics"
women
in
an
political position.
~~
and
ma~_~~E~;
or
wishfully
to
Until
it is safe to assume that
exclusively to the
writer
effort
men.
speaker
read
remain
male
sex.
is male.
In my
themselves
into
ignorant
of their
I am not speaking only of terms like
such uses of masculine terms
obvious to merit the attention given to them.
are
too
I am saying
------------------------------ 126 -----------------------------
that
for
women have read themselves into other terms as well.
e x amp 1 e • c h1_1;...d r.!!..!! • k i _d_s • .E~-"...E.!.~ • .E~_~2.E •
tea<2..!!.~.!:'
~2..EJ 0.!2Q~!:,
and ~J!.!...A~.Q,,!!.
!E.£..~y!jy_a 1 •
As Ot to J espe rsen had
observed:
While a great many names for human beings are
applicable to both sexes.
e.g ••
li~~
•
.E~_~~~~-,,~.
i nE~b i ..!~_n t • f h r_!.s t .!.!l..E.' !2-" 1. ~..!J_'!.!!g e r • E.!!llh b 2.}1~ •
etc ••
others.
though possessing no distinctive mark.
are as a matter of fact
chiefly or even exclusively
applied to one sex only. because the corresponding
social functions have been restricted either to men
or to women.
1a~~!.
ba~~r.
sh-,,_~ma~~~
hand. EE...!..~' dr~~~ma~_er.
(Jespersen. 1965: 232).
and many others on the one
!!!-iJ_~in.!!..!
on the other
At the publication time of this article.
things are pretty
much the same.
The definitions that follow.
Di~~.QE~_~'
lexicon is
ies.
make
explicit
divided
the
taken
from
Ra~~2.!!!-_~o~~~
way in which the English
into two gender-determined vocabular-
The terms for which I have provided definitions are:
femi ni n~.
wo~_E!..!!.!Y.
mannis~.
The comments on
definition for
delimit the
!~~_'!.~~.
semantic
~2~_'!.!!!~.!!;
and
!!!-~c:..~li..p~.
~i~_~~!E.!lye
The two
boundaries
!!!-2~lY
and
were found under the
contrasting sets of terms
of
"socially
approv~d"
behaviors we are expected to exhibit if we are unfortunate
enough to have been born female or male.
----------------------------- 127 ---------------------------FE~_~1~~
-- 1.
Pertaining to a woman or girl:
F eE1j._!!!.!!...e__~~il.!l_ty •
weak;
!~ m~!!!E_e__ ~!~3..E. •
Like a woman;
2.
gentle.
WO~~~1
-- Like or befitting a woman;
masculine or girlish.
syn.
--
resemblance in appropriate.
~~~_~g~~.
~O~~~!l.
feminine;
~O~~~1
implies
~Q~_~~~1
fitting ways:
~g~_~~J~~.
a neutral
suggest mild disapproval or.
not
synonym.
more rarely.
may
disgust.
WOMAN ISH
--------usually implies an inappropriate resemblance
and suggests weakness or effeminacy:
~~.!i_~y'.!g~
~g~_~1E~
.
~!~_!~~N~TE
-- is applied reproachfully
contemptuously
in women.
to qualities which.
or
although natural
are seldom applied to women and are unmanly
~!~E~1~~_!~_Q~_~~~~~;
and weak when possessed by men:
FE_~~~1~~.
corresponding to
Applies to the attributes particularly
appropriate to women.
delicate qualities.
denote sex.
esp.
the softer and more
The word is seldom used to
and if applied to men.
suggests the
delicacy and weakness of women:
~Q_I_N_:!:_.9~__y''!~~ • E:~~!ll.~~.E.
These
definitions
assumptions
delicate.
make
explicit
of
the
cultural
regarding the "true nature" of women:
petulant.
provocati on.
we
liable
possess
to
burst
into
We are
tears at any
decorum--have you ever heard of
masculine decorum?--we are modest.
gentle.
all
we are weak.
and we are
Even the definitions of the terms for women are
Contrast
-----------------------------128 ---------------------------the
tone of these definitions with
those for males.
which
are uniformly affirmative.
~~~_~~~]~~
-- 1. Having the qualities or
characteristics of
bold;
~ Q~EP
a man; manly; virile;
~~~_~UL]~~
~9]_CE.
2.
characteristic of a man or men:
~~~y
strong;
Pertaining to or
~~~_~~~_~~
AT~~~~.
-- Having the qualities usually considered
desirable in a man; strong; brave; honorable;
resolute; virile.
~~_~~
Syn. --
implies possession of
the most valuable or desirable qualities a man can
have.
as dignity.
directness.
honesty.
etc .•
in opposition to servility.
insincerity. underhandedness.
strength.
I infer
courage.
from
insincere.
fortitude.
these
the
weak.
RH~
that women are servile.
cowardly and
~~~n~EE
lacking
offers as antonyms for
!~Ei£iE~;
words:
definition for
of what
definitions
fact.
three significant
It also connotes
and fortitude
underhanded.
In
etc.
!~ak;
in
~~~
£Ew~rdl~.
But
provides an exact illustration
I have inferred from the previous definitions.
~~~_!~B
applies to that which resembles man:
applied to a woman.
the term is derogatory.
suggesting the aberrant possession of masculine
characteristics.
Characteristics
such
as
strength.
courage are "aberrant" in women!
dignity.
honesty,
and
------------------------------ 129 ----------------------------The semantic space of English is
accordance with
sex-role
social
women are
stereotypes;
fragile.
passive and dishonest.
all
whereas
men
honest and forthright.
are strong.
positive attributes.
bold.
negative
granted
attributes.
In the examples that follow.
see ways in which the stereotypes of women
in various media.
in
divided
neatly
are
all
we can
taken for
with the understanding that the
characteristics of women are negative in comparison to the
positive standards set for men.
1)
A.
The guards were seldom harsh and never cruel.
They tended to be stolid.
and to my
eyes,
slovenly,
sense of delicacy.
etc ••
opposite sense: a gross.
but in just the
bland fleshiness.
bovinity without point or edge.
fellow-prisoners
heavy,
effeminate -- not in the
I had also for
a
Among my
the first
time in Winter the sense of being a man among
women.
or among eunuchs.
hard to tell apart;
their emotional
tone
seemed always low.
their talk trivial.
( U r s u 1 a K.
Th_~_~~i_t__g2E_d__~i_..P_~ r k E_e_~ •
p.
B.
The prisoners were
LeG u in.
170)
Ignorant,
in the Handdarn sense: To ignore
the abstraction,
to hold fast
to the thing.
There was in this attitude something
feminine.
ideal.
a refusal of the abstract.
a submissiveness to the given.
rather displeased me.
~1-_l2.~Elc_n_~~~ •
pp •
(LeGuin.
202 - 2 0 3 )
the
which
:!:E~__~~i_t__!!2E~
---------------------------130
C.
Eve ry man' s bee non e.
0
ne .
R~~~~E~_~~_B~Jo)
(Ad for the movie.
D.
every worn an' s had
Is there a lady in the house. with some
children and a spouse. with some worries on
her mind about dinner?
(Radio ad. Athens. Georgia)
E.
Usually.
however.
role analysis is pitched in
terms of the roles of some particular
category of person,
(Erving Goffman.
F.
such as doctor or female.
En~~~E!~rs.
p.
91)
Gibson's has special bargains for the ladies:
40% off on clothes for children. and double
sheets.
two for the price of one.
(Radio ad. Athens. Georgia)
G.
It is a far cry from the unfortunate days
when slaps and kicks were exchanged. weak
sisters exploded in tears.
staged walkouts.
1/20/75.
p.
(Judith Crist.
we
find
traditional
further
reference
concepts
explanation
of
is
~~.!7__Yo.!~.
50)
type of context in
Each of these examples illustrates the
which
and strong men
to
women.
women and
unnecessary.
and
their
the
use
of
behavior.
as
I could multiply
these examples. but I offer them only as evidence that the
polarization of
~~uli_~
themselves
demonstrate
roles
be
can
need
the
defined by terms like
found in contexts in which
not appear.
strength
!e~~~!E~
the
words
The contexts in 1.A. and
prevalence
of
and
1.G.
sexist
----------------------------131
assumptions in
to
sell
our
sheets.
society; one need only call upon them
promote
a
movie.
describe
an
alien
personality. or outline a method of role analysis in which
one
has
doctors.
on
the
one hand.
and females on
the
other.
The next set of examples contains explicit references
to women.
food.
The
topic
in
each quotation. whether it is
motherhood or embroidery.
interest
only
to
women.
emphasize the terms that
~~.E
" g e n e ric II
• a 1 tho ugh.
is one assumed to
Consequently.
be
of
I would like to
__~Q! appear; we do not find the
~E
i f were me mb e r
0
ur
t r a d i t ion a I
grammar. we learned that any group that contained one male
had to
be referred to by a masculine generic.
of each example.
i n t ere s ted
in
N or do
fi nd
we
then.
f
0 0
must
d • em b r 0 ide ry.
E~_r_~Q~.
The writer
assume that no single male is
~~...E.!.~.
c r aft s •
or
0
r
rep rod u c t ion.
.!.!?~_:Ly'!j_u~...1..
te rms that
would theoretically include women.
2)
A.
As Woman.
she would have been happier had she
continued enshrined in the privacy of
domestic love and domestic duty.
(Frank
Cap rio • E.'~.!l~!.~ __l!.C2.I!.22_e_:l£~~1}_!Y )
B.
This comprehensive book of one hundred
embroidery stitches will be useful not only
to teachers and students. but to women of all
ages who are interested in embroidery
s tit c h e s •
( !..2..9__~~'pJ_C2.!"~~J..Y__ E~i_t:..£!!~..!! • p • 2 )
------------------------------ 132 ----------------------------C.
Women unconsciously prefer to fulfill their
maternal role and to be loved by a man.
Woman is intended for reproduction.
!~~_~~__~~~~~~_~~~li_tl)
(Caprio.
D.
The right idea for today's creative woman
from the Cooking and Crafts Club.
(Book-of-the-Month Club Flyer)
When
the
subject
categories
that
matter
we will
find the term
however.
space
concerns.
~2~_~'
and
when
the
that
reserved
such as anger.
for
~ot
A.
one
of
those
control.
a masculine generic.
topic
male
find the so-called generics man and
3.
to
fall within the semantic space of women.
Notice.
semanti c
pertains
falls within the
behaviors
autonomy
and
male
or dignity. we
~~n~~~~.
By questioning the control exercised by
autonomous man and demonstrating the control
exercised by
the environment.
a science of
behavior also seems to question dignity or
w0 r t h •
(B . F • Sk inn e r. ~~.Y_~!!~_.!_!'..~~E.2_I!!._§.P.!!
~i~~.!Y)
B.
A small step for man.
mankind!
C.
(Astronaut)
The history
mankind.
of anger.
a giant step for
of anger is the history
of
Man has been exposed to the effects
others'
hewa s fir s t
as well as his own.
p 1 ace don ear t h.
(A n...&..e r.
since
p.
1)
----------------------------- 133 ---------------------------Before I
go
on to consider the problem of reference
with respect to terms of more general application.
like
to offer for your consideration a set
examples.
anomalous
because
of
I
would
anomalous
of the semantic ambiguities
and shifts of reference which they illustrate.
4.
A.
A man can be
Man is not made for defeat .•.
destroyed but not defeated.
__Q1E__~~E_~_~~_~E_~_~~~)
!E~
(Hemingway.
B. Archeologists announced today that they have
discovered evidence of man's existence as far
back as 3.000.000 years ago.
based on the
dating of a woman's skeleton.
(Radio news. Knoxville)
c.
A college professor had dinner at the home of
her department chairman.
After dinner.
invited her to join him in his study.
he
and his
wife invited her to watch TV in the
livingroom.
Her chairman prevailed in the
awkward debate that
followed.
they needed the privacy.
were entering his study.
followed them in.
insisting that
As the two of them
his daughter
wanting to know
~EY
the
professor had to stay with him in is study.
"Because." replied the father.
the men do."
"that's what
(private conversation)
And one finds interesting extensions of the masculine bias
with the verb to__~~E.
"to fill
with
men."
in
spite
of
the OED's definition.
The following anecdote illustrates
------------------------------134 ---------------------------how far some are willing
to
for the genericness of
push
the male norm.
D.
In a midwestern college.
a memorandum was
circulated informing the faculty
that the
registration tables would have to "be
manned." When a woman pointed out that half
of the department was women.
replied: "You're a man.
her chairman
The Bible says 'In
the beginning God created man in his own
image.'
So. God created you and you're a
man." (Private correspondence)
I
wish
which women
I
are
could leave you with the obvious ways
occupied by their traditional roles.
to
the
genericness
noteworthy.
general
of
By now.
masculine
But my last set
ref erence.
of
appeal
uses terms of
£E_LI d.
~.£..~on.
e. g. •
the
terms may seem hardly
examples.
individ~~l.
provide evidence that whenever
or
about
writes
in
excluded from semantic space beyond that
~i
d.
and
someone speaks
"people." the intended reference of the
given term is males.
5)
A.
You're a mother and a wife.
count on you.
and your
~~~
So take One-a-Day Vitamins
with iron for the
~~~1~
who count on you.
( Tel ev i s ion ad)
B.
Fir~~E~_~~!~~Y:
A satirist can't teach
anything if he offends
Sa_ti ~i~.!:
!E~~·
I of fend !he...!!!.
make fun of theJr wives.
Fei ~fe.!-'_~_!l bum.
p.
2)
!J.1n
E~~~
~~S_~~~
love it.
(Jules Feiffer.
I
135 ----------------------------
c.
Our
E~~~~
galaxy.
are the best gamblers in the
~~
compete for power,
fame,
women.
( ~jJl_;:._!.!~_k )
D.
Jack thought with surprise how good this was.
This atmosphere of dim,
shabby
~2~~~'
men who
would not recognize him or anything in him.
( J oy c e Car 01 0 ate s,
p.
E.
When I was going to school,
my
time talking to
(Edward Albee,
6/8/74,
F.
Q2__\!.~!E__l!~_~_~~!._J2_1!_~i..J._1 ,
517-518)
p.
!~Jl_~~~'!~
I spent most of
~~..J.J
wives.
in an interview, ~~~_Yo~~er,
29)
For the merry-go-round rider,
the
!E~5r
and
for example,
awaiting is one that entails a
child's portion of bravery and muscular
control,
a £Ei_~~~~ portion of ~a~l~E~Y~ .
(Goffman,
G.
En~~~nt~Js,
p.
98)
tW2:-Y~~~__ ~1~~
American middle-class
find the prospect too much for
often
!E~m.
fight !he5r parents at the last moment to
avoid being strapped into a context in which
it had been hoped
!E~
little men (Goffman,
H•
We fin d t hat
would be
~E_~~~Ej_~rs,
p.
105)
!!2l<!~!2-_~~_j_h_E!._~~_I!!!~_..!!S
who
enter this department do well in graduate
work here.
!h~ir
applications,
like those of
------------------------------ 136 ----------------------------women,
and of members of minority groups,
welcome.
(Dept.
of Psychology flyer,
are
U-T
Knoxville)
I.
Even in the most serious of roles,
that of
sUJJ[~2B'
E~~~~!~~J
be times when the full-fledged
unbend and behave simply as a
En~~~E!_~rs.
J.
such as
we yet find that there will
~al~.
must
(Goffman,
p. 140)
This kind of equipment is to the
~2~_~£!af~~ma~
dryers.
what washing machines.
etc.
clothes
• are to the housewife.
(Woo<!.~or.!d !!g)
K.
It is here.
an
in this personal capacity.
inj_~vid~~-1
can be warm.
touched by humor.
~is
social role.
spontaneous. and
It is here.
that an
that
regardless of
iEd~yi~_~l
can show
"what kind of a guy he is." (Goffman.
E n_c_~~E!~_~.
L.
p.
152)
SO~~~!~JL~~!~ ~~ ~~J_~!~JL~st~
have one profane part;
~J_~on~.
along with other
sacred for
the~~l~~.
M.
!h~r
are allowed to
~~_~~!~JL~~ts
friends,
E~J~E~.
!E_~r
~~
retain the
wives.
(Goffman. En_~~~E!~Js.
p. 152)
Ordinary walking may have to be put on.
especially.
and
too.
presumably. by the half of our
population whose appearance is.
and is
----------------------------- 137 ---------------------------designed to be.
savored by ~2me.
~E1>J:.t.5: •
Each
of
completely
the
women
occupied
by
preceding
specifically male term.
fema1 e
are rarely.
if ever.
mind. which.
g~1_~t~2~~_~E
~~~_~.
ref e rence.
through
either
~~~_l~E~3Y'
~~~.
!.!.Y_~.
e. g. •
of
the
present
in its turn.
these
as
persons
in
or an
~2_tJl~!.
a
tells us how far we
writer's
have yet to
The varied
examples also provide us with an index
the "educational and social damage" done to
media.
a
usage provides some evidence that women
go in exposing sexism to "conscious analysis."
sources for
how
the semantic space
from
definitions.
e.g .•
illustrates
examples
excluded
masculine
Such
.(Goffman.
and
p • 27 2 )
are
exp 1 i ci t 1y
~1~.
appreciated by
In addition.
women
in
the obvious prevalence of male
referents for terms that are generally
defined as neutral
with respect to gender calls into question the validity of
Lakoff's claim
that
nouns
"purely empty" (Lakoff.
like
have
space is
e r ms •
E~~l~
here?
dominated
by
e • g. •
males?
For
.5:E~~E.'!?:2.E1_~!!L.£_~~i r ~3"'!!.
2~1_~~!2E_~!!LE3_~~2~3...!!.
are
What are we to do when
to continue to use a language in which
the
suggest that we mark gender explicitly.
t
and
1975: 37).
Where does one go from
we
E~J_~~E
The
use
semantic
time being.
creating pairs
I
of
~.P...9_~~2~_0_~~El_s~~~~3 m~E •
of
neutralized
terms
perpetuates the invisibility of women in positions outside
their traditionally
assume
that
defined
roles.
such roles are
filled
illustrated earlier in this paper.
because
our
society
significant reversal
is
of
sexist.
the
and
by
the tendency to
males
has
been
Our language is sexist
and
prevalent
until
there
is
attitudes toward
---------------------------138 -------------------------women we cannot hope to accomplish much.
observed:
"The
presence
something is wrong.
by well-meaning
Nevertheless.
from
our
awareness
reflects.
the
reformers)
the
the
deeply
at
has
too often interpreted
problem itself" (p.
efforts to remove biased
may
Lakoff
words is a signal that
rather than (as
vocabulary
of
of
As
least
ingrained
gender
force
sexism
21).
reference
upon
that
us
an
usage