Key Stage 3 Science
Teaching Animal,
Human and Plant
Behaviour
Notes, lesson plans and resources
for classroom use
Adrian Tebbutt, David Glenn and Mike Land
Norfolk County Council Children’s Services
Professional Development Centre
Woodside Road
Norwich
Norfolk NR7 9QL
Tel: 01603 433276
Email: [email protected]
January 2008
www.schools.norfolk.gov.uk
Section 1
Simple Animal
Behaviour
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Introduction
Suitable organisms
Ideas for experiments
Lesson plans
Additional resources
Introduction
The new programme of study for KS3 includes the following in the Range and Content section:
• Behaviour is influenced by internal and external factors and can be investigated and
measured.
• This includes human and animal behaviour (psychology and ethology).
(Ethology is defined as: The Study of animal behaviour. It is a combination of laboratory and field
science. The modern science of ethology is considered to have arisen as a discrete discipline with
the work in the 1920s of Nikolaas Tinbergen and Konrad Lorenz.)
This provides the ‘missing link’ to the sudden introduction of the nervous system and the reflex arc in
the core GCSE science.
These notes, suggestions and lesson plans provide more ideas than you will need - we think 7-9
lessons would be an absolute maximum for this topic - but they do provide opportunities for more
engaging practical work in all key stages. The lesson plans have an emphasis in skills, processes
and how science works.
Studying animal (and plant) behaviour is an ideal opportunity for practical work and use of live
subjects. The organisms mentioned in the materials are all easily available and present no significant
health and safety issues. In all cases refer to the appropriate CLEAPSS guidance. It is also an
opportunity to consider the care and treatment of live organisms together with any ethical issues.
Background
The behaviours likely to be encountered include:
Taxes
Taxes are directional responses to directional stimuli e,g, moving along a concentration gradient,
moving away from a source of light.
Kinesis
Kinetic responses involve changes in the amount of movement, and often turning, observed in the
organism.
Tropism
Directional response to a unilateral stimulus in plants.
Taxes, Kinesis and tropisms can all be described as negative - movement reduced as a result of, or
away from, a stimulus, or positive - movement increased as a result of, or towards, a stimulus.
Reflex
Pre-programmed pattern of behaviour that are rapid and often involve only part of an organism.
Reflexes can be protective e.g. blinking, or form part of complex actions e.g. knee-jerk as part of
walking.
Instincts
Pre-programmed patterns of behaviour that involve longer time scales and the whole organism.
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Suitable organisms
Woodlice
Woodlice belong to the biological class Crustacea. Most of the animals in this class
are aquatic, and although the terrestrial species can breath with the aid of primitive
"lungs," they lack the features found in most other land dwelling arthropods. They do
not have a waterproof waxy cuticle on their exoskeleton, like insects, and are therefore
more likely to suffer from desiccation compared with other arthropods, which have a
well-developed waxy layer. Woodlice excrete their nitrogenous waste as ammonia gas directly
through their exoskeleton, which means that their exoskeleton needs to be permeable to ammonia
and is therefore also permeable to water vapour. Most other animals excrete their nitrogenous waste
in the form of urea or uric acid, so woodlice do not have to expend energy on such processes. The
fact that woodlice prefer high humidity and cooler temperatures is a direct response of the
permeability of their exoskeleton to water and the loss of water from their bodies.
Many of the behavioural responses of woodlice are concerned with water conservation and the need
to avoid desiccation. They have a relatively high surface area to volume ratio and are therefore likely
to loose water by diffusion more quickly than many other species.
Woodlice show a kinesis type response to moisture. They show both an increased speed of
movement, or orthokinesis, and increased rate of turning, or klinokinesis, in dry conditions and
slower rates of movement and turning in moist conditions.
Woodlice also show a positive orthokinesis as the temperature increases or decreases from their
preferred range. Their rate of turning also seems to show a similar response. By moving more
rapidly, they are likely to spend less time in these unfavourable conditions and therefore will avoid
unnecessary desiccation. They are known to show a photokinesis as well. This would result in them
moving out of bright conditions and accumulating in darker regions. Brighter conditions tend to be
drier and warmer than dark conditions, so this behaviour will again result in decreased desiccation.
Finally, these animals have been shown to demonstrate positive thigmokinesis. This means they are
less active when more of their body surface is in contact with other objects, including other woodlice.
They will move around so that the maximum amount of their body is in contact with other objects.
This behaviour results in woodlice forming groups or clumps and also means they will tend to
congregate in cracks and crevices. In any case, they will have better protection from desiccation and
also predators.
Problems with terminology
When experimenting on simple organisms like woodlice we use terms such as ‘preferences’ and
‘choice chambers’. These terms imply that the woodlice make conscious choices as we do, falling
into the trap of anthropomorphism - imagining that animals must experience the world as we
humans do - e.g. thinking that woodlice ‘prefer’ damp, dark crevices - or, even worse that they
‘choose’ these places or ‘like’ them. They do not make choices or have preferences, it is just that
they are more or less active in the different conditions. These differences in the levels of activity, and
therefore rates of movement, are automatic responses and don’t involve any thought!
Alternation behaviour
Like many other animals, woodlice tend to alternate their turns; when forced to turn in one direction
they subsequently choose to turn in the opposite direction. Alternation is shown when a forced turn
is followed by a turn in the opposite direction at the next barrier. For example if a woodlouse
encounters a barrier which forces it to turn left, then if it next encounters another barrier where it has
a choice of turning either left or right, a right turn would indicate alternation has occurred.
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Alternation would result in the woodlice crossing an open (or hot, or low humidity) region, containing
a large number of obstacles, more rapidly than if alternation did not occur. If alternation always
occurred regardless of distance travelled between turns then it could result in the woodlouse
spending a longer time in the exposed conditions - this might occur when the exposed region had
few obstacles. Obviously there should be a maximum distance or time after which alternation
behaviour would no longer be an advantage.
Isaac Asimov and Woodlice
When he was a young child, Isaac's mother was startled by the strange expression on his face and
asked him what was wrong. He was unable to reply so she became alarmed by this apparent
affliction. Isaac, in an effort to calm his mother spat out a mouthful of woodlice.
When asked why he had done such a thing, he replied that he had thought that they would probably
tickle his tongue as they walked about inside his mouth. Apparently they did tickle - although his
mother did not appreciate this turn of scientific curiosity.
Ideas for Experiments
Apparatus for experimenting on woodlice
1. Choice chambers
A problem of terminology already! Several models
exist for these. The basic one uses a Petri dish.
For light/dark comparisons one half of both the
base and lid are painted black. Moist, dark
coloured paper in the base is a simple
improvement over the raw plastic
Another alternative is to cut a ‘doorway’ in the side of two Petri dishes, then glue them together. The
lids can be cut and glued, but it is easier to cover the dishes with a sheet of acetate or thin clear
plastic. You can get the idea from the two diagrams. Filter paper in the base can make an effective
wet/dry chamber.
It is important to ensure that there are no right angled corners (use circular strips of cardboard to line
the interior walls) as this will encourage the woodlice to congregate there due to their thigmokinetic
response.
Griffin sell some large choice chambers with segmented bases that are good but expensive.
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2. Mazes
These are used in the study of alternation. The length of the 'variable length' arm is varied from 2cm
up to the point where alternation no longer occurs.
It is easy to build a maze from
lego, improved if you can smooth
out the runway surface for
maggots. You can also use the
template below to make one out
of card. Vary the length by
moving barrier A. Force the turn
by placing a barrier at B or C.
Vary the length before the turn by
cutting X-Y and sliding the outer
section in or out.
slide
cut
slide
plan of the maze
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Alternation experiment method
First it needs to be established whether or not woodlice show a preference for turning in a particular
direction. With a barrier at position "A", allow a woodlouse to run along the channel to the T-junction
and turn whichever way it chooses, left or right. Record this direction. Repeat with new woodlice until
there is a reasonable, even number of results [between ten and twenty could be achieved in a few
minutes and would give statistical significance].
If woodlice have no preference then their choice of turn will be random and you would expect equal
numbers of left and right turns. (This can be tested using the chi square test). Unless you are
extremely unlucky most of your class will demonstrate that there is no preference.
Experiment - Put barriers at positions "A" and "B" and allow a woodlouse to run along the channel. It
will be forced to turn right. When it reaches the next junction it will have a free choice of left or right.
Record the direction it takes. It is useful to record the choice as "same" or "opposite" to the forced
turn. Repeat with a new woodlouse but this time force it to turn left by putting a barrier at position "C".
Obtain data for equal numbers of forced left and forced right turns [at least five of each for
significance].
Collect class results and analyse.
Evaluation - This exercise throws up plenty of practical problems for students to discuss.
For example:
• How can the effects of extraneous stimuli such as the direction of light, noise, draughts etc. be
minimised? (The orientation of the apparatus can be randomised from trial to trial. )
• What if a woodlouse leaves behind a chemical trail which influences the direction taken by the
next woodlouse? (Short of using a fresh channel for each trial, the run can be swept using a fine
paintbrush to spread out any chemical traces and spoil the signal.)
• What sort of woodlouse should be used? (Ideally only one species should be used in one
investigation.)
More experiments
A) For how long does the memory of a forced turn last?
It is relatively easy to vary the time between a forced turn and a choice either by restraining a
woodlouse after a forced turn with a paintbrush gently held on its back or by altering the length of
channel between the forced turn and choice turn (the length can be altered by sliding the end
sections in or out).
B) How does a woodlouse detect the direction of a forced turn?
Hypotheses:
1. internal inertial receptors are stimulated by rotation.
2. the action of the legs on each side are compared; those on the outside of the turn will
have walked further/ stepped more quickly than those on the inside.
This apparatus can be used to test the effect of a passive turn simply by turning it through 90° while
the animal is running along a channel towards a "T" and noting the choice at the junction. Stimulating
the legs on one side more that the other is more difficult.
3. Measuring kinesis
This can be done simply by putting squared paper under a Petri dish and then counting the squares
entered in a given time period. Squares copied onto acetate can be used above a chamber if e.g.
comparing damp/dry.
For investigating the effect of temperature put a piece of filter paper in the bottom of a 250ml beaker
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and mark it with a line across the centre. Hold the base of the beaker in a waterbath, at the chosen
temperature, introduce the woodlouse and count how many times the line is crossed in a given time.
The same idea can be used to count the number of turns, but there are problems with this –
principally what is a ‘turn’?
How should woodlice be handled?
A plastic teaspoon and fine paintbrush are the most useful tools. Sod's Law usually applies when
you put them into the channel: whatever you do they almost invariably go in backwards and you
have to turn them with the paintbrush. Of course you should disturb the animals as little as possible,
but alteration is such a robust behaviour that it is difficult to stop them doing it!
Some questions suitable for investigation
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Do woodlice ‘prefer’ light or dark conditions?
Do woodlice ‘prefer’ red or blue light?
Do woodlice ‘prefer’ damp or dry conditions?
Do woodlice excrete gaseous ammonia?
What foods do woodlice prefer?
What if the animals are forced through angles other than 90°? Does the choice turn angle
equal the forced turn angle?
• Does the tendency to alternate vary between woodlouse species?
• How does temperature affect the movement of woodlice?
• Do woodlice show alternating behaviour?
Maggots
Maggots are the larvae of a huge range of insect species – there are over 90,000 varieties of what
we would call maggots. The fishing maggot that is readily available for classroom use is the larval
form of the blowfly – Calliphora sp. With the current interest in Forensic science (CSI, waking the
dead etc.) the use of forensic entomological evidence can be significant - various flies are some of
the first organisms to visit dead bodies. Consequently, the eggs/larvae present can help determine
the time of death of a corpse.
Maggots in the classroom are useful because they show taxes clearly, being negatively phototactic.
They can also be used for alternation experiments.
Handling maggots bought commercially is safe (see CLEAPSS advice), but probably not popular
with some students – again the paint brush and plastic spoon are good tools.
Maggots move using a hook like organ that is extended, fixed into the substrate the body being
hauled after it. Without something to grip on locomotion is rather limited, so sheets of glass give
maggots a huge headache! Any slightly rough surface will work – coarse paper, plastic rubbed over
with an abrasive etc. I suggest you try your surfaces before going ‘live’ with the experiment
Apparatus for experimenting on maggots
1. Mazes as above for alternation, but pay attention to the floor material.
2. Effect of temperature – a difficult one as maggots travel in straight lines generally.
One possibility is to use narrow plastic tube – thermometer cases work for this – maggot in tube,
stopper the ends and place on the surface of a water bath, time the maggot along the tube.
3. Photaxis – a difficult one as choice chambers are less effective – once the wall is
reached they tend to keep moving round the edge. The simple choice chamber design for
woodlice can give good results if the light/dark difference is large.
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This method is an alternative.
A piece of marked paper (shown below) is put in a suitable container – petri dish, plastic tray etc.
Each of the positive and negative sectors should have angles of 120° and each of the neutral sectors
should have an angle of 60°. The end marked “positive” is positioned nearest to the light. The centre
circle is 2cm diameter.
Black out the lab and put the container about
10cm away from the front of a lamp. The
lamp should be shining at a shallow angle
along the tray.
Spin a pencil to find a random direction. The
maggot is then placed in the centre of the
inner circle facing in the direction of the
pencil.
Positive
Neutral
Neutral
You can then use several methods for
tracking the maggot:
Complex: Put an acetate on the tray. As soon
as the maggot’s head leaves the paper’s
inner circle start a stopclock and mark the
position of the maggot’s head is every 5
seconds until the maggot leaves the outer circle.
Negative
Simple: mark the direction that the head of the maggot is facing after 1 minute or as it crosses the
outer circle. Use a duplicate of the sheet above for this.
If you are being extremely careful then replace the sheet each time and use a fresh maggot for each
run.
Use a ray box and variable power supply to investigate effect of light intensity.
Some questions suitable for investigation
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Do maggots ‘prefer’ light or dark conditions?
Are maggots sensitive to different colours of light?
Do maggots ‘prefer’ damp or dry conditions?
How does temperature affect the movement of maggots?
Do maggots show alternating behaviour?
Daphnia
Daphnia are members of a collection of animals that are broadly termed as "water fleas". These are
predominantly small crustaceans, and Daphnia belong to a group known as the Daphniidae (which
in turn is part of the Cladocera, relatives of the freshwater shrimp, Gammarus et al, and the brine
shrimp, Artemia spp). They get their common name from their jerky movement through the water.
They are completely unrelated to real fleas, are insects. All species of Daphnia occur in different
strains - sometimes the same species can look completely different, both in terms of size and shape,
depending on its origin, and environmental factors at that location.
Daphnia feed on particles found floating in the water (phytoplankton, but also attached vegetation or
decaying organic material), but the predominant foods are free-living algae (eg Chlamydomanas
spp, Volvox spp, etc), bacteria and fungi. In the summer months, they can often be seen "blooming"
in ponds and lakes as the concentration of algae builds up.
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Brine Shrimps
Artemia salina. These are a hardy organism whose natural habitat is a salt lake or salt pan. They
tolerate salinity between 0.3% and 10%, temperatures between 10°C and 30°C and are easy and
cheap to keep, and, more importantly, can form a self sustaining ecosystem needing little care. They
filter feed on algae suspended in the water, swimming efficiently using paired leafy legs.
Both Daphnia and Artemia are also readily available from aquarist shops and the normal
educational suppliers.
Handling
For handling individual organisms a plastic pipette with the end cut off to increase the diameter is
simple and effective. Larger numbers can be scooped using any suitable container.
Both species can be used for a range of experiments. The following ideas give a range of possible
experiments suitable for KS3 – KS5. Time scales suggested can be adjusted to suit the pupils.
Some Experiments in Animal Behaviour
(from Bench Biology 1995, A. Tebbutt)
Experiments
The tube diameter for the following apparatus was determined by the stock we had available - I am
sure other sizes will work just as well!
Depending on the group using the apparatus it can be set up with the organisms already present or
by the students themselves. Students are instructed to return organisms to their tanks if they show
signs of distress. The water in the tube should be the normal solution that the organisms are kept in
- this should contain food and oxygen enough to maintain normal behaviour patterns for the duration
of all experiments described.
The apparatus can be used successfully with both Daphnia and Artemia.
Filling the tubes completely can be achieved by putting a pin alongside the bung as you push it in –
it allows excess water/air to escape and can then be removed.
Phototaxis
Both Daphnia and Artemia are positively phototactic, and this can easily be demonstrated in the
following apparatus:
Basic Method
With the room either dimmed or blacked out - not essential but it gives a better controlled
environment - each tube is illuminated uniformly by a bench lamp above it. The number of Artemia
in each segment/half are then counted at one minute intervals for 5 or 10 minutes depending on time
available or age of pupils. A black paper collar is then slid over the tube and used to cover 2 end
segments. Numbers of Artemia in each visible segment/half are counted as before. This can be
repeated covering the middle segments and the other 2 end segments. Number visible/minute can
then be plotted, or more sophisticated statistical analyses carried out.
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Modifications
If a suitably shaped card shield is placed over the middle of the tube allowing each side to be
illuminated independently (below), a further range of experiments is possible.
Colour
Different colours of light (intensity measured and
adjusted!) can be used to illuminate the two sides of
the tube, counting as before. The ambitious could
try three or four colours simultaneously.
Light Intensity
The response to light intensity can be investigated if
the illumination is varied on each side. This can be
quantified with the use of a suitable light meter.
The reasons for the behaviour patterns shown can
then be deduced by students - e.g. feed on algae,
algae photosynthesise, therefore found in light;
oxygen produced by photosynthesis, therefore
move to areas of high oxygen concentration; more
photosynthesis in red light, therefore reasons as
above etc.
Geotaxis
With uniform illumination the basic tubing is stood on end, Artemia per segment are counted/minute
for 5-10 minutes and plotted as a graph. As a control the apparatus is inverted and the experiment
repeated.
If any patterns emerge what might the reasons be?
Thermotaxis
Response to temperature can be investigated using the basic apparatus set up as below. I would not
recommend high end temperatures above 40°C for Daphnia or 50°C for Artemia. Numbers of
Artemia are counted per segment at suitable intervals, and as a temperature gradient establishes
along the tube the organisms will congregate in a preferred range. This temperature can then be
measured using e.g. a thermocouple device on the outside of the tube, a thermometer or
temperature probe slid through a modified bung in either the experimental or a dummy apparatus.
Preferences can then be related to environment, organism behaviour etc.
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Chemotaxis
A method of examining responses to, for example, food quantity and chemical stimuli was
developed following suggestions for further work from students. The modification to the apparatus
finally arrived at was simple, merely a hole melted into the tube near one end. This is simply done
by heating the required spot with a fine flame - micro gas torch or blowpipe through a Bunsen flame
- and pushing the hole through from the inside with a mounted needle, seeker, or equivalent. The
finished product looking like:
When filling the tube the hole can be covered with insulating tape. It can be kept upright on the
bench using plasticene.
In these experiments it is advisable to use a water supply that can be disposed of after use rather
than a carefully nurtured culture solution.
Chemicals
Responses to pH, nutrients and other chemical stimuli, such as glucose, protein etc. can be studied
by counting Artemia per segment per minute for 5/10 minutes and then introducing the substance
under test through the hole using a syringe and needle, or dropper if the hole will permit. Numbers
per segment are then counted per minute for a further 5/10 minutes. In class organisation terms it is
best to have each group investigating a different compound if a range are to be studied. On
completion the tubes can be emptied via a sieve, thus preserving the Artemia and avoiding adding
contaminated water to the stock tanks.
I have used the following substances successfully: Ethanoic Acid, Sodium Hydroxide, Glucose,
Sucrose, Protein solution, Olive oil, yeast suspension, Algal suspension from stock tank
Oxygen
This apparatus arose from a suggestion that it might be the oxygen from photosynthesis that was the
stimulus causing
phototactic
responses, not
the light.
The apparatus was modified by adding a second hole and by placing it on a slight slope. This
allowed oxygen to be bubbled into (and escape from) a solution that had been boiled and cooled to
reduce its oxygen content to a low level. Precise values can be measured using an oxygen probe.
To avoid stress to the organisms I would suggest counting at 1 minute intervals for only 3 minutes
before the oxygen is turned on, and for 3/5 minutes afterwards, although this could be modified if the
organisms are carefully monitored.
Finally
I am sure there are other possibilities for this apparatus that I haven’t thought of yet, but some
inquisitive student will undoubtedly come up with an idea or question in the future.
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Topic:
Simple animal behaviour lesson 1
Learning Objectives: pupils should learn
• The factors that affect the behaviour of woodlice
• To test ideas and to evaluate scientific evidence
Learning outcomes: pupils can
• Have carried out the experiment and recorded the results accurately
• Have commented on the accuracy, reliability and validity of your results
• Have written a conclusion and explained how your evidence and the
class evidence support the conclusion
Possible assessment:
• How science works – accuracy, reliability and validity of results
Time
Possible lesson starter:
• Walt and Wilf for the lesson
• Vocabulary card sort – reduced set focusing on the key words
ACCURACY, RELIABILITY, VALIDITY, PREDICTION, SCIENTIFIC
HYPOTHESIS, KINESIS, STIMULUS, RESPONSE
• Highlight the meanings of accuracy, reliability, validity!
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Possible teaching activities:
• Outline experiment – Do woodlice ‘ prefer’ light or dark conditions? Explain
carefully that there is no conscious choice, just simple behaviour patterns about
survival. Explain the ‘choice’ chamber and how it works.
• Get pupils to make a prediction as to which conditions they think woodlice will
prefer (ref. vocab card sort) and to make a hypothesis as to why they have made
this (again ref. vocab card sort)
• Outline method – group 1 have 1 woodlouse, group 2 have 2 etc. up to a max of
10. (double up some groups). Suggest structure for results table.
• Place woodlice into centre of choice chamber and record the number on
light/dark sides after 1 minute, 2 minutes and 3 minutes
• Collect class results on the board. Start with the group(s) who had one
woodlouse: Check their predictions and Question the class as to are these
results Accurate? -explain Reliable? – explain Valid? – explain (could check
reliability against other groups with one woodlouse) useful here to have the
definitions of A, R and V available.
• Add more data from other groups with the same questions – what happens to
the accuracy (no change), reliability and validity as we collect more data
• Groups now write their conclusion as to the preferences of woodlice and their
comments on their and the class results ref. A, R and V. and how they support
the conclusion(ref. WILF statements)
Plenary activity:
• Select one or two groups to read their conclusions and explanations – use
these to highlight the WILF statements for the lesson
Resources:
light/dark choice chambers – 1 between 2, woodlice, stop clocks, cardsort
prepared for pairs or fours
Scientific enquiry:
• How science works – accuracy, reliability and validity of results
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10
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Additional notes:
This is also an ideal opportunity to build on previous work on structuring explanations – it might be
necessary to reiterate the structure etc. for explanations.
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Topic:
Simple animal behaviour lesson 2a and b – woodlice
Planning the method in outline may be done as homework from the previous lesson
Learning Objectives: pupils should learn
• To plan and carry out a practical investigation as part of a group
• To ensure results are precise, accurate reliable and valid
• To apply scientific thinking to explain some observations
Learning outcomes: pupils
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•
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•
Have planned an experiment to find out if woodlice prefer damp or dry conditions
Have explained how the results collected will be made accurate and reliable
Have recorded your results in a suitable table
Have drawn a conclusion and tried to explain your observations and the validity
of the results
Possible assessment:
• How Science Works - Practical and enquiry skills and Critical understanding of
evidence
Time
Possible lesson starter:
• WALT and WILF for the lesson
• Recap of previous lesson and key ideas - put words/phrases (e.g. prefer, choice
chamber, reliable and valid) on board and get pupils in groups/pairs to come up
with 1 or two sentences to define or explain them
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Possible teaching activities:
Lesson 2A
• Demo the wet/dry choice chamber
• Pupils then have to plan in groups and in bullet points an approach to answer the
question do woodlice prefer wet or dry conditions? See note about homework in
preparation (This might be supported by a writing frame) This should include:
- Method
- What results will be collected
- How the results will be displayed
- How the results will be made accurate and reliable
• Circulate and check plans, distribute apparatus and get practical started and results
collected
• Use plenary listed below
Lesson 2B
• Processing of results – how will they be presented, graph, table etc. – opportunity
for mini starters/plenaries for these aspects and use of Scientific Enquiry support
materials ref.choice of graph, describing graph etc.
• Write conclusion, again, opportunity for use of Scientific Enquiry and Scientific
Writing support materials to develop skills
• Explain if results are accurate, reliable, valid etc.
Plenary activity:
Spend longer on the plenary after lesson 2b
• Use ‘interactive plenaries’ powerpoint - give class list of the questions, choose
Resources:
wet/dry choice chambers, stop watches, woodlice,
Scientific enquiry:
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20
time
according
to need
10/20
Additional notes:
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Additional Resources
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ACCURACY
How close a measurement of
something is to its true value.
RELIABILITY
How far the data is dependable. It is a
measure of their repeatability and/or
consistency.
VALIDITY
Considering how far the data reliably
and accurately test the prediction.
PREDICTION
What you think will happen in a
particular situation. Predictions are
based on current explanations for
how something works.
SCIENTIFIC HYPOTHESIS
A suggested explanation for how
something happens. A hypothesis is
usually based on observations.
KINESIS
An increase in movement and
changes in direction when in
unfavourable conditions
RECEPTOR
The thing that detects a stimulus, e.g.
A sense organ
STIMULUS
A change in the environment detected
by animals or plants that produces a
response
RESPONSE
A change in an animal or plant as a
results of a stimulus
TAXES
Directional responses to unilateral
stimuli IN ANIMALS
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TROPISM
A directional response to a unilateral
stimulus IN PLANTS
UNILATERAL
One sided
DIRECTIONAL
a stimulus or response that in works
in a particular direction
INSTINCT
An automatic response o a stimulus
over a long period of time that affects
the whole animal
REFLEX
A rapid, automatic response to a
stimulus that affects only part of an
animal
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More Suggestions for experiments
Most of these factors have been investigated by groups or individual students over the last few
years. You will may want to refer to the background information and the equipment used pages
before you can start to plan these experiments.
Investigate the mechanism causing the grouping instinct - is it odour, sound or some other
factor?
What are the preferred light conditions for woodlice? - eg light intensity and colour of light.
What are the effects of temperature on behaviour - rate of turning, speed of movement etc.
Investigating alternation in woodlice. Is time or distance travelled the main factor in determining
whether alternation is likely to occur?
Is humidity or temperature the most important factor in determining the clumping behaviour of
Porcellio scaber?
How do changes in water saturation affect the behaviour of Porcellio scaber? (eg clumping,
activity levels)
What is the effect of ‘clumping’ on the rate of water loss from Porcellio scaber?
Can woodlice absorb and/or loose water through their exoskeleton?
Do woodlice excrete gaseous ammonia? Is there any difference between night and day?. Is
there any difference between active and inactive woodlice?
Ammonia excretion
Woodlice do not produce urine. Instead of excreting urine, woodlice excrete their nitrogenous
waste in the form of ammonia gas. Most animals find ammonia to be too toxic for excretion and
so any ammonia formed is normally converted to urea or uric acid for excretion.
Woodlice seem to have very high resistance to ammonia and are able to excrete it as a gas
directly through the surface of their exoskeleton. This means that they do not need to use energy
to convert the ammonia to area or uric acid before excretion.
Blue blood
Woodlice along with most other crustaceans have the compound haemocyanin in their blood.
Haemocycanin carries oxygen in the same way that haemoglobin does in mammals.
Haemocycanin contains a copper atom instead of the iron atom found in haemoglobin. The blood
is pale blue when it is carrying oxygen and colourless when it is not carrying oxygen.
Because a woodlouse contains very small amounts of haemocycanin it is not possible to see
these colour changes by direct observation.
Blue Woodlice
An iridovirus can infect woodlice and at advanced stages of infection virus accumulates in such
large numbers that it forms crystallinel structures in the diseased tissues. These crystalline
structures give an intense blue or purple colour to the woodlice.
Individuals infected to this extent will usually die within a short time.
Orange Porcellio scaber
This orange form appears to be rare in this region. The example here is
the only one found in a collection of over 400 from the same compost
heap - it is also the only one, of two, that I have observed over the last 10
years. The red forms of woodlice are genetically determined but their rarity
suggests that this form is not as well adapted to the habitat as the darker
gray forms.
18
Coprophagy
Woodlice, like many other animals, eat their faeces. In the case of woodlice this helps them to
reabsorb sufficient copper minerals which have been lost in their faeces. Bacterial action on the
faeces probably changes the copper to a form which is more easily absorbed into their bodies.
Coprophagy is the term used to refer to the eating of faeces.
Drinking through the anus
Woodlice get water with their food. But they can also drink it through their mouth parts and also
by using their uropods. The uropods are tube-like structures on the posterior (back end) of the
animal. When they use them for drinking they press their uropods close together and touch it
against a moist surface. Capillary action pulls the water up the uropods and into the anus.
Woodlice also seem to be able to absorb water vapour directly through their exoskeleton surface
in regions of high humidity, and in fact if they remain in high humidity regions for too long they
appear to become water logged and then tend to move to areas of lower humidity.
Isaac Asimov and Woodlice
When he was a young child, Isaac's mother was startled by the strange expression on his face
and asked him what was wrong. He was unable to reply so she became alarmed by this apparent
affliction. Isaac, in an effort to calm his mother spat out a mouthful of woodlice.
When asked why he had done such a thing, he replied that he had thought that they would
probably tickle his tongue as they walked about inside his mouth. Apparently they did tickle although his mother did not appreciate this turn of scientific curiosity.
Moulting
You may sometimes see a woodlouse which is two-toned. For example the front half of the body
may be a pinkish colour and the back half may be the "normal" grayish colour. This occurs
because the woodlouse moults its exoskeleton in two sections. It first moults the back half of its
exoskeleton, then a few days later it moults the front half.
The advantage of this two part moult is to help reduce its vulnerability to predation or desiccation
during moulting. Adults moult about every two months.
Sense of smell
Woodlice are able to detect chemical odours by using sensory receptors on either the ends of the
large antennae or on the surface of their antennulae (these are usually an inner pair of
insignificant small antennae) P. scaber seems to be able to detect litter by smelling the odours
released by micro-organisms living on the litter.
Postage Stamps
In 1995 St. Helena issued a set of stamps depicting small animals.
The 53p stamp shown here, illustrates a Spiky Yellow Woodlouse.
Why is the rest of the world ignoring these fascinating creatures?
Changing Sex
Male woodlice infected by Wolbachia bacteria will turn into female woodlice! The bacteria upset
the normal action of the woodlouse male hormone.
As the bacteria are passed to the next generation of woodlice in the cytoplasm of the egg cells
this process means that there is a better chance of Wolbachia survival as all infected offspring will
be female and therefore will allow infection of the third generation of woodlice.
19
1. Red Light vs Blue Light preference
2. Dim light vs Bright Light preference
Thanks to Sandhya Deo for these results
20
3. Preferred Light Intensity
Thanks to Wei-Hsin Chan for these results
4. The effects that distance travelled has on alternation behaviour.
In this experiment the woodlice were forced to make a right hand turn and then after a variable
distance were given a choice of taking a left or right turn. Those that turned left showed the
alternation behaviour. The experiment was repeated with the forced turn being to the left and results
for both were collated.
1 Mature Woodlice
2 Juvenile Woodlice
1
2
Thanks to James van Rij for these results
21
5. The Effect of clumping on water loss
Water loss was measured by taking the drop in weight of 10 isolated woodlice and comparing this
with the drop in weight of 10 woodlice which had been allowed to clump together as a group.
1
2
1 Clumped group
2 Individuals group
Thanks to Rebecca Wilson for these results
6. The Effect of humidity on water loss
1
2
3
4
5
6
1 - 100%
4 - 40%
2 - 80%
5 - 20%
3 - 60%
6 - 0%
Thanks to Adam Blower and Steven Hardy for these results
22
More Experimental Backgound and Data
It has been studied that Isopods are very active when it comes to varying conditions in their
environment. This activity leads them to be typically found in dark, moist, and crowded places.
Isopods are known by several names: sow bugs, pill bugs, or woodlice. Because of the large
number of species in the isopod order, it was necessary to determine the specific family of which the
studies were done. Pill bugs are classified in the family Armadillidae and can roll themselves into a
small ball. However, the animal being studied here was unable to perform this activity and was
determined to be a sow bug species. More specifically, this species is a member of the
Porcellionidae family. The Porcellios are a group of animals that are grayish in colour and when it is
disturbed it tends to quickly run away. The head is crown shaped with the two outer lobes being
rounded. It has two pairs of projections on the rear of the body called uropods. The inner pair of
uropods is much smaller than the outer pair. The posterior ends of the plates of the exoskeleton tend
to come to a sharp point. On the underside of the body there are two pairs of pleopod lungs. The
outer margins of the plates of the exoskeleton are slightly reverse curved in the upward direction.
They have 7 pairs of legs and their bodies consist of three fused sections so that it is difficult to be
sure where each section starts or finishes.
Woodlice, as they are also referred, are often found in the upper layers of compost heaps, under
rotting wood or logs, under surfaces or stones, and in other dark, damp places. Woodlice belong to
the biological class Crustacea. Most of the animals in this class are aquatic, and although the
terrestrial species can breath with the aid of primitive "lungs," they lack the features found in most
other land dwelling arthropods. They do not have a waterproof waxy cuticle on their exoskeleton, like
insects, and are therefore more likely to suffer from desiccation compared with other arthropods,
which have a well-developed waxy layer. These animals excrete their nitrogenous waste as ammonia
gas directly through their exoskeleton, which means that their exoskeleton needs to be permeable to
ammonia and is therefore also permeable to water vapour. Most other animals excrete their
nitrogenous waste in the form of urea or uric acid, so woodlice do not have to expend energy on
such processes. The fact that woodlice prefer high humidity and cooler temperatures is a direct
response of the permeability of their exoskeleton to water and the loss of water from their bodies.
These preferences are behavioural adaptations to help reduce desiccation. The experiments
preformed here are testing this theory and demonstrating this behaviour.
Many of the behavioural responses of woodlice are concerned with water conservation and the need
to avoid desiccation. They have a relatively high surface area to volume ratio and are therefore likely
to loose water by diffusion more quickly than many other species. Porcellio scaber show a kinesis
type response to moisture. They show both an increased speed of movement, or orthokinesis, and
increased rate of turning, or klinokinesis, in dry conditions and slower rates of movement in more
damp conditions. This response will result in them accumulating in more damp regions, and so will
not loose water from their bodies. Interestingly, it has been reported that woodlice taken from very
damp conditions show a different reaction. They may either show no difference in their reaction to
changes in moisture or may even actively avoid the damp regions in preference for the drier regions
(Sutton, Woodlice, 1972). Woodlice also show a positive orthokinesis as the temperature increases
or decreases from their preferred range. Their rate of turning also seems to show a similar response.
By moving more rapidly, they are likely to spend less time in these unfavourable conditions and
therefore will avoid unnecessary desiccation. They are known to show a negative phototaxis as well.
This would result in them moving away from bright conditions towards darker regions. Brighter
conditions tend to be drier and warmer than dark conditions, so this behaviour will again result in
decreased desiccation. Finally, these animals have been shown to demonstrate positive
thigmokinesis. This means they are less active when more of their body surface is in contact with
other objects, including other woodlice. They will move around so that the maximum amount of their
23
body is in contact with other objects. This behaviour results in woodlice forming groups or clumps
and also means they will tend to congregate in cracks and crevices. In any case, they will have
better protection from desiccation and also predators.
Procedure
In order to demonstrate the effects of temperature and moisture on the animals, a chamber was set
up with an underlying grid, used for calculations. The chamber could be altered in order to create a
different environment. In this case, temperature was varied from cold, to room temperature, to warm.
In each temperature range, damp versus dry was compared. The animal was placed in the chamber
for a period of time and recorded using a digital camera. Upon playback of the video, the number of
squares the animal covered over the period of time was calculated to give a value of orthokinesis.
Also, the number of turns made by the animal was counted to demonstrate the value of klinokinesis
occurring in each environment. These values were then tabulated and compared.
24
Results - Orthokinetic experiment
Cold-Dry
Run
Squares
Covered
1
122
2
206
3
62
4
42
5
97
6
76
Average =
Run
1
2
3
4
5
6
1
2
300
300
180
180
180
180
0.4387
Orthokinetic
Value
0.4067
0.6867
0.3444
0.2333
0.5389
0.4222
Run
1
2
3
4
5
6
Room Temperature-Dry
Squares
Time
Orthokinetic
Covered
Value
129
300
0.4300
149
300
0.4967
73
180
0.4056
96
180
0.5333
262
180
1.4556
104
180
0.5778
Average =
Run
Time
Cold-Wet
Warm-Dry
Squares
Covered
103
38
Average =
Run
1
2
3
4
5
6
0.6498
Time
94
31
Squares
Covered
9
41
34
59
72
18
Time
Orthokinetic
Value
180
0.0500
180
0.2278
180
0.1889
300
0.1967
300
0.2400
180
0.1000
Average =
0.1672
Room Temperature-Wet
Squares
Time
Orthokinetic
Covered
Value
2
300
0.0067
34
300
0.1133
37
180
0.2056
21
180
0.1167
24
180
0.1333
13
180
0.0722
Average =
Orthokinetic
Value
1.0957
1.2258
Run
1
2
1.1608
Warm-Wet
Squares
Time
Covered
16
31
11
30
Orthokinetic
Value
0.5161
0.3667
Average =
25
0.1080
0.4414
Klinokinetic experiment
Run
Cold-Dry
Turns
Time
13
2 15
3 16
46
58
62
Average
60
60
60
60
60
60
=
0.0500
0.2500
0.2667
0.1000
0.1333
0.0333
0.1389
Klinokinetic
Value
Room Temperature-Dry
Run
Turns
Time
Klinokinetic
Value
1 16
60
0.2667
2 33
60
0.5500
3 22
60
0.3667
4 18
60
0.3000
5 31
60
0.5167
6 14
60
0.2333
Average =
0.3722
Run
Warm-Dry
Turns
1 57
60
2 41
31
Average =
Time
Run
Cold-Wet
Turns
1
2
3
4
5
6
2
9
11
8
11
7
Run
1
2
3
4
5
6
Klinokinetic
Value
0.9500
1.3226
1.1363
26
Time
Klinokinetic
Value
60
0.0333
60
0.1500
60
0.1833
60
0.1333
60
0.1833
60
0.1167
Average =
0.1333
Room Temperature-Wet
Turns
Time
Klinokinetic
Value
2
60
0.0333
4
60
0.0667
16
60
0.2667
21
60
0.3500
11
60
0.1833
17
60
0.2833
Average =
0.1972
Run
Warm-Wet
Turns
Time
1
2
9
7
Klinokinetic
Value
31
0.2903
30
0.2333
Average =
0.2618
Experimental Conclusions
Both experiments followed the predicted outcomes. The orthokinetic experiment showed that the rate
of movement increased with temperature. The discrepancy in the moist environment is most likely
due to the animal pausing at moist points to take up water. This is seen in the cold and room
temperature environments. The warm environment was highly unfavourable for the animal in any
case. This is due to the heat causing excessive desiccation.
In the klinokinetic experiment, the same predicted outcomes were observed. The rate of turning
increased with temperature. One result to point out here is that the rate of turning increased much
more in the dry environment than in the wet environment. This would most likely be due to the fact
that a wet environment is favourable over dry for the animal, so it is to be expected that the rates are
higher for the dry environment.
General Information
One behaviour that was noticed during the experiment was the use of the uropod structures at the
posterior of the animal. Woodlice get water with their food, but they can also drink it through their
mouth and also by using their uropods. The uropods are tube-like structures on the posterior of the
animal. When they use them for drinking they press their uropods close together and touch it against
a moist surface. Capillary action pulls the water up the uropods and into the anus. The above picture
shows the uropod lifted in order to prevent suction of water.
Woodlice, along with most other crustaceans, have the compound haemocyanin in their blood.
Haemocycanin carries oxygen in the same way that haemoglobin does in mammals. Haemocycanin
contains a copper atom instead of the iron atom found in haemoglobin. The blood is pale blue when
it is carrying oxygen and colourless when it is not carrying oxygen. Because a woodlouse contains
very small amounts of haemocycanin, it is not possible to see these colour changes by direct
observation. There are cases of blue woodlice. An iridovirus can infect woodlice and at advanced
stages of infection virus accumulates in such large numbers that it forms crystalline structures in the
diseased tissues. These crystalline structures give an intense blue or purple colour to the woodlice.
Individuals infected to this extent will usually die within a short time.
Another interesting fact about woodlice is that they have the ability to change sex. Male woodlice
infected by Wolbachia bacteria will turn into female woodlice. The bacteria upset the normal action of
the male hormone. Bacteria are passed to the next generation in the cytoplasm of the egg cells, and
this process means that there is a better chance of Wolbachia survival as all infected offspring will be
female and therefore will all allow infection of the third generation of woodlice.
Woodlice are land-dwelling crustaceans. They breathe through gills which need to be kept
moist at all times, and this requirement influences much of their behaviour. It is easy to fall into
the trap of thinking that woodlice ‘prefer’ damp, dark crevices – or, even worse that they
‘choose’ these places or ‘like’ them. This is falling into the trap of anthropomorphism –
imagining that animals must experience the world as we humans do.
In England students are often asked to write school reports about the behaviour of woodlice after
carrying out experiments using ‘choice-chambers’. I have no intention of writing such a report
here, but there is no harm in pointing out some common mistakes and giving a few ‘clues’.
Woodlice are most active during the night and are usually found huddled together in damp
places during the day, but they do not move towards damp conditions, it is just that they are
more active in the dry. Similarly they do not choose crevices or other woodlice, but are more
active when their bodies are not being touched. These differences in the levels of activity, and
therefore rates of movement, mean that woodlice spend most of their time crowded together in
damp crevices. This type, of behavioural response to stimuli is known as ‘kinetic’- it is not
directional. The other error that students often make is to fail to mention the species of
woodlouse they observed. (Key to help Identify British Woodlice).
27
Section 2
Human Behaviour
• Lesson plans
• Resources
A series of three lesson plans exploring aspects of behaviour in humans. Starting with
behaviours which we share with other vertebrates (instincts and reflexes) the lessons move
on to aspects of human behaviour which mark us out from them – problem-solving and
decision making, and then look at personal space as an example of a human social
behaviour concept, with a related investigation.
Lesson 1: Instinct, reflexes and learned behaviours
Part
Content
HSW skills
Communication: presenting an investigation
Objectives
To describe and distinguish between types of animal
behaviours, noting differences and similarities with humans
Outcomes
Pupils will confidently define, and give examples of
instincts and reflexes in humans and animals
Starter
Main part
Discuss definitions – start by describing some instincts;
homing instinct of pigeons, suckling instinct of babies and
young animals, rocking instinct when a person picks up a
baby to comfort them. Ask for examples seen in pupils’
pets and families. Elicit that instincts are untaught, are
behaviour patterns and are ‘hardwired’ (genetic). They
occur across ethnic groups and often have a primitive
survival function.
Cardsort: sort these out into ‘instinct’ and ‘not instinct’ to
reinforce understanding of meanings.
Point out that some automatic actions which are not
instincts, called ‘reflexes’, are triggered when a nerve is
stimulated. We’re now going to try out some:
Resources
Card-sort sets
Circus of investigations –
1. Firmly stroke a spoon handle down the sole of a bare
foot. Watch the toes.
2. Sit down, cross legs, firmly but gently tap under kneecap. Watch the lower leg
3. Spin a subject round until dizzy – an office chair is
a safer way to do this.
Keep the person still and look in their eyes – do you see
them flick side to side (‘nystagmus’) as the ‘room spins’
for them? For variety try it with the head held
horizontally.
4. Clap your hands in front of the subject’s face.
Pretend to punch them in the stomach but stop just
short. What reflex actions help protect them from
danger?
31
Spoons,
office chair
beaker of water
5. Dip three fingers in water for a few mins. Look for the
wrinkling – a nerve controlled reflex. (cutting the nerves
to the hand will prevent it). What advantage might it
give? What happens to the other fingers, and the other
hand? Try it with the elbow – no wrinkling.
Then either:
Make an annotated poster on large paper to illustrate the
findings for one of the investigations.
Or
Present your investigation In the style of Robert Winston or
a news report.
Plenary
Differentiation
See interactive ppt slide
Most able pupils may also be introduced to the additional
category of learned reflexes and an example included in
the circus - eg. Ask them to use a knife and fork the wrong
way round, or fasten the buttons on a shirt belonging to
someone of the opposite sex, and report on the difficulties.
But avoid KS4 conditioned reflexes issues.
Homework
Safety
Other notes
Spinning a subject to make them dizzy needs careful adult
supervision and removal of objects and furniture which
might cause injury if they fall.
Some pupils may be embarrassed to take their shoes and
socks off and this should be avoided if likely to be a
problem. A demo on an adult is an alternative.
32
Lesson 1: Is it an instinct?
Newly hatched ducklings follow the first moving
object they see and assume it is the mother duck
People usually say ‘bless you’ when someone
sneezes
Male robins attack a dummy bird which has a
red breast on it
Everyone shakes hands using their right hand
Salmon in the sea return to the stream they were
born in, to breed
Most people feel that wearing brown and purple
stripes looks bad
An injured animal will lick its wounds
Bears eat rubbish out of bins in Canada
All the fish in a shoal turn direction together
Drivers brake when they see a red light
New-born human babies ‘walk’ if you hold them
above a surface
A dog will come up to you when you whistle it
A female horse eats its placenta after giving birth
Welsh people are all good singers
A cat, when dropped, lands with its feet
downward
Blind people have a better developed sense of
hearing
Dogs gather round the house of a bitch on heat
Crows are scared of a scarecrow
Answers: left side are instincts. They fulfil the requirement of being behaviours which are not learned,
and are not simple responses to nerve stimulation. The right side responses are either reflexes,
learned responses, or not true.
33
Lesson 2: Investigation into how people solve problems
Part
HSW skills
Objectives
Outcomes
Content
Resources
Groupwork, experimental design
To explore the use of planning, decision-making, lateral
thinking, discussion, trial-and error, and deferred
gratification when humans solve problems.
To be able to relate these to times in scientific enquiries
and general life when these behaviours are used
Pupils will solve a practical problem in order to consider
the strategies they used, and be able to explain their
methods
Starter
Ask pupils to relate examples of when animals seems ‘silly’
– suggest birds stuck inside the house, dogs stuck in
pipes or burrows, etc. Take two or three of their funniest.
Point out the lack of considered thought animals put into
solving their problems. How, generally, our problem solving
techniques set us apart from other animals in our
behaviour.
Explain that we are now going to solve a couple of
problems, but the purpose is not so much finding the
solution, as watching ourselves do it and thinking about the
strategies (behaviours) that we use. The science of
psychology is the study of behaviour
Main part
Divide pupils into groups of threes, or other appropriate
groupings
One pupil acts as observer and note-maker. The other two
discuss and solve the problem. The note-maker must be
prepared to report back to the class verbally
Problem 1: Pupils are given a candle and a box of
drawing pins. They have to attach the candle to the notice
board in such a way that when it is lit it is upright and
doesn’t scorch the board. This encourages lateral thinking
as it is not immediately obvious that the box can be used
as a candle-holder and the candle secured to the box with
melted wax, while the pins hold the box to the wall.
Problem 2: Three posts are fastened upright on the desk
in a row. On post ‘A’ are slotted four discs as in the
diagram.
A
B
34
C
candles
matches
boxes of drawing
pins
posts and discs
The task is to move them to post ‘B’, always following the
rule that no disc can be placed over one that is smaller.
Post ‘C’ can be used as a temporary holder although the
rule applies to that post too. Only one disc may move at a
time. The aim is to use the fewest possible moves.
The observer, in explaining what the team did, may see
that they first defined the problem, then discussed possible
options before deciding on a strategy. This may or may not
have been successful first time. Some teams may start
immediately and use trial and error, while others plan then
act. The merits of these approaches can be discussed,
and comparisons made with animals. The value of speech
will be apparent (you could try a ‘silent’ group) The point is
not the solution of the problem, but the tactics used to get
there. Suitable posts could be pencils in a pencil block, or
mass-holders with different sized masses on them. Discs
could include CDs, rubber bungs, masses or you could
prepare cardboard ones.
Plenary
Differentiation
Groups that worked by trial and error, or rushed straight to Mini white-boards
a possible conclusion, will appreciate the story of the man
and pens
who caught a monkey by putting sweets into a heavy
narrow-necked jar. The monkey took a fist-full and couldn’t
a big jar of
get its hand out. If it tried to escape, it had to let go of the
sweets and
sweets. Monkeys are not good enough problem-solvers to
monkey mask
allow ‘deferred gratification’ – neither are small children (or would be useful
some not so small). Ask the pupils to illustrate one human
example of failing to apply ‘deferred gratification’ on their
mini white-boards in cartoon style. (prompts if needed –
pocket money, alcohol, marathon running, pensions)
Make the point that this is a higher-order behaviour. When
is this behaviour actually a disadvantage? Do squirrels
show DF by hoarding nuts? When might a scientist need
this behavioural skill, for instance in solving a crime?
The tasks may be made easier with the use of prompt
cards or written instructions, and made harder with a strict
time limit, no-talking rule, or for problem 1 fewer pins, for
problem 2, more discs.
Homework
Octopuses are supposed to be the most intelligent
molluscs. Design an experiment to test their problemsolving skills. Draw an annotated diagram of the set-up,
explain how you would get the octopus to do it (after all,
they can’t read or understand you talking to them!),
measure its success, and what you would look for to see
how the animal went about solving the problem. What
might you have to find out about octopuses first?
Safety
Check the candles are safe and securely fastened before
pupils are allowed to light them.
Other notes
35
Lesson 3: Experimenting with personal space
Part
HSW skills
Objectives
Outcomes
Starter
Main part
Content
Resources
Use range of scientific methods to test ideas
Evaluate evidence
Use secondary sources
Investigate personal space as an example of human
behaviour which is affected by a range of factors
Critically discuss and extend simple experiments on human
psychology
Pupils will be able to explain and describe personal space
and its ‘invasion’
They will have looked at a psychological experiment and
considered how it was set up, controlled and how results
can be analysed, and will be able to give a reasoned
explanation of the techniques used.
When the class is seated and settled, the teacher gets a
seat and sits as close as possible to a chosen pupil while
the register is taken (or other suitable neutral activity). Note
the body-language, comments and other behaviours of the
pupil. (Choose carefully!)
Introduce the lesson by asking pupils how they would react
if they were sitting in an otherwise empty row of seats in a
train and someone came and sat right next to them.
Compare with the reaction of the squirming pupil the
teacher chose to sit next to. Why do we react like that?
What factors might influence our reactions or the amount of
closeness we can tolerate?
Define personal space as a kind of invisible bubble around
us where there are rules about who can move into it, how
they act there and under what circumstances we tolerate
them.
Read sheet 1 (first page only) with the class. Discuss the
experiment and the questions in bold.
Now hand out the second page of sheet 1. Presentation of
the results (best as overlapping line graphs) is optional
depending on time and the needs of the group. Another
option at this point is to plan to carry out a similar or
related experiment in your own library or dining hall.
Hand out sheet 2, give time to complete, then discuss…
Answers are: 1 closer; 2 further; 3 closer; 4 further; 5
closer; 6 further; 7 further; 8 further; 9 further; 10 further; 11
closer. What other factors might they add?
Ask a pupil to stand in the middle of an empty piece of
floor. Draw concentric circles around them, at a radius of
approx 40 cm, 110cm and 4 metres.
36
Sheets 1and 2
Stick of chalk
The zone they are standing in is the intimate zone, then
come the arms-length zone, personal zone and social
zone. What zone would they feel comfortable…
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Talking at a party
Meeting the Headteacher
Standing by an adult stranger of the opposite/same sex
Having a confrontation
Chatting someone up
Playing with a toddler
You can ask for other examples. Outside the social zone
communication is difficult. When might you keep someone
that far away?
Plenary
Differentiation
Homework
Safety
Other notes
Summarise the functions and features of personal space.
Finally explain that personal space is protected by
unwritten rituals in our society. One of these is ‘shaking
hands’. Pupils can be shown how to shake hands
effectively – avoiding the ‘wet-fish’ and the ‘bone-crusher’,
not touching the other person with the other hand etc.
Then practice with each other. Most school pupils never
shake hands socially, find it embarrassing and are at a
loss when expected to do so, eg at an interview, so it’s
worth a practice!
The sheets with this lesson contain more work than is
practicable in 1 hour. Take away activities as appropriate
India has the most formalised caste system to protect
personal space – a new caste has recently been
described, lower than the ‘untouchables’, who wash the
clothes of the untouchables. They only come out at night
as they believe if a high-caste person sees them they will
contaminate that person. Most people were not even
aware that this group existed until recently.
Your task – to research the castes on the internet and write
a paragraph on each caste to explain what they are.
No issues
It’s obvious, but be sensitive to cultural and gender issues
with class members when demonstrating personal space,
shaking hands etc.
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Lesson 3: Sheet 1
In 1966, in an American University, a female psychology student tried the following experiment:
There were six chairs around a large table in the University library, fairly evenly spaced. Only one, or
occasionally two of these chairs were occupied by unsuspecting female students, who were busy
reading.
The experimenter tried out these different tests on the students round the table:
1. She sat next to a student, and moved her chair to within 8cm (as close as you can get without
touching). If the student moved away, she moved nearer again, saying nothing.
2. She sat next to a student, but at an acceptable distance of half a metre away.
3. She sat one seat away from the student (leaving one chair between them)
4. She sat three seats away
5. She sat immediately facing the student across the table
What results would you expect to get?
What sort of things might the experimenter have measured to get her results?
In what way might she have made this a controlled experiment?
How could the experiment be adapted to get more reliable results?
Her results:
She repeated the experiments many times over.
Only 55% of the students she sat very close to (test 1) stayed at the table for more than 10 minutes.
90% of the others (tests 2 to 5) stayed for more than 10 minutes.
100% of students stayed longer than 10 minutes when the experimenter didn’t sit on the same table
at all, but the table and chairs were arranged the same way. This was her control.
After 20 minutes the number of students staying in test 1 dropped to 45%, and 80% for tests 2 to 5.
There were still just under 100% of students at the table if the experimenter didn’t go near.
After 30 minutes the number of students staying in test 1 dropped to 30%.
For tests 2 to 5 there were 73% remaining, and 87% at the table without an experimenter.
In test 1, students didn’t just move off. Sometimes they made barriers of books or their bags
between themselves and the ‘intruder’.
In the space below show these results in an easy-to-understand diagram or chart form.
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Lesson 3: Sheet 2
Closer or Further Away??
Some factors lead to us setting up a bigger personal space, some make it smaller. For
each of these, write ‘Closer’ or ‘Further away’
1. The other person is a close family member
2. The other person is elderly
3. You are in a crowded bus
4. You live in the country, not a city
5. You are under the age of six
6. The other person smells
7. The other person may be drunk
8. You are a criminal convicted of a violent crime
9. You are schizophrenic
10. Both of you are Swedish or Scottish
11. Both of you are Arab or South American
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