I
I
Visual Journal: Harlem and DC
in the Thirties and Forties!
A Study of an Exhibition Presented by the
Center for African American History and Culture
INSTITUTIONAL STUDIES
Smithsonian
Institution
Visual Journal:Harlem and DC
in the Thirties and Forties
A Study of an Exhibition Presented by the
Center for African American History and Culture
Audrey E. Kindlon
Kerry DiGiacomo
December 1996
Institutional Studies Office
Smithsonian Institution
900 JeffersonDrive, S.W.
Washington, D.C. 20560
(202) 786-2289
Upon request, this request can be made available in larger type, Braille,
audiocassette, and on disk using Word perfect. Please contact the office at
the office address
Report 96-6
Summarv
This report presents the results of a study of visitors to the exhibition Visual Journal:
Harlem and DC in the Thirties and Forties. This exhibition was presented by the Center for
African American History and Culture in the South Wing of the Arts and Industries
(AM) Building on the National Mall. It displayed the works of several African
American photographers: Robert McNeill; Gordon Parks; Addison, Robert, and George
Scurlock; and Morgan and Marvin Smith.
In the analysis, only when we come to the question of why individuals found particular
images memorable do we see a strong pattern of difference among visitors: African
Americans primarily cited personal, identity-related reasons, while Caucasians gave
personal, imaginative, and cognitive reasons in relatively equal proportions. Overall,
eight out of ten visitors came away from Visual Journal with a specific image in mind
and could articulate their reasons for finding that image memorable.
These differences between African American and Caucasian visitors are less striking,
however, than the similarities between them. Aside from ethnicity, the backgrounds of
the African American and Caucasian visitors were identical in all respects but one:
African American visitors were more likely to live in the local area. Moreover, African
American and Caucasian visitors saw the same themes in the exhibition and took the
same basic approach to the photographs when they identified similarities and
differences between the photographers. Both groups also constructed a primarily
personal relationship with the exhibition as a whole.
Acknowledgments
This study of visitors to the Visual Journal:Harlem and DC in the Thirties and Forties
exhibition, presented by the Center for African American History and Culture, was
conducted with the support and cooperation of a number of people. This publication
provides an opportunity to acknowledge them.
Steve Newsome, Director, Anacostia Museum and Center for African American History
and Culture suggested the study as a start towards systematically assessing the Center's
exhibitions. Deborah Willis, Curator of Exhibitions, and Mark Wright, Research and
Curatorial Assistant, helped us understand the Center's exhibition goals and offered
considerable insight into the present exhibition.
Deirdre Cross, from the Center, and Joanna Banks, Clara Turner Lee and Habeebah
Muhammad, from the Anacostia Museum, as well as several professional interviewers
collected the data and prepared it for analysis. Their help is greatly appreciated. In the
Institutional Studies Office, Audrey E. Kindlon and Kerry DiGiacomo, an intern from
the College of William and Mary, helped to design the study and were the primary
authors of the text. Andrew J. Pekarik was the primary reviewer of the text and assisted
with the interpretation. Jean M. Kalata reviewed the document for publication.
Zahava D. Doering, Director
Institutional Studies Office
Table of Contents
Summary ...........................................................................................................................
Acknowledgments ...........................................................................................................
Table of Contents ..............................................................................................................
List of Figures ...................................................................................................................
ii
iii
iv
iv
I. Background
Introduction ................................................................................................................
The Context .................................................................................................................
The Exhibition ..............................................................................................................
The Visit .......................................................................................................................
I1. Results
Conceptualizing the Exhibition ....................................................................................
4
Theme ...........................................................................................................................
Art Exhibition or History Exhibition? .....................................................................
Previous Knowledge ...................................................................................................
4
Exhibition Experiences ...................................................................................................
7
Connection ..................................................................................................................
What visitors left the exhibition with ......................................................................
I11. Conclusions and Interpretation
...............................................................................
5
6
7
9
15
Appendices
A. The Photographers ..................................................................................................
B. Characteristics of Visitors to the Arts & Industries Building: Three Studies
C. Methodology ..........................................................................................................
D. Questionnaire ........................................................................................................
17
19
28
33
List of Figures
1
2
3
4
B.l
B.2
B.3
"What drew you to the exhibition?" African Americans and Caucasians ....
Type of Connection. African Americans and Caucasians ..............................
Reasons why the Photograph was Memorable .................................................
Memories. African Americans and Caucasians ...............................................
Geographic Origins ..............................................................................................
Educational Attainment .Age 25 and Older ....................................................
Racial/Ethnic Identification-All Visitors ..........................................................
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3
8
10
14
20
21
21
I. Background
"[He]captured the history of an era, now these pictures have great value.
about Robert McNeill
Introduction
Visual Journal:Harlem and DC. in the Thirties and Forties was the fourth in a series of
exhibitions presented by the Center for African American History and Culture. It
displayed the works of several African American photographers - Robert McNeill;
Gordon Parks; Addison, Robert, and George Scurlock; and Morgan and Marvin Smith who "collectively created a comprehensive record of African American life during a
pivotal time in American history."l The exhibition was located in the South Wing of the
Arts and Industries (A & I) Building on the National Mall and was opened on April 18,
1996 and closed September 29,1996.
The study was conducted to assist the Center for African American History and Culture
in planning future programs. The fundamental aim was to understand how visitors
conceptualized the exhibition as a whole, how they related to it, and what images they
took away with them. We hoped to gain some insight into what, if any, differences in
visitor experiences of the exhibition were based on race or ethnicity. Did African
Americans look at this exhibition differently than Caucasians? Did they make different
types of connections?
We also wanted to understand better how people experience exhibitions of
photography in general. Did they appreciate this exhibition as an exhibition on the art
of photography? Or did they see it as an exhibition on American history?
Exhibitions based solely on photographs are infrequent at the Smithsonian, especially
those with photographers as prominent as the ones seen in Visual Journal. Most
Smithsonian visitors encounter exhibitions based on objects, such as the First Ladies'
gowns, or the ruby slippers, or the moonrock. Looking at photographs requires a
different discipline than looking at objects, even other kinds of art objects. Unlike
paintings, for example, which may or may not be founded on historical events,
photographs capture a reality over which the artist, the photographer, has limited
control.
The study is based on interviews with 214 visitors leaving the exhibition during a twoweek period in May 1996.2 In addition to being asked specific questions, visitors were
Visual Journal:Harlem and DC in the Thirties and Forties. Washington, DC; Smithsonian Institution Press.
Copyright 1996.
A description of the visitors and a comparison of their characteristics with visitors interviewed in the Arts &
Industries Building in two previous studies in Appendix B.
-1-
also invited to comment on the exhibition and specific photographs. These discussions
were tape recorded, transcribed and analyzed.3
The Context
In the exhibition brochure, the Center for African American History and Culture
described this exhibition as "another step in our effort to present new understandings of
the African American experience." The Center's first exhibition was presented in
August of 1994.
The results of this study show that the Center has a repeat audience among local
visitors. About one in seven (14%) Visual Journal visitors who live in Washington, D.C.
or the Maryland/Virginia suburbs recalled visiting another Center exhibition. It is
much more difficult to create a regular audience of visitors from elsewhere in the
United States or from foreign countries. About one in twenty (5%) of the non-local
visitors had been to Center exhibitions in the past.
African American visitors were much more likely to be local residents than were
Caucasian visitors. Almost two out of five (38%)African American visitors are local
residents, while only one in six (16%) Caucasian visitors live in the Metropolitan Area.
Residence was the only background factor that was significantly different between
African American and Caucasian visitors. They were equivalent in other characteristics,
such as gender, ages, education levels, who they visited with, familiarity with the
Smithsonian, and prior knowledge of the exhibition.
Other Mall museums also present exhibitions on African American history. When
asked directly if they could recall seeing another African American exhibition at the
Smithsonian Institution, fifteen percent of all visitors recalled seeing one at the
Smithsonian, including, but not limited to exhibitions by the Center.4
The Exhibition
The exhibition photographs feature African Americans ranging from the most famous Ella Fitzgerald, Joe Louis, Jackie Robinson, Adam Clayton Powell - to the not-so-famous
- a government charwoman, neighborhood children, construction workers. Some
photographs represent important events in American history, such as Marian Anderson
singing at the Lincoln Memorial, and others depict everyday events, such as a little boy
playing a game of marbles with his friends. The exhibition includes posed portraits,
people in everyday situations, and people in extraordinary situations.
The subjects and photographers were famous throughout the nation as well as within
the African American community. Gordon Parks worked for the Farm Security
Administration and later became a photographer for Life magazine, as well as a writer
and filmmaker (e.g., he made the popular 1970's movie Shaft). Robert McNeill's
See Appendix B for a brief discussion of the methodology.
This number includes both repeat and first-time visitors, as it was possible for first-time visitors to have
seen another exhibition the day we interviewed them.
-2-
photographs appeared regularly in African American publications before he went to
work for the Works Progress Administration Writers' Project. The Scurlocks worked
out of their own studio in Washington, D.C., documenting much of the city's African
American life. As the Scurlocks documented Washington, D.C., Morgan and Marvin
Smith documented Harlem life from their own studio in Harlem. A brief biographical
sketch of each photographer is in Appendix A.
The Visit
A visitor's experience of an exhibition can be affected by the reason for attendance and
prior knowledge of the subject.5 One in six visitors (16%) knew about the Visual Journal
exhibition before they came to the Arts & Industries building. If we add those who
learned of the exhibition from the banner hanging over the north entrance (18%),a total
of one third (34%)knew of the exhibition when they entered the building.
Once in the building, visitors came to the exhibition for different reasons. African
American visitors were most likely to have entered the exhibition because of an interest
in African American history (55%). Caucasian visitors were much more likely to have
either wandered in or to have entered because they noticed the large photo mural at the
front of the exhibition (37%total). See Figure 1.
Figure 1
"What drew you to the exhibition?"
African Americans and Caucasians"
(In Percent)
100
80
60
55
40
20
0
African American
African Amer.
Hist. g, CUl.
Photography
Caucasian
Noticed Mural
Other
*Figureexcludes other minorities due to small sample size.
When specifically asked, nearly one-third (32%)of visitors said they were familiar with
the photographers featured in Visual Journal prior to entering the exhibition. African
Americans and Caucasians were about equally likely to be familiar with the
photographers.
Doering, Z . D., Pekarik, A., Kindlon, A. E., Mechanical Brides: Wumen and Machines frum Home to Office/March
1995, Report 95-3.
11. Results
Conceutualizing;the Exhibition.
In order to understand how visitors perceived the exhibition, we asked a series of openended questions concerning the theme of the exhibition, similarities or differences
among the photographers in the exhibition, and whether or not visitors felt a connection
with the exhibition.
Theme. We often are able to get a sense of how visitors conceptualize an exhibition by
asking them to identify its message. Unlike many other exhibitions the Institutional
Studies Office (ISO) has studied, the Visual Journal exhibition did not have a single,
overriding message.6 However, that does not mean that there was a lack of consistency
within the exhibition or that it is impossible to ask visitors to look at the exhibition as a
whole. A message implies that there is a certain point of view that the curator is trying
to convey to the visitor, whereas a theme is a current that runs through all the items in
an exhibition. We believed that the best way to ascertain a visitor's understanding of
Visual Journal as a whole was to ask directly 'What themes, if any, did you notice in the
photos?'' Nearly nine out of ten visitors (88%)were able to identify a theme. African
Americans and Caucasians gave similar responses to this question.7
Fourteen percent of all visitors discussed how the photographers captured the diversity
and reality of the African American existence during the 30s and 40s. They noted the
range of subjects, from very successful and famous individuals to images of everyday
people just going to church. These respondents mentioned the richness of African
American life during that time and how the photographers focused on humanity.
Realism, a sense of the life of people. [The photographers]captured the black experience
and humanity. There was a focus on people, major figures and everyday life.
Caucasian Male, Age 55, from Massachusetts
Each photo had a different aspect. Some (were) idealized, others mainly focused on
poverty and reality of times instead of unrealistic images.
Caucasian Female, Age 63, from Arizona
See, for example, Doering, Z . D., Pekarik, A., Kindlon, A. E., Mechanical Brides: Women and Machines from
Home to Ofice, March 1995, Report 95-3. Pekarik, A., Doering, Z . D., Bickford, A., An Assessment of the
Science in American Life Exhibition at the National Museum of American History, November 1995, Report 95-5.
Doering, Z . D., Kindlon, A. E., Bickford, A, m e Power of Maps: A Study ofan exhibition at Coopw-Hewitt,
National Museum of Design, September 1993, Report 93-5.
In other words, there were no statistical differencesbetween the two groups with respect to this response.
In this report significant differences have been measured using the Chi-square test, p.1.05.
-4-
Various [themes]. The good times, the rough times. How people overcame obstacles to
become the prominent people they are.
African American Female, Age 41, from Illinois
Approximately one-fifth (22%) mentioned only one specific aspect of the African
American experience, such as famous people, successful professionals, family life,
hardships, or celebration. In addition to focusing on only one dimension in the
exhibition, for the most part these visitors appeared to define the African American
experience depicted in the photographs as a dichotomy, emphasizing either those who
were well off or those living in poverty.
During the 30s and 40s I thought blacks were living in poorer circumstances. This
exhibition concentrated on upper classes instead of the downtrodden.
Caucasian Male, Age 61, from California
Amount of successful blacks in their fields, theater and education.
Caucasian Female, Age 72, from California
Black history and achievement of actors, teachers, and writers.
Hispanic Male, Age 38, From Richmond, VA
Plight of the blacks in the past in an urban environment.
Asian Male, Age 33, From California
A third theme was social problems (given by 15% of the total population), such as,
racism, segregation, or discrimination.
In this country there's been a long uphill battle for blacks to be recognized. Particularly
the doctor who separated blood -- no scientific distinction between the races.
Caucasian Male, Age 42, from California
About one quarter (28%) gave only general themes, responses that could be gained from
the title alone. These included "the 30s and 40s in black history" and "Harlem and DC in
the 30s and 40s." The remaining eight percent gave themes which were classified as
"0ther. "
Art Exhibition or Historv Exhibition? In order to understand whether visitors viewed
the exhibition more as a show on the art of photography or on American history, we
asked, "What kinds of differencesor similarities did you notice among the
photographers?" Those who said the similarities or differences were based on style
(22%) could be interpreted as viewing the exhibition primarily as a photography show,
while those who said the similarities or differences were based on content (46%) were
probably more interested in what the images represented. The remaining one-third
(32%) gave no answer. Once again African Americans and Caucasians did not differ in
their responses.
-5-
Comments on the style of the photographs concentrated on photographic techniques or
the difference between photojournalism and portraiture. Examples included
"differences between studio photographers and 'in the street' photographers", "able to
use lighting to perfection", "some just portraits, some told a story like the charwoman"
and "artists perspective, views same subjects with differing composition of photos."
Visitors who made statements about the content of the exhibition commented on
differences and similarities of the subject matter, Examples include "some geared
towards celebrities, others geared towards everyday people", "Some were very natural,
everyday life in Washington, DC, others were famous boxers, baseball players and
politicians. It was a good mix of photos", "some melancholy others happy...", and "they
all had a sense of sadness."
Individuals who were familiar with the photographers were much more attuned to
similarities and differences in photographic styles. Respondents who were familiar
with the photographers were equally likely to view the content of the photographs as
they were the style (41% each). However, those unfamiliar with the photographers
were far more likely to look at the content (47%)than the style (12%).
Previous Knowledge. We defined visitors who either knew of the exhibition or the
photographers before they entered the building as having knowledge of the exhibition.
Previous knowledge of an exhibition or the subject area itself may influence a visitor's
reaction to that exhibition. Overall, over one third (38%)of the visitors had prior
knowledge of the exhibition. Of those with previous knowledge, three quarters (72%)
of them were repeat Smithsonian visitors.
Knowledge or lack of knowledge had no effect on what drew visitors to the exhibition,
what kind of theme they identified, how they connected to the exhibition, what
photographer they found most memorable, or why they found a particular image
memorable.
Prior knowledge had an effect only on whether or not an individual described the
differences between photographers on the basis of style. Among those with prior
knowledge one-third (36%)viewed the exhibition for its style (i.e., they saw it as a
photography show) and among those without prior knowledge only 14 percent viewed
the exhibition for its style. However, the proportion of visitors with prior knowledge
and those without prior knowledge who viewed the exhibition for its content was equal
(44% each).
-6-
Exhibition Experiences
Connection. The Visual Journal study attempts to assess how visitors connected to the
exhibition and whether or not they were able to select one item out of many similar
items as playing a significant role in their museum experience.
When asked whether or not they made a connection, almost three quarters (72%) of
visitors said that they did. Visitors' comments were coded into five categories of
answers:
1)Personal: Time related - evokes memories, shows something one only
heard of before, or had seen these photos
previously
Identity related - share gender, social background, ethnicity, or race
Interest related - like photography, people depicted, sports
or sports figures, or time period professional photographer.
2) Emotional: pride, sympathy, guilt
3) Cognitive: social issues, history
4) Aesthetic: beautiful, interesting
5) Don't know/didn't make a connection
Nearly half (47%) of all visitors reported that they responded in a personal way. The
three sub-categories of personal connection can all be related directly to the exhibition
title, or to a synopsis that could be found in a newspaper: time related - thirties and
forties; identity related - Harlem (historically an African American community); and
interest related - photography. Any publicity for the exhibition will most likely draw
people with existing personal connections to these three areas, and so it is not surprising
that visitors with prior knowledge of the exhibition reported these personal connections
more than visitors who learned of the exhibition merely by wandering by.
One in eight visitors gave cognitive answers, one in fourteen gave aesthetic responses,
and one in twenty made an emotional-connection to the exhibition.
African Americans were far more likely to connect to the exhibition on a personal level
than were Caucasians. Most of this difference was in the category of identity-related
responses. Of all African Americans, two thirds connected to the exhibition on a
personal level and 13 percent did not connect at all. On the other hand, among
Caucasians, one third felt a personal connection to the exhibition, and nearly the same
percentage felt no connection. (See Figure 2.)
As an African American woman, and as a woman born in the 40s in the South, some of
the photos were similar to the photos taken of me and my siblings.
African American Female, Age 50, from Georgia
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Figure 2
Tvpe of Connection, African Americans and Caucasians"
(In Percent)
looT
80
68
60
40
20
0
African American
Personal
0 Emotional
Caucasian
Cognitive
0 Aesthetic
Didn't
connect
*Figure excludes other minorities due to small sample size.
Looking separately at African Americans and Caucasians who connected to Visual
Journal in a personal way, we discovered that equal proportions felt that the exhibition
evoked memories for them. However, the two groups differed substantially in
connections related to identity and interests.
African Americans were twice as likely as Caucasians to cite identity as a basis for their
connection to the exhibition. Two examples of personal identity connections are given
here. Both of the respondents, one African American, the other Caucasian, drew a
parallel between the photographs and their own lives. The African American
commented on the struggle of equality that concerned all African Americans and the
Caucasian looked at the photos of the children and thought of his own children.
As an African American, it gave me the past of other African Americans in the 20th
century. You don't see that often. The struggle that my parents and (my)parents'
parents led. People actually lived like that not too long ago. History is often ignored, but
the photos are capturing that.
African American Male, Age 29, from MD/VA Suburbs
The pictures of the children make me think of my own kids and about family life in
general.
Caucasian Male, Age 34, from Illinois
Caucasians were twice as likely as African Americans to say that they connected to the
exhibition because of a personal interest. These answers revolved around the time
period or the photographs of famous celebrities. Below are the responses of two visitors
who connected to Visual Journal because they had grown up during the period the
photographs were taken and were able to remember childhood situations that were
similar to those presented in the photographs.
-8-
Some of the things I can visualize from my growing up days in the 40s. I related to the
period, not to the pictures.
Caucasian Male, Age 58, from South Carolina
Wegrew up in the South with a lot of segregation. That gave me an interesting
perspective to look at them from. I enjoyed the music industry shots (also).
Caucasian Male, Age 43, from Hawaii
African Americans and Caucasians were equally likely to have an emotional response.
In the following answers, for example, both visitors expressed pride, but in different
ways. The first person expressed her pride in the closeness of African Americans at that
time, the other in those who were successful.
Looking at those pictures, the bad times didn 't seem so bad. Those were hard times these
people experienced, but there is so much to be proud of. The pictures brought back so
many good memories. We seemed close as a people then. I remember the good times.
African American Female, Age 56, from
California
It made me real proud of the people who accomplished a lot and made me mad at the
people who kept them back.
Caucasian Female, Age 38, from MD/VA Suburbs
Although the numbers are quite small (less than 10 percent), Caucasians were twice as
likely as African Americans to cite an aesthetic connection to the exhibition.
The children pictured were very special and genuine. They are pure, their essence is
visible. It transcends race.
Caucasian Female, Age 30, from Missouri
1was just interested in the visual richness of African American culture. I was very
moved by it.
Caucasian Male, Age 39, from Minnesota
Nearly two-thirds of the visitors who were drawn to the exhibition by an interest in
photography reported making a personal connection to the exhibition. Among visitors
who were drawn to the exhibition by an interest in African American history and
culture, two fifths made a personal connection. Over half of the visitors who were
drawn in by the entrance photo mural or who wandered in had no connection to the
exhibition.
What visitors left the exhibition with. Near the end of the interview, we asked, "Asyou
leave this exhibition is there any one photo that stands out in your memory?" We asked
visitors to take us back to the photograph and tell us why it stood out in their memory.
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Three quarters of all visitors (72%)left the exhibition with a specific photograph or
image in their mind. Their discussions of the photographs were tape recorded,
transcribed and analyzed.
Among those who told us earlier that they had made a connection to the exhibition,
over four-fifths left the exhibition with a specific photograph or memory in mind.
Among those who did not, only half left the exhibition with a specific photograph or
memory in mind. This suggests that feeling a connection is closely linked with
remembering at least one image in the exhibition.
Visitors are more likely to spend time looking at photographs of subjects that already
interest them or are familiar to them. For example, a visitor may spend more time
looking at a photograph of Jackie Robinson than a photograph of the Dentists' Baseball
Team because they already know who Robinson is. Previous knowledge and interest is
extremely important in creating memories. The act of forming a memory is not directed
by the photograph, but rather by the individual.8
When explaining why a particular photograph was memorable, twenty five percent
gave personal reasons (photographs evoked memories, they identified either by race or
gender, or the photographs held a special interest for them), nineteen percent gave an
imaginative or empathetic response (it was memorable because of the expressions on
the people's faces, what was happening in the photo, or the location of the action in the
photo), eighteen percent gave cognitive responses (social issues or history), nine percent
gave aesthetic responses, and two percent gave an emotional response. (See Figure 3.)
Figure 3
Reasons whv the Photograph was Memorable
(In Percent)
50
40
30
28
25
20
10
0
Personal
Imaginative
or
Empathetic
Cognitive
Aesthetic
Emotional
No
Connection
Alt, Michael & Griggs, Stephen(1984).Psychology and the Museum Visitor.In J. Thompson (ed.)Manual of
Curatorship: A guide to museum practices., p 390.
-10-
One third of all respondents (31%)identified photos by Gordon Parks as most
memorable. Twenty one percent identified photos by Morgan and Marvin Smith,
eighteen percent identified photos by Robert McNeill, and eight percent identified
photos by the Scurlocks. The remaining visitors found nothing memorable or else did
not mention a specific photograph.
There was a significant difference between men and women in the photographer whose
work visitors found most memorable. More women (41%) cited the works of Parks,
while more men mentioned McNeill(27%)or didn't know (24%).
Below is an individual's answer to the question of what will stand out in his memory.
His response was categorized as personal. He could remember himself with his family
in nearly the same situation.
Not really one particular photo. There are a great many of them. One of them is the Joe
Louis fight. It reminds me of things that I used to do when I was growing up. I used to
visit my grandparents. They only had a radio when I was growing up so we would gather
around the radio and listen to stories. My family and I still do that when we can find a
good radio station. It's tough to find. Those days are over.
PhotoPrraph Robert McNeill 'Championship Fight Reaction Joe Louis vs. James
Braddock"
Here is his response to the question of how he connected to the exhibition. This
response, too, was categorized as personal. He could envision a similar exhibition for
Hispanics.
(I) did connect, because the exhibition tells a story of blacks in our country, which is not
often told. As a Hispanic person, I hope we could do something like this with Hispanic
photographers because our story needs to be told.
Hispanic Male, Age 39, from New Mexico
The following three people, all women, commented differently on the same series of
photographs. The series, depicting Mrs. Ella Watson, a government charwoman, was
the one most frequently mentioned as being memorable for visitors. The photograph
"American Gothic" may have been the most famous photograph in the whole exhibition.
This first response was categorized as cognitive.
The American Gothic, which I think I had probably seen at some point, but had not
remembered. What strikes me is the traditional depiction of a domestic worker or
charwoman holding a broom and a mop, which is a category to which she would have
been relegated that time, standing in front of the American flag which should imply
equality which in this case does not. She doesn 't look angry or bitter, she looks resigned
to her position but yet she carries a very dignified appearance as though she is not
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ashamed of what she does, but on the other hand, the mop and the broom certainly
relegate her to a rather low socio-economic class. I think the photograph speaks very
clearly just what her position was in the 1940s.
Photograph: Gordon Parks "American Gothic (Mrs. Ella Watson)"
Here is her response stating how she had connected to the exhibition. It was
categorized as personal in that it evoked memories for the woman.
Having lived through those times, it is interesting to see the diferences - interesting to
recall, including people and placesfrom that era.
Caucasian Female, Age 63, from Arizona
Here is another response for the same series of photographs. This woman gave a
personal, time-related reason for her memory of the photograph.
The woman with the little kids. It's the charwoman and I guess that whole area stuck out
in my mind. I could really relate to that because the charwoman earned $1,000 and my
mother earned the same amount and she was also a single mother.
Photograph: Gordon Parks "Mrs. Ella Watson: A Government Charwoman for
26 years with three of the five children she supports on her salary of $1,080.00"
Her response when asked how she connected to the exhibition was cognitive.
Ifound it interesting to see what life was like at that time. Charwoman,poor conditions,
similar to how I grew up. You can improve if you work at it.
Caucasian Female, Age 55, from North Dakota
This third visitor gave a personal, identity-related reason for finding this photo series
memorable.
Federal worker with the broom and the mop, I guess because I was a federal worker for 32
years. The federal government was good to me, I progressed quite well, from a 2 to a 13.
It was progressive for me, as a black, and I was there doing opportunity (EEOC). And
just seeing her, she had these 5 kids that she supported on $1,080.00 a year. I think 1kind
of picked that figure out. Five children all in the house, she was working. I just felt a lot
of strength coming from her. That was good. That was my favorite.
Photograph: Gordon Parks "Charwoman series"
Here is her emotional response when asked how she connected to the exhibition.
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Looking at those pictures, the bad times didn 't seem so bad. Those were hard times these
people experienced, but there is so much to be proud of. The pictures brought back so
many good memories. We seemed close as a people then. I remember the good times.
African American Female, Age 56, from
California
Looking at the three answers given as reasons for forming memories, we can see the
range of interpretations. The first woman spoke more about the social issues of the
time, the irony of Mrs. Watson posing with her broom and mop in front of the
American flag. It is an image we might associate more with a United States Army
General than a government cleaning woman. The second response was from a woman
who compared her mother to Mrs. Watson. She projected her own situation onto Mrs.
Watson's. There was no mention in the exhibition of Mrs. Watson being a single
mother, yet the visitor said Mrs. Watson was just like her mother because they were
both single mothers. The third woman compared her own career with the federal
government to that of Mrs. Watson. Identifying with Mrs. Watson, she saw her as a
symbol of strength.
Caucasians were ten times as likely as African Americans to give a cognitive response
when asked why they found a photograph memorable. In the example below, the
woman talks about an event that occurred at the time, but concentrates on the unusual
nature of the shot the photographer took, rather than its content.
The lynching, the mothers marching on the Capitol after the Georgia lynching in the 40s.
I haven't seen a picture like that before, a reaction instead of showing of the action. (The
photograph shows) how other people in different places reacted.
Photograph Robert H. McNeill "National Association of Colored Women
members outside the White House to protest a lynching in Georgia, 1946"
Caucasian Female, Age 34, from Texas
Caucasians and African Americans were about equally likely to give an imaginative or
empathetic response. The woman below imagines what the future holds for the young
boys in the photograph by interpreting the looks on their faces.
Two boys looking at the new development that they might be able to move into. It
presented hope about the future. They are looking towards the future that 's how it
appealed to me. It was after seeing stuff like this. The whole picture shows a sort of
background.
Photoarauh Gordon Parks "Frederick Douglass Housing Project: Boys
overlooking the project, Anacostia, D.C., July 1942"
Caucasian Female, Age 72, from California
African Americans and Caucasians were also about equally likely to give an aesthetic
response.
-13-
I love the one with the dancers. The frozen motion of that very difficult move, actually
catching that instant is great.
Photog;raph:
- Morgan and Marvin Smith "Lindy Hoppers Frankie Manning &
Ann Johnson, 1938"
Caucasian female, Age 45, from MD/VA Suburbs
Overall, Caucasians were significantly less likely to be able to cite a memorable
photograph than African Americans. Over four fifths of African Americans were able
to select a photograph and articulate why it was memorable, compared to just over two
thirds of Caucasians. Nearly half of all African Americans gave a personal response
compared to one out of six Caucasians. (See Figure 4.)
Figure 4
Memories, by Race/Ethnicitv*
(In Percent)
49
-_
50
31
40
30
20
10
0
African American
][mag. or
Empathetic
Caucasian
E3 Cognitive
Aesthetic
Emotional
*Figureexdudes other minorities due to small sample size.
Visitors whose memories of the exhibition were more imaginative or empathetic
overwhelmingly chose a photograph by Gordon Parks (67%). In fact, the most
frequently mentioned photographs throughout the entire exhibition, and especially
within this category, were from Parks' series on the government charwoman. Of the
respondents who said they connected on a cognitive level, one third identified a Parks
photograph as most memorable and another third mentioned a photograph by Morgan
and Marvin Smith. Visitors who responded personally were most likely to do so
because of their reaction to a photograph taken by Morgan and Marvin Smith (37%),
Robert McNeill(31%),or Gordon Parks (21%).
-14-
111. Conclusions and Interpretation
The results of this study suggest that visitors were drawn to the photographs in this
exhibition primarily because of their subject matter. They saw them as compelling
human images that evoked their own past, brought to mind social and historical issues,
and aroused their imagination. Only those who were previously familiar with the
photographers and had, presumably, come to see their work primarily in artistic terms
were especially likely to view the exhibition as an exhibition of the art of photography.
From this study alone it is impossible to say whether the personal connections that
dominated visitor responses to the exhibition were due to the specific contents of the
exhibition or simply reflect the ways that people tend to respond to photography. We
are currently analyzing some other datasets that we think might suggest an answer to
this question.
The subject matter of the exhibition photographs would lead us to expect that African
Americans would be strongly attracted to the show and the data shows that they
attended at relatively high rates.
Responses of African American visitors to the exhibition and its photographs also
differed from the reactions of Caucasian visitors in clearly predictable ways. First, and
most obviously, African American visitors were more likely to report an identity-related
personal relationship both to the exhibition and to a memorable photograph.
Second, African American visitors as a whole were more involved in the exhibition.
They were more likely than Caucasians to be able to state how they related to the
exhibition and they were more likely to be able to cite a memorable photograph. This
reflects, in part, the nature of the subject matter. It is probably also due to the fact that
more Caucasian visitors wandered in without a clear interest in the exhibition. In fact,
one in five Caucasian visitors both did not report a connection to the exhibition and did
not find any individual image memorable. We can assume that the exhibition had no
impact on these visitors.9 In, contrast all African American visitors either cited a
connection to the exhibition or could name a memorable photograph.
These differences between African American and Caucasian visitors are less striking,
however, than the similarities between them. As pointed out earlier, aside from
ethnicity, the backgrounds of the African American and Caucasian visitors were
identical in all respects but one: African American visitors were more likely to live in
the local area. Moreover, African American and Caucasian visitors saw the same
themes in the exhibition and took the same basic approach to the photographs when
they identified similarities and differences between the photographers.
Both groups also constructed a primarily personal relationship with the exhibition as a
whole. For the two-thirds of Caucasian visitors who related to the exhibition, the
connection they identified was predominantly a personal one. Only when we come to
Exactly half of these unaffected Caucasianvisitors said that they had wandered into the exhibition.
-15-
the question of why individuals found particular images memorable do we see a strong
pattern of difference: African Americans were more likely to cite identity-related
reasons, while Caucasians cited personal, imaginative, and cognitive reasons in
relatively equal proportions. We could interpret this as suggesting that when an
obvious, identity-based correspondence exists between the image and the visitor, this
correspondence is the preferred source for the visitor's response. When this
correspondence does not exist, the visitor may select randomly from a set of three
relational strategies: personal linkage, imaginative engagement, or cognitive response.
In either case, the involved visitor constructed a meaning that was grounded in the
image but that had relevance and echoes in his or her own life. Eight out of ten visitors
came away from VisualJournal with a specific image in mind and could articulate their
reasons for finding that image memorable. These visitors were obviously affected by
the exhibition. The thoughts and feelings that they had in the presence of these
photographs are now also part of their life experience.
-16-
Appendix A
The Photographers
The following photographer's biographical summaries are excerpts from the publication
accompanying the exhibition Visual Journal:Harlem and DC in the Thirties and Forties.
Washington, DC; Smithsonian Institution Press. Copyright 1996.1
Robert McNeill (b.1917)
McNeill attended Howard University where, one day in 1937, he photographed
Olympic superstar Jesse Owens' visit to the campus. The photograph was published in
the four Washington daily papers as well as the two weekly black papers--the
Washington Tribune and Afro-American. He also ran his own studio in Washington, D.C.
As a result, a significant amount of his collection includes portraiture of African
Americans in many different settings: choir rehearsals, vocational school graduations,
birthday parties, weddings, and funerals. His photographs document the richness and
variety of African American life in the 1930s and 1940s. McNeill's photographs provide
a window into a healthy, vibrant African American community--a world that is not
often seen or experienced in history books, lecture halls, and nightly newscasts.
Gordon Parks (b.1912)
Gordon Parks left his hometown in Kansas at the age of 16, making his way to
Minneapolis and later Chicago. From 1935 to 1943, FSA (one the New Deal programs)
photographers travelled the country documenting rural and urban America. Parks
joined the unit in 1942. He worked for Roy Stryker, who ran the unit, and received
extensive training as a photojournalist. It is the facial expressions in Parks's
photographs that tell the story--of hard work and hardship, of the drudgery and
struggle of people's daily lives -- whether the subject is an old peanut vendor or, a
construction worker. During World War 11, Parks worked for the Office of War
Information as a correspondent, documenting life in wartime Washington. In 1949,
Parks became a staff photographer for Life magazine and covered stories of interest to
black and white America. He was the first African American to be recognized as a
major photojournalist. He is particularly noted for his direct, realistic style in
photographing American life.
The abstracts were providedby Deborah Willis and Mark Wright, Center for Afircan American
History and Culture.
-17-
The Scurlock Studio
ADDISON (b. 1883 - d . 1964), ROBERT (b. 1927 - d . 1994) and GEORGE SCURLOCK (b,
1919)
For Robert and George Scurlock, photography was a fa y tradition. Their father
Addison was the founder of Washington, D.C.'s Scurlock Studios (est. 1911), which
documented much of the city's black life for over half a century. The studio also
documented local black leaders and prominent visitors to the city, as well as community
life: activities at Howard University, conventions and banquets, sororities and social
clubs, dances, weddings and cotillions, and local businesses. Both sons joined Scurlock
Studios after graduating from Howard University. They began to implement the
techniques they'd learned from their father and also to take the studio in new directions.
The 1930s and 1940s witnessed a thriving black press and newspapers were looking for
photographers who could provide them with on-the-spot images of historic events. The
Scurlocks helped to fill this void. Addison, Robert and George Scurlock can be credited
with preserving pictorial memories of some of the significant events and the political
and civic leaders in Washington's history.
-
Morgan (b.1910 d. 1993) and Marvin Smith (b.1910)
Morgan and his twin brother Marvin Smith were two of Harlem's leading
photojournalists from 1934 through the early 1950s. They also operated one of Harlem's
most popular commercial portrait studios, M. Smith Studio, located next to the Apollo
Theater on 125th Street. Their studio was frequented by performing artists, writers, and
historians. Their cameras captured political rallies and street demonstrations as well as
the bread lines and street corner orators of the Depression.
The Smiths arrived in New York from Kentucky at the height of the Depression in 1933;
they were 21 years old. In Harlem, the Smiths found a sophisticated black bourgeoisie.
This class was the source and the audience for the "popular"or mass culture identified
in newspapers through articles and advertising, and it was this group that found
representation in the black press. The poor, the socially devastated, and to some extent
the working class were not pictured, although newspapers relied upon those groups for
economic support. In Harlem, the Smiths found a sophisticated black bourgeoisie. This
class was the source and the audience for the "popular'' or mass culture identified in
newspapers through articles and advertising, and it was this group that found
representation in the black press. The poor, the socially devastated, and to some extent
the working class were not pictured, although newspapers relied upon those groups for
economic support.
-18-
Auuendix B
Characteristics of Visitors to the Arts & Industries Building: Three Studies
In this appendix we compare the demographic profile of visitors to the Arts and
Industries (A & I) Building at different times. We include three studies: the Visual
Journal study (conducted from May 11to May 24,1996); a brief study earlier in 1996
(January20 to February 1);and a study that took place in 1990 (February 6 to March 16).
Variations among the profiles reflect both significant seasonal effects (common to all
Smithsonian museums) as well as differences in what was on view in the A & I
Building. Nevertheless, the comparison may prove instructive in at least suggesting
some special characteristics of visitors to exhibitions presented by the Center.
Several factors clearly influenced the composition of the audience in January 1996.
First, the study began one week after the Smithsonian had been intermittently closed for
a month due to a government-wide shutdown followed by a massive snow storm.
Second, the study coincided with the opening of an exhibition, Discover Orchids: Size,
Shape, Color, Habitat, Fragrance. Sixty five percent of the audience during that study
came to the A & I Building to see the Orchid exhibition.
The 1990 study was conducted prior to the opening of the now closed Experimental
Gallery in order to establish a base profile of the building's audience.
Gender and Age. The proportions of men and women were essentially the same in all
three studies. Women visited Visual Journal in slightly greater numbers than men (52%
women and 48% men). In both the 1990 and early 1996 studies, gender was closer to
parity (51%male and 49% female in 1990 and 50% male and 50% female in early 1996).
Visitors to Visual Journal were an older audience than previously found in the A & I
Building. Only two percent of visitors were children under the age of 12 years,
compared to nine percent in 1990 and four percent in 1996. The large percentage of
young children in 1990, however, may have been due to families visiting the building
for the Discovery Theater. Sixteen percent of visitors to Visual Journal were between
ages 55 and 64 and seven percent were age 65 or older. In the 1990 study these age
groups contributed only eight percent and three percent, respectively, to the total visitor
population at A & I.
Residence. The majority of visitors interviewed in all three studies came from outside
the local area (Figure B.1). Visitors to Visual Journal who were from outside the greater
Washington area comprised over four fifths (82%)of all visitors. Eighteen percent were
local (4% resided within Washington, DC and 14% in the MD/VA suburbs). The
percentage of local visitors was smaller than for audiences in 1990 and early 1996. In
early 1996, the local audience (38%)was nearly double that of the local audience during
the Visual Journal exhibition (18%). We have learned through many of our other studies,
particularly the year long studies at NMAH, NMNH, NASM and the Freer/Sackler
-19-
Galleries, that the proportion of local visitors is highest during the winter months (34%
in winter compared to 19%in spring).
Figure B.l
Geographic Origins
Arts and Industries Building
(In Percent)
I
loo
80
I
60
82
71
l=---l
62
40
20
0
Feb - Mar 1990
Jan - Feb 1996
0 Non-Local
I
Visual Journal,
May 1996
I
I
Education. As with other Smithsonian museums, the A & I Building attracts a highly
educated audience (Figure B.2). Since 1990, it appears that educational levels have
actually increased. In 1990, half (51%) had at least a Bachelor's degree. In early 1996,
three quarters had at least a Bachelor's degree; during the Visual Journal study later in
the year, this number was seventy one percent. These numbers increase even more
when we look at audiences age 25 and older (who are considered to have completed
their formal education). During the Visual Journal exhibition, seventy-nine percent of
those 25 and older had received at least a Bachelor's degree; in early 1996 it was eight
percent and in 1990 sixty-six percent. A & I Building visitors have higher educational
attainment than visitors to the major Smithsonian museums. The combined results
from year-long studies at NMAH, NMNH, NASM and the Freer/Sackler Galleries,
show that two-thirds (66%)of visitors age 25 and older have completed at least a
Bachelor's degree.
-20-
Figure B.2
Educational Attainment - Age 25 and Older
Arts and Industries Building
(In Percent)
47
50
40
30
20
10
0
Feb - Mar 1990
HS Grad or
Jan- Feb 1996
c]SomeCollege
Visual Journal,
May 1996
El BA/Some
MA/PhD/Prof
Grad
I
I
Racial/Ethnic Identification. The majority of visitors to Visual Journal were Caucasian
(74%), but African Americans (16%)visited in numbers previously unseen at A & I
(Figure B.3). The remaining ten percent of Visual Journal visitors were members of other
racial/ethnic minority groups. In 1990 and early 1996, African Americans comprised
only five percent of visitors to the building. The profile of Smithsonian visitors, based
on year long studies at NMAH, "€3,NASM and the Freer/Sackler Galleries show
about five percent African American visitors and thirteen percent as members of other
racial/ethnic minority groups.
Figure B.3
Racial/Ethnic Identification-All Visitors
Arts and Industries Building
(In Percent)
100
80
60
40
20
0
Feb - Mar 1990
African
AmericadBlack
Jan- Feb 1996
Other"
Visual Journal,
May 1996
0 Caucasian
Social Composition. Adults visiting as part of a couple comprised thirty-six percent of
visitors to the Visual Journal exhibition. Visitors who came alone comprised twenty-nine
-21-
percent of the audience and visitors who were in a group that contained several adults
(3 or more) were thirteen percent of all visitors. Twelve percent came as part of a school
or tour group and the remaining ten percent came in groups that included children.
The two 1996 studies were very similar in terms of social composition, but the Visual
Journal study had more individuals who were members of organized groups but had
separated from the group to see the exhibition. The results from the 1990 study show
that one quarter (28%)of visitors were in groups that included children. As indicated
above, this undoubtedly reflects attendance at the Discovery Theater. The general
absence of children in the A & I Building differentiates it from the major Mall museums,
but makes it quite similar to the Freer/Sackler Galleries.
First Visit vs. Repeat Visit. More Visual Journal visitors were making a repeat visit to the
Smithsonian (59%)than making a first visit (41%). Over half (56%)of repeat visitors or
thirty-three percent overall, had previously been to the Arts and Industries Building. In
the 1990 A & I Building study, sixty two percent of visitors had been to the Smithsonian
before, of which, sixty eight percent were making a repeat visit to the A & I Building.
Conclusion
The Visual Journal exhibition attracted a somewhat different audience to the Arts and
Industries Building than other exhibitions. Visual Journal audiences were slightly older,
and although the Smithsonian always attracts a larger non-local audience, the Visual
Journal audience was somewhat more non-local than at other times.l Educational levels
were higher in 1996 than previously. Perhaps most significantly, the Visual Journal
audience was the most diverse of the three studies. This is most likely a direct result of
the content of the exhibition.
lThis may be more indicative of the time of year than the exhibition itself.
-22-
Table 1
Arts and Industries Building
1990
February 6
March 16
Gender
Male
Female
1996
May 11
May 24
51.4
50.2
48.0
48.6
49.8
52.0
100.0
100.0
100.0
9.4
8.4
10.6
22.8
24.4
12.8
8.4
99.9
3.8
2.2
4.3
20.4
25.1
23.6
14.3
6.4
100.1
1.5
6.2
7.9
22.0
23.7
16.1
15.7
7.1
100.0
6.9
22.2
64.5
6.4
100.0
10.0
28.3
52.5
9.1
99.9
3.9
14.3
68.8
17.9
32.7
16.6
2.1
3.O
35.9
41.1
11.1
0.2
0.3
4s
0 to 11
12 to 19
20 to 24
25 to 34
35 to 44
45 to 54
55 to 64
65 and older
Geomauhic 0riP;ins
Washington, DC
MD/VA Suburbs
Other US
Foreign
1996
January 20
February 1
3.1
Social Composition
Alone
Couple (Two Adults)
Several Adults
Group of Teens
School/Tour Groups
Adult($ w/ Childtren)
Education (All Ag;es)
Less than HS
HS Grad
Some College
BA/Some Grad
MA/ PhD/ Prof
-23-
13.0
100.0
27.6
11.5
99.9
100.1
29.4
36.0
13.1
1.9
10.2
9.5
100.0
15.3
13.0
20.5
28.3
5.5
5.6
13.0
39.6
5.2
8.4
15.7
42.7
22.9
36.2
28.0
100.0
99.9
100.0
Table 1 (cont.)
Arts and Industries Building
1990
February 6
March 16
Education (Age 25 and Older)
Less than HS
HS Grad
Some College
BA/Some Grad
MA/PhD/Prof
Racial/Ethnic Identification
African American/Black
Asian/Pacific Islander
Caucasian
Native American
Hispanic
Other
Visit to Smithsoniad
First Time
Repeat
1996
January 20
February 1
1996
May 11
May 24
1.o
12.5
20.8
35.0
1.9
5.3
12.7
40.2
0.5
5.6
15.7
46.7
30.8
39.9
31.6
100.1
100.0
100.0
5.0
6.4
83.9
0.0
4.7
0.0
100.0
5.0
7.1
80.1
1.3
4.8
1.7
100.0
16.1
5.1
73.7
0.0
4.6
0.5
100.0
38.0
41.5
62.0
58.5
First Visit to A&I
19.8
26.0
42.2
Repeat Visit to A&I
42.2
32.5
57.8
Total
100.0
100.0
100.0
* In January/February 1996 a question asking respondents if they were
making a first visit to the Smithsonian was not included in the questionnaire.
-24-
Table 2
Profile of Visitors to the Visual Journal exhibition
Is this vour first visit to the Smithsonian?
Yes
No
Total
Where did you first hear about this exhibition?
Banner Outside
Wandered by
Friend/Family
Newspaper
Teacher/School Related
Map/Info Desk/Cas tle
SI Magazine
Guidebook
Total
What drew to this exhibition?
Interest in African American history and culture
Interest in Photography
Noticed Mural
Wandered In
Interest in Period/Era/DC or Harlem
Curiousity
Familiar with Photographers
Friend wanted to go in
Nothing else in A & I
Total
41.5
58.5
100.0
18.1
66.1
2.4
0.8
2.2
7.2
1.0
2.3
100.0
25.6
23.1
16.0
15.5
7.9
7.5
1.4
2.0
1.1
100.0
Did vou see the video?
Yes
No
Total
100.0
Did vou look at the books or photo albums in the resource room?
Yes
No
Total
15.5
84.6
100.0
8.6
91.4
-25 -
Table 2 (cont.)
Profile of Visitors to the Visual Journal exhibition
Before todav, were anv of these photographers familiar to you?
Yes
No
Total
31.9
68.2
100.0
Have YOU ever visited the Arracostia museum?
Yes
No
Total
100.0
What themes, if anv, did YOU notice in the photos?
Diversity of African American Life
Specific Comment on one aspect of exhibition
General Comment
No Answer
Social Problems
Other
Total
14.2
22.4
28.3
12.2
14.9
8.1
100.0
What kinds of differences or similarities did YOU notice
amonp:the uhotomauhers?
Style
Content
Don't Know
Total
Visitors relate or connect in different ways to exhibitions.
Can YOU describe how YOU uersonallv related or
connected, if at all, to this exhibition?
Evokes Memories
Shows something only heard of before
Saw these photos before
Gender, social
Ethnicity/Race
Like photography/people/sports/timeperiod
Professional Photographer
Emotional
Cognitive
Aesthetic
Not Elsewhere Categorized
Didn't connent
Total
-26 -
3.9
96.1
21.5
46.1
32.4
100.0
11.5
6.7
2.0
1.8
11.8
11.0
1.7
5.1
12.1
7.2
1.4
27.8
100.0
Table 2 (cont.)
Profile of Visitors to the Visual Journal exhibition
As YOU leave this exhibition, is there anv one uhoto that
stands out in your memorv? Whv?
Evokes Memories
Shows something only heard of before
Saw these photos before
Gender, social
Like photography/people/sports/time period
Emotional
Cognitive
Aesthetic
Not Elsewhere Categorized
Empathetic
Don't know
Total
Name of Photosrrauher mentioned
Gordon Parks
Robert McNeill
Morgan and Marvin Smith
Scurlock Studio
No photograph mentioned
Total
11.1
2.3
0.5
3.7
7.5
1.8
17.8
8.7
0.8
19.0
26.9
100.0
31.2
18.4
21.2
8.3
21.0
100.0
-27 -
Appendix C
Studv Methodology: Visual Tournal
The Visual Journal Study is one of a series conducted by the Institutional Studies Office
(ISO) to profile visitors to Smithsonian museums, to increase our knowledge of the visit
experience and to provide information for future exhibition planning. Each study is
designed to meet the particular needs of the sponsor using the resources available for
the study. This appendix contains the rationale for the sample design, a discussion of
the questionnaires, and information about the study's implementation.1
Goals
The central goals of this study can best be phrased as questions:
1.What are the types of images that visitors are leaving the exhibition with?
2. What overall ideas are visitors coming away with?
3. How is an exhibition based on the history of one race/ethnic group viewed by
other race /ethnic groups?
Overall Design
Data for the study were collected in personal interviews with a systematic scientific
sample of visitors at the exhibition exit. Interviews were conducted every other day
during a two week period starting May 11,1996 and ending May 24,1996.
For this project we used a "continuous sampling" technique, a special procedure
developed for sampling a mobile population.2 This allowed us to maximize resources
by selecting individuals whenever interviewers were available and then adjusting the
sampling weights for every fifteen-minute period, according to the number of people
who passed the interviewing location during that period.
For this study, we used teams of two or three (one counter plus one or two
interviewers). There were three interviewing sessions within each day of the week
(11:OO - 12:30,1:30 - 3:00,3:30 - 5~00).
For additional background about the study, see the Introduction to this report.
The procedure and its rationale are described in Z . D. Doering, A. E. JSindlon and A. Bickford, The
Power @Maps: A Study of an Exhibition at the Cooper-Hewitt National Museum of Desip. Report 93-5.
(Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution, 1993).
-28-
Visitor cooperation with the study was high, the overall response rate was 87%.3 A
total of 214 interviews were completed. The intercepted individuals represent a
population of over 2,700 visitors to the exhibition during the survey periods. In
appreciation for their cooperation, respondents were given a booklet, Imagining Families
about a previous exhibition presented by the Center for African American History and
Culture.
Ouestionnaire Development
The primary objective of the study was to collect data with which to address the
exhibition's communication effectiveness and, if possible, to identify messages and
impressions resulting from a visit to the exhibition. A secondary objective was to relate
the visitors' experience to specific photographs and display strategies (e.g., the video or
albums in the Resource Room). Third, we needed a profile of visitors to the exhibition
to determine if the exhibition's audience differed from the overall visitorship to the Arts
and Industries Building, as determined by previous studies. The questionnaires for the
study, then, had to collect information with which to assess the extent to which the
exhibition successfully communicated its messages, to assess exhibition elements, to
address the audience profile issue and to allow for comparison with earlier studies.
The initial portion of the questionnaire collected general information about the visit.
Aside from asking for residence and prior visits to both the Smithsonian and the Arts
and Industries Building, we asked for visitors' sources of information, if any, and what
drew them to the exhibition. After establishing some rapport with the visitors, we
asked questions about various aspects of the exhibition. We used a series of open ended
questions inquiring about the theme of the exhibition (Q7), the differences or similarities
among the photographers (QS), and the type of connection, if any, between the visitor
and the photographs (Q9). (The questonnaire is in Appendix D.)
We also asked visitors if they had an opportunity to see either the video on Morgan and
Marvin Smith or read any of the books at the rear of the exhibition and whether or not
they had prior knowledge of the photographers. Visitors were asked which
Smithsonian museums they visited or were planning to visit during this trip to
Washington, DC. They were also asked if they had ever been to the Anacostia Museum
- a Smithsonian museum devoted to African American History and Culture.
After the standard IS0 demographic questions - who accompanied the respondent to
the exhibition, education, age, race/ethnic identification, and gender - visitors were
asked which photo stands out in their mind and why. The final question was whether
or not the respondent recalled seeing another African American exhibition at the
Smithsonian.
The questionnaire also included a section for recording administrative information that
is necessary for empirical analysis. This included the time, date and the reason, if
applicable, that an interview was not completed (e.g., Smithsonian employee).
See below for a discussion of these response rates and the response bias in the study.
-29-
Interviewers were trained to admiriister the survey with the aid of a manual developed
for the study.4
Questionnaire development included experimentation with the order of the exhibition
items. That is, we tried not only different items but also different orders.5 The order
used in the final questionnaire asks several subjective, open-ended questions about the
exhibition before objective forced choice items. In determining the final order of the
items in the questionnaire, we sought to maximize the internal consistency of responses,
while minimizing respondent fatigue and the respondents' feeling that they were being
tested.
Sample Design and Selection
Survey Schedule. Resource and schedule constraints restricted the data collection to
seven days during late May. Within each day, the schedule covered 4.5 hours instead of
the 7.5 hours in which the museum was open. The actual schedule takes into account
resource limitations as well as hypothesized variations in visitor types during different
days of the week and times of the day (See Table 3 for interviewing schedule). During
the seven days of the study, the schedule translates into approximately a 30% sample of
hours.
Table 3
Interviewing Schedule
Date
Dav
11-May
13-May
15-May
17-May
19-May
21-May
23-Mav
Saturday
Monday
Wednesday
Friday
Sunday
Tuesday
Thursday
11:OO- 12~30
1"
4
7
10
13
16
19
Time
1:30 - 3:OO
3:30-5:00
2
5
8
11
14
17
20
3
6
9
12
15
18
21
* The number corresponds to the session number.
General interviewing instructions were based on Institutional Studies, A MarZuaZfm Intm*ewers.
Prepared for the 1988National Air and Space Survey. Report 88-3. (Washington, D.C. : Smithsonian
Institution, 1988). The general instructions and question-by-question specificationsfor this study are
available from the Institutional Studies Office.
Approximately 30 preliminary questionnaires were administered by Institutional Studies staff as
part of questionnaire development.
-30-
Sample Selection.6 Within each time interval selected for the survey, a team of two or
three interviewers were assigned to the study. A team leader, or "counter," used a
mechanical counter and a stop watch to keep track of the number of persons exiting and
maintained a record of the number of people exiting within 15 minute intervals. The
counter also identified the visitors to be intercepted when an interviewer had completed
one interview and was ready to begin the next. This method of selecting a sample keeps
the interviewers fully occupied, compared to an equal interval selection method; the
counter is essentially incorporating a self-adjusting selection interval.
Everyone, except those in escorted groups, was counted and the information recorded
on a Sample Selection Form. In addition, when intercepts were made, the number on
the mechanical counter ("count number") was recorded on both the Sample Selection
Form and by the interviewer on the questionnaire.
Office Procedures. The questionnaires were reviewed in the office and prepared for
data entry. The main purpose of this review was to ensure that the data file included
the appropriate information for weighting the data. The weight for each questionnaire
was defined as: the number of visitors counted in a specific 15 minute interviewing
segment divided by the number of intercepts in the s e p e n t . For example, each of 4
questionnaires filled out in a given 15 minutes during which 40 visitors exited would be
assigned a weight of 10, irrespective of when it was conducted during the 15 minutes
(e.g., if the "count numbers" were 5/12/28and 40). In the analysis, these weights were
assigned to individual records, since respondents were not selected with equal
probability throughout the survey.
Completion Rates and Response Bias
As shown in Table 2, overall 13.4% of all persons intercepted refused to participate in
the survey. While a few refusals were due to language difficulties (30.3%),the majority
of refusals (69.7%)were for "other" reasons (e.g., visitors in a hurry, not wanting to
detain companions, etc.).
We compared separate demographic characteristics of visitors between those who
completed interviews and those who refused for any reason. The high response rate
and the results of logistic regression models suggest that there is no need to weight for
non-response. Because of the relatively small number of refusals due to language
differences, it was not possible to examine these types of refusals independently.7
The discussion is restricted to the mechanics of sample selection, rather than the rationale. See Z .
D. Doering, A. E. Kindlon and A. Bickford, The Power of Maps: A Study of an Exhibition at the Cooper-Hewitt
National Museum of Design. Report 93-5. Washington, D. C.: Smithsonian Institution, 1993).
Data on file, ISO.
-31-
Table 4
Results of Data Collection: Visual Tournal
(In Percent)
A. Composition
SI staff /contractors/Ineligibles
Visitors
Total
10
3.9
247 96.1
257 100.0
B. Disposition, All E1ip;ible Visitors
Interviews
Non-Interviews
Total
214 86.6
33 13.4
247 100.0
C. Reasons for Non-Participation,
Elidble Visitors
Refusal, Language difficulty
Refusal, Other
Total, Non-interviews
D. Response Rates
All eligible visitors*
10
30.3
23 69.7
33 100.0
86.6
* From B above.
-32-
Interviewer
m
C
o
v
n
f
j
I
I
I
/
Visuul Journal: An Exhibition Study
Hello, my name is
-.
I work for the Smithsonian and would like to talk to you about your visit to this exhibition.
*+1. Where do you live?
7. What themes, if any, did you notice in the photos?
0Washington,D.C.
0MDNAsuburbs
0Other U.S.
0Foreign
state/ct€y
+2. Is this your first visit t o the Smithsonian?
0yes
8. What kinds of differences o r similarities did you
notice among the photographers?
0 NO
GO TO Q5
+2a. How many times have you been to the Smithsonian
before today?
+3. Have you been to this building before today?
0 Yes
O N 0 GOTOQ5
m
+3a. When was the last time you were here?
0 w/in6mo.
02-4 Y~XUS
07-12 months
0 4-t years
9. Visitors relate o r connect in different ways to
exhibitions. Can you describe how you personally related
o r connected, if at all, to this exhibition?
0 1-2years
+4. Have you seen other exhibitions in this
snare hefnre?
OYW ON0
GOTOQ5
+4a. Do you recall the topic?
OYes
c-
ON0
m
+4b.What was it?
Now let's talk about the exhibition...
+loa. Did you see the video?
+5. Where did you first hear about this exhibition?
OYes
0Banner Outside 0FriendFamily
0 Wandered By 0Newspaper
ON0
+lob. Did you look at the books o r photo albums (in
the resource room)?
Other
OYes
O a O b O c O d O e O f
ON0
+1Oc. Before today, were any of these photographers
familiar to you?
6. What drew you to this exhibition?
Other
OYes
ON0
0 Interest in Afr. Am. history and culture
0Interest in Photography
0Noticed Mural
O a O b O c O d O e O f
-3357766
Now a few questions about you...
+*15. What is your culturallraciallethnic identity?
0 African Amer./Ellack
0 Asian/ Pac. Islander
0 Caucasian
0 HispanicfLatino
0 Nat. Amer./AK native
Other
0
+11. Which of these Smithsonian museums have you visited on
this trip to Washington? AND Which do you plan to visit
during this trip?
P
V
0
0
0Air and Space
0 AfricanArt
0
0
0 Anacostia
+* 16. Gender (MARK DO NOT ASK)
0
0
0
0
0Castle/VisitorsCenter
0FreerGallery
0Hirshhom
0hfl Gallery/Ripley
OMde
17. As you leave this exhibition, is there any one
photo that stands out in your memory? WHY?
[Tape response/Re-enter exhibition if necessary]
0
0 Natura3History
0
0Portrait Gallery
0PostalMuseum
0
0
0 RenwickGallery
Exhibtion
0
0 SaCklerGauery
0
OZOO
0 HolocaustMuseum
0
0
0NGA
0
iL3-
0
0DK
18. Can you recall another African American exhibition that
you have seen at the Smithsonian (that was particularly
interesting?
+lla. Have you avisited the Anacostia museum?
OYes
ON0
0 Yes
+*12. Who are you here with today?
0 Schooltrip
0 Group of teens
0 Tourgroup
0 Severaladults
0Adult w/child(ren)
0Child(ren)
0Adults w/child(ren)
0Alone GO TO Q13
0 One other adult
0 AuotherU.S./foreign
0No
STATUS:
Reason
+12a.. Are you all from the same area?
0A u l d
0 Mixed
+13. What is the highest level of education you have completed?
0 Pre&mdeschool
0 SomeHS
0 HS graduate
0Assoc./Jr./l’echnical
OFemale
0Somecollege
0Bachelor’s degree
0Some graduate study
0MA/Ph.D./ProfessionaI
If yes record below.
0 SI staff/contractor
0Ineligible
0Interview: 12+ years
0Interview: ChiId<l2 years
0Refusal: Language
0 Refusal: Other
FOR OFFICE USE:
+*14. What is your age?
m
Session
m
Weight
Shift
Segment
0 1
0 1
0 2
0 2
0 3
0 3
0 4
57766
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