Miami-Dade County Public Schools
Curriculum and Instruction (Science)
Essential Labs
(Minimum Required Laboratory Activities)
For the
Earth/Space Science
Course
May 2007
The School Board of Miami-Dade County Public Schools
Mr. Agustin J. Barrera, Chair
Dr. Martin Karp, Vice Chair
Mr. Renier Diaz de la Portilla
Ms. Evelyn Langlieb Greer
Ms. Perla Tabares Hantman
Dr. Robert B. Ingram
Ms. Ana Rivas Logan
Dr. Marta Pérez
Dr. Solomon C. Stinson
Dr. Rudolph F. Crew
Superintendent of Schools
Ms. Antoinette P. Dunbar, Deputy Superintendent
Curriculum and Instruction
Dr. Milagros R. Fornell, Assistant Superintendent
Secondary Curriculum and Instruction
Dr. Cyd Heyliger-Browne, Administrative Director
Curriculum and Instruction (Science)
2
Table of Contents
Introduction and Acknowledgment ............................................................................................ 4
Materials List ............................................................................................................................... 5
Parts of a Lab Report .................................................................................................................. 8
Lab Roles ......................................................................................................................................10
Annually Assessed Benchmarks .................................................................................................11
Safety Information and Contract ............................................................................................... 13
Lab Activities:...............................................................................................................................14
Absorption and Reflection of Solar Energy ........................................................................ 15
Fossils as Evidence for Environments and Change ............................................................22
Mineral and Rock Identification ..........................................................................................29
Sea Floor Spreading ..............................................................................................................41
Modeling Our Solar System and Kepler’s Laws of Motion .............................................. 50
Salt Water Density Lab Activity .......................................................................................... 56
Alien Periodic Table ..............................................................................................................60
Endothermic and Exothermic Reactions .............................................................................65
Earthquakes and Subduction Boundaries .......................................................................... 69
Greenhouse Effect .................................................................................................................76
Coriolis Effect ........................................................................................................................81
Determining Dew Point .........................................................................................................84
Finding an Epicenter .............................................................................................................87
Earthquake Waves: Walk-Run ............................................................................................ 90
Newton’s 2nd Law of Motion .................................................................................................97
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Introduction
The purpose of this packet is to provide the Earth/Space Science teachers with a list of basic
laboratories and hands-on activities that students in an Earth/Space Science class should experience.
Each activity is aligned with the Earth/Space Science Curriculum Pacing Guide and the Sunshine
State Standards (SSS). Emphasis should be placed on those activities that are aligned to the
Annually Assessed benchmarks which are consistently assessed in the grade 11 Science Florida
Comprehensive Assessment Test (FCAT). As a result, included in the packet you will find some
lab activities that are not usual to an Earth/Space Science class but are specifically related to the
grade 11 Annually Assessed benchmarks.
All the hands-on activities were designed to cover the most important concepts found in the
Earth/Space Science course. In some cases, more than one lab was included to cover a specific
benchmark. In most cases, the activities were designed as simple as possible without the use of
advanced technological equipment to make it possible for all teachers to use these activities.
However, it is highly recommended that technology, such as Explorelearning Gizmos and the handheld data collection equipment from Vernier, Texas Instruments, and Pasco, is implemented in the
science classrooms.
This document is intended to be used by secondary science departments in M-DCPS so that all
science teachers can work together, plan together, and rotate lab materials among classrooms.
Through this practice, all students and teachers will have the same opportunities to participate in
these experiences and promote discourse among learners, which are the building blocks of authentic
learning communities.
Acknowledgement
M-DCPS Curriculum and Instruction (Science) would like to acknowledge the efforts of the
teachers who worked arduously and diligently on the preparation of this document.
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Materials List
Below is the list of materials for each lab. Each list corresponds to the amount of materials needed
per set-up/station (whether one student or a group of students).
Lab aprons and goggles should be assigned to each student for those labs that may pose a potential
risk such as labs requiring the use of chemicals, fire, heated materials, sharp utensils, etc.
Absorption and Reflection of Solar Energy
‰ 8 pieces of material as described below. Each should be approximately 10 cm X 10 cm.
‰ 5 sheets of cardboard each painted a different color: medium green, light blue, medium
brown, black, and white.
‰ 1 sheet of sandpaper
‰ 1 sheet of metal or aluminum foil
‰ 1 sheet of vinyl
‰ 8 Celsius thermometers
‰ A watch or clock
‰ Graph paper
Fossils as Evidence for Environments and Change
‰ Plastic fossil kit by Hubbard Scientific
‰ Fossil handout (included in the lesson)
‰ Geologic Time Chart (included in the lesson)
Mineral and Rock Identification
‰ Common rock forming minerals such as quartz, pyrite, hematite, galena, graphite, biotite,
calcite (clear samples so that students can see double refraction), halite, gypsum, talc, and
fluorite
‰ Common, easily recognizable rocks such as granite, sandstone, basalt, coal, snowflake
obsidian (regular obsidian is easily confused as a mineral by most students), shale, coquina,
breccia, pumice, schist, gneiss, and marble
‰ Mineral Identification chart such as the one in the student textbook
‰ Rock Identification chart such as the one in the student textbook
‰ Streak Plate
‰ Hand lens
‰ Small Magnet
‰ Hardness kit (glass, penny, steel nail)
‰ Dilute HCL or vinegar
Sea Floor Spreading
‰ Scissors
‰ Metric ruler
‰ 1 sheet of unlined, white paper
‰ 1 sheet of unlined, colored paper
‰ Colored markers or pencils
5
Modeling Our Solar System and Kepler’s Laws of Motion
‰ 10 meters of adding machine tape
‰ Basic calculator
‰ Meter sticks
‰ Pencils
Salt Water Density Lab Activity
‰ Balance
‰ Sample of “fresh” water (stored in large beaker)
‰ Sample of “ocean” water (stored in large beaker)
‰ Salt
‰ Small paper cup or other reusable container
‰ Graduated cylinder
‰ Paper towels
Alien Periodic Table
‰ Blank Alien Periodic Table
‰ Periodic table from text (used for reference)
‰ Colored pencils
Endothermic and Exothermic Reactions
‰ Sodium Bicarbonate (Baking soda)
‰ Calcium chloride
‰ Red food coloring
‰ Warm water
‰ Teaspoon
‰ Ziploc baggie (small or medium size)
‰ Graduated cylinder
Earthquakes and Subduction Boundaries
‰ Graph paper
‰ Map of the tectonic plate boundaries
‰ Ruler
Greenhouse Effect
‰ 2 empty containers such as fish aquarium, a large beaker, or a flask
‰ Dry ice
‰ Gloves or tongs
‰ Safety glasses
‰ Heat lamp
‰ Four thermometers (Celsius or Fahrenheit)
‰ Heavy duty tape
‰ Styrofoam cup of water
Coriolis Effect
‰ Circular cardboard
‰ Pin or nail
‰ “Chalkable” globe (optional)
6
Determining Dew Point
‰ Small or medium-sized metal can
‰ Warm water
‰ Crushed ice
‰ Spoon
‰ Thermometer
‰ Wet and dry bulb thermometer (optional)
‰ Metal container
Finding an Epicenter
‰ Calculator
‰ Drawing compass
‰ Ruler
Earthquake Waves: Walk-Run
‰ Handout with data tables and questions
‰ Graph paper (or copies of Figures 1 and 2) and compasses
‰ Calculator and stopwatch
‰ Ruler/Straight-edge
‰ Pencils (or colored pencils)
Newton’s 2nd Law of Motion
‰ Cart
‰ Large rubber band
‰ Tin can
‰ Meter stick
‰ 100 gram mass
‰ Tape
‰ Ramp (1 meter long), can use cove molding or meter sticks with side rails on each side to
keep the balls on the ramp;
‰ 3 balls, wooden, glass, and metal (12 mm or ½ inch works well);
‰ A small cardboard bow (7 x 6 x 4 cm), or a paper cup (cut a 3 x 3 hole in one side of the
cup at the very top on one side);
‰ 3 medium size washers
‰ 4 textbooks
‰ Graph paper
7
Parts of a Lab Report
A Step-by-Step Checklist
Good scientists reflect on their work by writing a lab report. A lab report is a recap of what a
scientist investigated. It is made up of the following parts.
Title (underlined and on the top center of the page)
Benchmarks Covered:
• Your teacher should provide this information for you. It is a summary of the main concepts
that you will learn about by carrying out the experiment.
Problem Statement:
• Identify the research question/problem and state it clearly.
Potential Hypothesis (es):
• State the hypothesis carefully. Do not just guess, instead try to arrive at the hypothesis
logically and, if appropriate, with a calculation.
• Write down your prediction as to how the independent variable will affect the dependent
variable using an “if” and “then” statement.
™ If (state the independent variable) is (choose an action), then (state the dependent
variable) will (choose an action).
Materials:
• Record precise details of all equipment used.
™ For example: a balance that measures with an accuracy of +/- 0.001 g.
• Record precise details of any chemicals used
™ For example: 5 g of CuSO4. 5H2O(s) or 5 g of copper (II) sulfate pentahydrate).
Procedure:
• Do not copy the procedures from the lab manual or handout.
• Summarize the procedures; be sure to include critical steps.
• Give accurate and concise details about the apparatus and materials used.
Variables and Control Test:
• Identify the variables in the experiment. State those over which you have control. There are
three types of variables.
1. Independent variable: (also known as the manipulated variable) the factor that can be
changed by the investigator (the cause).
2. Dependent variable: (also known as the responding variable) the observable factor of an
investigation that is the result or what happened when the independent variable was
changed.
3. Constant variables: The other identified independent variables in the investigation that
are kept or remain the same during the investigation.
• Identify the control test. A control test is the separate experiment that serves as the standard
for comparison to identify experimental effects, changes of the dependent variable resulting
from changes made to the independent variable.
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Data:
• Ensure that all data is recorded.
o Pay particular attention to significant figures and make sure that all units are stated.
•
Present your results clearly. Often it is better to use a table or a graph.
o If using a graph, make sure that the graph has a title, both axes are labeled clearly, and
that the correct scale is chosen to utilize most of the graph space.
•
Record all observations.
o Include color changes, solubility changes, whether heat was evolved or taken in, etc.
Results:
• Ensure that you have used your data correctly to produce the required result.
• Include any other errors or uncertainties that may affect the validity of your result.
Conclusion and Evaluation:
A conclusion statement answers the following 7 questions in at least three paragraphs.
I. First Paragraph: Introduction
1. What was investigated?
a) Describe the problem.
2. Was the hypothesis supported by the data?
a) Compare your actual result to the expected result (either from the literature, textbook, or
your hypothesis).
b) Include a valid conclusion that relates to the initial problem or hypothesis.
3. What were your major findings?
a) Did the findings support or not support the hypothesis as the solution to the restated
problem?
b) Calculate the percentage error from the expected value.
II. Middle Paragraphs: These paragraphs answer question 4 and discuss the major findings
of the experiment using data.
4. How did your findings compare with other researchers?
a) Compare your result to other students’ results in the class.
i)
The body paragraphs support the introductory paragraph by elaborating on the
different pieces of information that were collected as data that either supported or did
not support the original hypothesis.
ii)
Each finding needs its own sentence and relates back to supporting or not
supporting the hypothesis.
iii)
The number of body paragraphs you have will depend on how many different
types of data were collected. They will always refer back to the findings in the first
paragraph.
III.Last Paragraph: Conclusion
5. What possible explanations can you offer for your findings?
a) Evaluate your method.
b) State any assumptions that were made which may affect the result.
6. What recommendations do you have for further study and for improving the experiment?
a) Comment on the limitations of the method chosen.
b) Suggest how the method chosen could be improved to obtain more accurate and reliable
results.
7. What are some possible applications of the experiment?
a) How can this experiment or the findings of this experiment be used in the real world for
the benefit of society?
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Lab Roles and Their Descriptions
Cooperative learning activities are made up of four parts: group accountability, positive
interdependence, individual responsibility, and face-to-face interaction. The key to making
cooperative learning activities work successfully in the classroom is to have clearly defined
tasks for all members of the group. An individual science experiment can be transformed into a
cooperative learning activity by using these lab roles.
Project Director (PD)
The project director is responsible
for the group.
Roles and responsibilities:
• Reads directions to the group
• Keeps group on task
• Is the only group member allowed to
talk to the teacher
• Shares summary of group work and
results with the class
Technical Manager (TM)
The technical manager is in charge
of recording all data.
Roles and responsibilities:
• Records data in tables and/or graphs
• Completes conclusions and final
summaries
• Assists with conducting the lab
procedures
• Assists with the clean up
Materials Manager (MM)
The materials manager is responsible
for obtaining all necessary materials
and/or equipment for the lab.
Roles and responsibilities:
• The only person allowed to be out of
their seat to pick up needed materials
• Organizes materials and/or
equipment in the work space
• Facilitates the use of materials during
the investigation
• Assists with conducting lab
procedures
• Returns all materials at the end of the
lab to the designated area
Safety Director (SD)
The safety director is responsible for
enforcing all safety rules and
conducting the lab.
Roles and responsibilities:
• Assists the PD with keeping the
group on-task
• Conducts lab procedures
• Reports any accident to the teacher
• Keeps track of time
• Assists the MM as needed.
When assigning lab groups, various factors need to be taken in consideration;
• Always assign the group members preferably trying to combine in each group a variety
of skills. For example, you can place an “A” student with a “B”, a “C” and a “D” or an
“F” student.
• Evaluate the groups constantly and observe if they are on task and if the members of the
group support each other in a positive way. Once you realize that a group is
dysfunctional, re-assigned the members to another group.
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Annually-Assessed Benchmarks
Science, Grade 11
The following lists the seventeen Annually-Assessed Benchmarks that will be tested each year of the Grade 11 Science
FCAT. It should be noted that within specific benchmarks other benchmarks are embedded and could be tested
annually.
The Nature of Matter
• SC.A.1.4.3- The student knows that a change from one phase of matter to another involves a
gain or loss of energy. (Also assesses B.1.4.3)
•
SC.A.1.4.4- The student experiments and determines that the rates of reaction among atoms
and molecules depend on the concentration, pressure, and temperature of the reactants and
the presence or absence of catalysts.
•
SC.A.2.4.5- The student knows that elements are arranged into groups and families based on
similarities in electron structure, and that their physical and chemical properties can be
predicted.
Energy
• SC.B.1.4.1- The student understands how knowledge of energy is fundamental to all the
scientific disciplines (e.g., the energy required for biological processes in living organisms
and the energy required for the building, erosion, and rebuilding of the Earth).
Force and Motion
• SC.C.1.4.1- The student knows that all motion is relative to whatever frame of reference is
chosen and that there is no absolute frame of reference from which to observe all motion.
(Also assesses C.1.4.2 and C.2.4.6)
•
SC.C.2.4.1- The student knows that acceleration due to gravitational force is proportional to
mass and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between the objects.
Forces that Shape the Earth
• SC.D.1.4.1- The student knows how climatic patterns on Earth result from an interplay of
many factors (Earth's topography, its rotation on its axis, solar radiation, the transfer of heat
energy where the atmosphere interfaces with lands and oceans, and wind and ocean
currents).
•
SC.D.1.4.2- The student knows that the solid crust of Earth consists of slow-moving,
separate plates that float on a denser, molten layer of Earth and that these plates interact with
each other, changing the Earth's surface in many ways (e.g., forming mountain ranges and
rift valleys, causing earthquake and volcanic activity, and forming undersea mountains that
can become ocean islands).
•
SC.D.2.4.1- The student understands the interconnectedness of the systems on Earth and the
quality of life. (Also assesses SC.G.2.4.4)
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Earth and Space
• SC.E.1.4.1- The student understands the relationships between events on Earth and the
movements of the Earth, its moon, the other planets, and the sun. (Also assesses SC.E.1.4.2
and SC.E.1.4.3)
Processes of Life
• SC.F.1.4.1- The student knows that the body processes involve specific biochemical
reactions governed by biochemical principles. (Also assesses SC.F.1.4.3 and SC.F.1.4.5)
•
SC.F.2.4.3- The student understands the mechanisms of change (e.g., mutation and natural
selection) that lead to adaptations in a species and their ability to survive naturally in
changing conditions and to increase species diversity. (Also assesses SC.D.1.4.4 and
SC.F.1.4.2)
How Living Things Interact with Their Environment
• SC.G.1.4.1- The student knows of the great diversity and interdependence of living things.
(Also assesses SC.G.1.4.2)
•
SC.G.2.4.2- The student knows that changes in a component of an ecosystem will have
unpredictable effects on the entire system but that the components of the system tend to
react in a way that will restore the ecosystem to its original condition. (Also assesses
SC.B.1.4.5 and SC.G.2.4.5)
Nature of Science
• SC.H.1.4.1- The student knows that investigations are conducted to explore new
phenomena, to check on previous results, to test how well a theory predicts, and to compare
different theories. (Also assesses SC.H.1.2.1, SC.H.1.2.2, SC.H.2.4.2, SC.E.2.4.6, and
SC.E.2.4.7)
•
SC.H.2.4.1- The student knows that scientists control conditions in order to obtain evidence,
but when that is not possible for practical or ethical reasons, they try to observe a wide range
of natural occurrences to discern patterns.
•
SC.H.3.4.2- The student knows that technological problems often create a demand for new
scientific knowledge and that new technologies make it possible for scientists to extend their
research in a way that advances science. (Also assesses SC.H.3.4.5 and SC.H.3.4.6)
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Laboratory Safety
Rules:
•
Know the primary and secondary exit routes from the classroom.
•
Know the location of and how to use the safety equipment in the classroom.
•
Work at your assigned seat unless obtaining equipment and chemicals.
•
Do not handle equipment or chemicals without the teacher’s permission.
•
Follow laboratory procedures as explained and do not perform unauthorized experiments.
•
Work as quietly as possible and cooperate with your lab partner.
•
Wear appropriate clothing, proper footwear, and eye protection.
•
Report all accidents and possible hazards to the teachers.
•
Remove all unnecessary materials from the work area and completely clean up the work
area after the experiment.
•
Always make safety your first consideration in the laboratory.
Safety Contract:
I will:
•
•
•
•
•
•
Follow all instructions given by the teacher.
Protect eyes, face and hands, and body while conducting class activities.
Carry out good housekeeping practices.
Know where to get help fast.
Know the location of the first aid and fire fighting equipment.
Conduct myself in a responsible manner at all times in a laboratory situation.
I, _______________________, have read and agree to abide by the safety regulations as set forth
above and also any additional printed instructions provided by the teacher. I further agree to follow
all other written and verbal instructions given in class.
Signature: ____________________________
Date: ___________________
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Laboratory Activities
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Absorption and Reflection of Solar Energy
Benchmarks:
SC.D.1.4.1 The student knows how climatic patterns on Earth result form an interplay of many
factors (Earth’s topography, its rotation on its axis, solar radiation, the transfer of heat energy
where the atmosphere interfaces with lands and oceans, and wind and ocean currents).
Also assesses SC.B.1.4.1 that deals with energy transfer, and SC.D.1.4.3 that deals with tracing
and comparing changes in Earth’s climate.
Objective/Purpose:
•
•
•
•
•
Determine which factors best reflect/absorb solar energy.
Recognize how Earth’s surface characteristics affect the reflection/absorption of solar
energy.
Relate changes in Earth’s surface by human activity to the reflection/absorption of solar
energy.
Explain how the reflection/absorption of solar energy affects the formation of weather.
Develop graphing skills.
Background Information/Engagement:
Energy from the sun is either reflected or absorbed when it reaches Earth.
The surface of the earth is covered with many materials such as different types of rocks, oceans
and lakes of varying depths, ice caps, and a wide variety of vegetation. These materials will
reflect or absorb the sun’s energy differently.
There are many factors of these materials that affect the reflection or absorption of solar energy
including color, texture, transparency, thickness, mass, specific heat, and chemical composition.
The difference in the reflection and absorption of solar energy results in different parts of the
earth to become warm or cool. This difference in solar heating causes the formation of hot and
cold air masses and ultimately forms Earth’s weather.
Problem Statement:
What affects the reflection and absorption of the sun’s energy when it reaches Earth?
Materials (per set-up):
8 pieces of material as described below. Each should be approximately 10 cm X 10 cm.
5 sheets of cardboard each painted a different color: medium green, light blue, medium
brown, black, and white.
1 sheet of sandpaper
1 sheet of metal or aluminum foil
1 sheet of vinyl
8 Celsius thermometers
A watch or clock
15
Graph paper
Lab Safety Concerns:
You will be outside; do not look at the sun.
Thermometers are made of glass; handle with care.
Procedure:
1. Neatly copy the data table, from the section below, into your lab report. Record the color of
your sandpaper, metal, and vinyl materials.
2. Go outside to an open area where you can place the 8 pieces of material into the sun at the
same time.
• Be sure shadows from buildings, trees, or people will not interfere.
• Be sure the materials are all on the same surface (sidewalk, grass, asphalt, table top).
3. On each piece of material, place the bulb of the thermometer in the center of the square. Be
sure you can see the numbers of the thermometer without having to move it or pickup it up.
4. Wait at least 10 minutes for the thermometers to register the difference in heat.
5. Without touching the thermometers, or casting a shadow on them, read the temperature
of each thermometer and record the value in the correct place in the data table. Be as precise
in your readings as possible.
Data (Table and Observations)
Temperature Data Table
Material
Color
Cardboard
medium
green
Cardboard
light blue
Cardboard
medium
brown
Cardboard
white
Cardboard
black
Temperature
(oC)
Sandpaper
Metal
Vinyl
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Data Analysis (Calculations)
1. Use the data you collected to create a bar graph whose x-axis represents the different
materials, and whose y-axis represents the different temperatures. Be sure to:
• include a scientifically correct title for your graph,
• label both the x and y axes,
• include units and/or descriptions,
Results and Conclusions:
Understanding the Data
1. Which material was the hottest?
2. What factor was unique about the hottest material?
3. Which material was the coolest?
4. What factor was unique about the coolest material?
5. List the materials from the hottest to the coolest.
Analyzing the Data
6. Look at the material that was the hottest. What type of surface on Earth would have similar
characteristics (i.e., forests, polar oceans, deserts, etc.)
7. Look at the material that was the coolest. What type of surface on Earth would have similar
characteristics (i.e., forests, polar oceans, deserts, etc.)
8. Why did you create a bar graph rather than a line or circle graph?
9. What changes would you make to improve this lab? Be sure to explain why your changes
would be considered an improvement.
Applying the Data
10. Using information from this lab, what type of roof would you recommend for a home that is
being built where it is hot. Why?
11. Using information from this lab, what type of roof would you recommend for a home that is
being built where it is cold. Why?
12. Use information from this lab to answer the following questions.
a. How would the air movement over a light blue lake be different from the air
movement over an adjacent pine forest? [Hint: Think in terms of what happens to hot
and cold air.]
b. Describe what a pilot would feel (due to the movement of air), if a small plane flew
over the forest, then the lake, and then the forest again.
Closure Activity:
Describe the characteristics of each material that affected its ability to either reflect or absorb
solar energy.
Speculate on how man-made objects change the reflection and absorption of solar radiation.
Explain how these changes affect weather.
Extensions:
Where hot air rises, low pressure areas are formed. Conversely, where cold air falls, high
pressure areas are formed. Air moves from high to low pressure. Furthermore, clouds are
associated with low pressure. Using this information combined with the data you collected from
this lab, complete the attached Energy Absorption and Reflection worksheet.
17
Show Your Understanding
Name
Date
Period
Lab Extension: Energy Absorption and Reflection
For each material that was tested in the lab, describe a land feature that it might represent.
Material
Color
Cardboard
green
Cardboard
light blue
Cardboard
brown
Cardboard
white
Cardboard
black
Earth Surface Feature
Sandpaper
Metal
Vinyl
Think about your responses in the table above. Using the information above and prior
knowledge, answer the questions regarding the diagram below.
1. Which area will reflect the most solar
energy?
2. Which area will absorb the most solar
energy?
3. Based only on the information above,
which area will be hottest?
4. Based only on the information above,
which area will be coolest?
5. Now consider elevation and what you
already know about temperature and
elevation. Which area do you think will be
the hottest?
6. Now consider elevation and what you
already know about temperature and
elevation. Which area do you think will be
the coolest?
7. In which area(s) will high pressure most likely form?
8. In which area(s) will low pressure most likely form?
18
Absorption and Reflection of Solar Energy - Teacher Guide
Lesson Lead (Engagement)
Ask students if they have every walked barefoot over dark asphalt during the summer. Discuss
how their feet felt. Then discuss the temperature difference if they ran over to a light-colored
sidewalk. The students should state that the light-colored sidewalk was cooler.
Ask students why the asphalt was hot, but the concrete sidewalk was cooler. Students will
probably state the dark color of the asphalt held the heat. Ask students if they think material
(asphalt or concrete), regardless of color, retains or reflects heat. Tell students this lab will
investigate the reflection and absorption of solar energy by different types of materials and
colors.
Prior Knowledge
Prior to this lab, students should know how about solar radiation, how high and low pressure
areas are formed, and the affect high and low pressure has on weather.
Data Analysis (Calculations)
The graph should accurately show the data the students collected. The graph should
• include a scientifically correct title
• have both the x and y axis labels
• include units and descriptions
• be neat.
Results and Conclusions:
Understanding the Data
1. Which material was the hottest? Answer will vary, but it should be a dark color, and the
metal.
2. What factor was unique about the hottest material? Answer will vary, but will probably state
the color of the material, or perhaps that metals conduct heat.
3. Which material was the coolest? Answer will vary, but it should be a light color, and the
sandpaper.
4. What factor was unique about the coolest material? Answer will vary, but will probably state
the color of the material, or perhaps that sand does not conduct heat.
5. List the materials from the hottest to the coolest. Answer will vary, but should reflect the
data the students collected.
Analyzing the Data
6. Look at the material that was the hottest. What type of surface on Earth would have similar
characteristics (i.e., forests, polar oceans, deserts, etc.) Dark color – volcanoes or areas of
dark vegetation.
7. Look at the material that was the coolest. What type of surface on Earth would have similar
characteristics (i.e., forests, polar oceans, deserts, etc.) Light color – ice caps, glaciers.
8. Why did you create a bar graph rather than a line or circle graph? Bar graphs are used for a
comparison. This lab was comparing the temperature of different materials. A circle graph
19
is used for showing percentages or parts of a whole. Line graphs show mathematical
relationships and change over a time.
9. What changes would you make to improve this lab? Be sure to explain why your changes
would be considered an improvement. Answers will vary. Accept any logical response.
Use these answers as a jumping point to have a class discussion on variables, constants, and
experimental design.
Applying the Data
13. Using information from this lab, what type of roof would you recommend for a home that is
being built where it is hot. Why? Students should answer a light colored roof because it
reflects energy.
14. Using information from this lab, what type of roof would you recommend for a home that is
being built where it is cold. Why? Students should answer a dark colored roof because it
absorbs energy.
15. Use information from this lab to answer the following questions.
a. How would the air movement over a light blue lake be different from the air
movement over an adjacent pine forest? [Hint: Think in terms of what happens to hot
and cold air.] The lake will be lighter in color so it will be cooler. Air should fall as
high pressure is formed.
b. Describe what a pilot would feel (due to the movement of air), if a small plane flew
over the forest, then the lake, and then the forest again. Air would rise over the
forest, fall over the lake, and then rise again over the forest.
Closure Activity:
Describe the characteristics of each material that affected its ability to either reflect or absorb
solar energy. Answers will vary but should reflect student’s data. Lighter colors should reflect
energy, metals should absorb energy, and sand should reflect energy.
Speculate on how man-made objects change the reflection and absorption of solar radiation.
Explain how these changes affect weather. An area that is light in color reflects energy,
therefore it should be cooler than area that is darker, absorbs energy, and is warmer. If people
cut down a dark green forest, the light colored soil may change the air from rising to falling. A
light colored area may be filled in with dark asphalt, making change falling air into rising air.
Rising air produces low pressure, clouds, and increases humidity. Falling air produces high
pressure, clear skies and decreased humidity.
Extensions:
Where hot air rises, low pressure areas are formed. Conversely, where cold air falls, high
pressure areas are formed. Air moves from high to low pressure. Furthermore, clouds are
associated with low pressure. Using this information combined with the data you collected from
this lab, complete the attached Energy Absorption and Reflection worksheet. See that attached
sheet for possible answers.
20
Show Your Understanding
Name Answer Key
Period
Date
Lab Extension: Energy Absorption and Reflection
For each material that was tested in the lab, describe a land feature that it might represent.
Material
Color
Earth Surface Feature
Cardboard
green
Areas that are vegetated such as forests
Cardboard
light blue
Lakes, shallow ocean
Cardboard
brown
Exposed rocks
Cardboard
white
Ice
Cardboard
black
Exposed dark rocks like might be found near volcanoes
Sandpaper
Sand dunes, beach, desert rocks
Metal
Some man-made structures
Vinyl
Some man-made structures
Think about your responses in the table above. Using the information above and prior
knowledge, answer the questions regarding the diagram below.
1. Which area will reflect the most solar
energy? Desert (lightest area)
2. Which area will absorb the most solar
energy? Mountain forest (darkest green)
3. Based only on the information above,
which area will be hottest? Mountain forest
4. Based only on the information above,
which area will be coolest? Desert
5. Now consider elevation and what you
already know about temperature and
elevation. Which area do you think will be
the hottest? Desert (low elevation)
6. Now consider elevation and what you
already know about temperature and
elevation. Which area do you think will be
the coolest? Mountain (highest elevation)
7. In which area(s) will high pressure most likely form? Mountains, lake (cool air falls)
8. In which area(s) will low pressure most likely form? Desert (warm air rises)
21
Fossils as Evidence for Environments and Change
Benchmarks:
SC.D.1.4.3 The student knows that the changes in Earth’s climate, geologic activity, and life
forms may be traced and compared.
SC.D.1.4.4 The student knows that earth’s systems and organisms are the result of long,
continuous change over time.
Objective/Purpose:
•
•
•
•
Apply the basic principles of uniformitarianism, superposition, and faunal succession.
Compare and contrast the shapes (morphologies) of fossils.
Relate the structure of a fossil to its environment.
Recognize the evidence of change in fossils throughout geologic time.
Background Information/Engagement:
Paleontologists (scientists who study fossils and geologic history) have learned a lot about
geologic history by studying fossils and rocks. Fossils provide clues about the environment in
which they lived. For example, if a fossil has fins, it is assumed it lived in water.
Rock layers are formed whenever there is a change in the environment, such as rain, drought,
snow, or even a landslide. By studying rock layers and by applying basic principles of geology
such as uniformitarianism, superposition, and faunal succession, paleontologists are able to
determine the sequences of events that have occurred in an area.
Organisms adjust in response to changes in their environment. By carefully analyzing
differences in an animal or plant from one rock layer to another, scientists can gather evidence
for slow continuous change over a long period time.
In this lab, you will classify animals by their shape, look at the variations in the shapes of fossils
throughout geologic time, and determine the type of environment in which the animals lived.
Terms Used in this Investigation
Fossils – Fossils are the remains or evidence of once living animals or plants.
Uniformitarianism - The principle of uniformitarianism states the processes that are going
on today, probably went on in the past. For example: today, animals with lots of heavy fur
live in cold climates; if we find fossils of animals with lots of heavy fur, we assume it was
cold in the area in which they lived.
Superposition – This principle states that if there is a sequence of rocks layers, the oldest
layer is on the bottom, and the youngest is on the top. This simple idea is used as the basis
for determining relative ages.
Faunal Succession – The principle of faunal succession states that the age of a fossil is the
same as the age of the rocks it was formed in.
22
Problem Statement:
How do fossils provide clues about Earth’s geologic past?
Materials (per set-up):
Plastic fossil kit by Hubbard Scientific
Attached fossil handout
Geologic Time Chart
Procedure:
6. Look carefully at the fossil handout. You will see sketches of fossils, the animal’s phylum
and genus names, and the geologic time period(s) they lived in.
7. Place your plastic fossils on the table and separate them by phyla.
8. Using the fossil handout as your guide, arrange the fossils from oldest to youngest, within
each phylum group. You will now have several groups of fossils. Each group should have
its fossils arranged by age.
9. On the second row of the Geologic Time Chart write the phylum name for each fossil group.
On the Geologic Time Chart, neatly sketch each fossil within its correct time period, below
the phylum it belongs to. Label each fossil with its genus name.
Data (Table and Observations)
See the attached Geologic Time Chart
Data Analysis (Calculations) – none
Results and Conclusions:
Understanding Fossils
6. Which animal phylum only lived in the Paleozoic?
7. Which animal phyla only lived in both the Paleozoic and the Mesozoic?
8. Which animal phylum only lived in the Cenozoic?
9. Which animal phylum lived through the most number of geologic time periods?
10. Explain how the Principle of Superposition can be used to help determine the age of fossils.
11. Explain how the Principle of Uniformitariansim can be used to evaluate the environment in
which animals lived.
Evaluating Fossils
12. If a paleontologist finds a rock with Flexicalymene:
a. What time period does the rock belong to?
b. What is the age range of the rock?
c. Which geologic principle is being used to date the age of the rock?
13. Imagine a paleontologist finds a rock with both Acanthoscaphites and Tetragramma:
a. What geologic time period does the rock belong to?
b. What is the age range of the rock?
c. Which geologic principle is being used to date the age of the rock?
23
Interpreting the Fossil Record
14. Look carefully at the animals that belong to the Mammalia genus. What type of environment
do you think they lived in?
15. Look carefully at the animals that belong to the Brachiopoda phylum. What type of
environment do you think they lived in?
16. Look carefully at the animals that belong to the Mollusca phylum during the Mesozoic era.
What type of environment do you think they lived in?
17. Looking at the animals in each phylum and how they have changed. Make a generalized
statement of how size changes with time.
18. Looking at the animals in each phylum and how they have changed. Make a generalized
statement of how complexity changes with time.
19. Write a generalized statement of how both animal complexity and size changes with time.
Closure Activity:
Draw a sketch of what you think animals of the following would like 2 million years into the
future.
a. Mollusca
b. Equus
Extensions:
At the end of the Paleozoic, the super-continent of Pangea formed, closing the oceans that
separated the previous land masses.
a. Explain how this change in the land and oceans would affect the environment.
b. Explain how the fossils would reflect the change in the environment.
24
Fossil Handout (Modified from Hubbard Scientific)
Phylum: Mollusca
Genus:Acanthoscaphites
Period: Cretaceous
Phylum: Chordata
Genus: Pisces
Period: Tertiary
Phylum: Echinodermata
Genus: Crinoidea
(sea lily stem)
Period: Mississippian
Phylum: Brachiopoda
Genus: Eospirifer
Period: Silurian
Phylum: Chordata
Genus: Mammalia
(horse tooth)
Period: Quaternary
Phylum: Arthropoda
Genus:Flexicalymene
Period: Silurian
Phylum: Mollusca
Genus: Meekoceras
Period: Triassic
Phylum: Chordata
Genus: Mammalia
(horse tooth)
Period: Tertiary
Phylum: Cephalopoda
Genus:Michelinoceras
Period: Ordovician
Phylum: Brachiopoda
Genus: Mucrospirifer
Period: Devonian
Phylum: Mollusca
Genus: Munsteroceras
Period: Mississippian
Phylum: Brachiopoda
Genus: Neospirifer
Period: Pennsylvanian
Phylum: Brachiopoda
Genus:Oleneothyris
Period: Cretaceous
Phylum: Mollusca
Genus: Pecten
Period: Tertiary - today
Phylum: Echinodermata
Genus: Pentremites
Period: Mississippian
Phylum: Arthropoda
Genus: Phacops
Period: Devonian
Phylum: Brachiopoda
Genus: Spirifer
Period: Mississippian
Phylum: Echinodermata
Genus: Tetragramma
Period: Cretaceous
Phylum: Mollusca
Genus: Turritella
Period: Tertiary
Phylum: Mollusca
Genus: Venericardia
Period: Tertiary - today
25
Geologic Time Chart
Era
Period
Fossils
Phylum Name
Cenozoic
Quaternary
Tertiary
Mesozoic
Cretaceous
Jurassic
Triassic
Permian
Pennsylvanian
Paleozoic
Mississippian
Devonian
Silurian
Ordovician
Cambrian
26
Fossils as Evidence for Environments and Change
Teacher Guide
Lesson Lead (Engagement)
Show pictures of fossils, preferably those that will be used in this lab (use textbook, PowerPoint,
media center books, or any other available source). Ask students what they think the fossils
would tell a scientist about the animals that made the fossils.
Show pictures of layers of rocks, preferably with fossils in them (use textbook, PowerPoint,
media center books, or any other available source). As students how they think fossils would be
different in the layers as you moved from the bottom towards the top of the sequence.
Prior Knowledge
Prior to this lab, students should have been exposed to the concepts of fossilization,
uniformitarianism, superposition, faunal succession, environmental change, and evolution.
Answers - Results and Conclusions:
Understanding Fossils
1. Which animal phylum only lived in the Paleozoic? Arthropoda
2. Which animal phyla only lived in both the Paleozoic and the Mesozoic? Brachiopoda,
echinodermata. Explain to students that they only have a sample of a few fossils. Actually,
echinodermata still exist today – we know them as star fish, sea cucumbers.
3. Which animal phyla only lived in the Cenozoic? Chrodata
4. Which animal phyla lived through the most number of geologic time periods? Mollusca
5. Explain how the Principle of Superposition can be used to help determine the age of fossils.
Older fossils are found on the bottom, younger fossils are located at the top.
6. Explain how the Principle of Uniformitariansim can be used to evaluate the environment in
which animals lived. Fossils whose structure is similar to animals of today, probably lived
in similar environments.
Evaluating Fossils
7. If a paleontologist finds a rock with Flexicalymene:
a. What time period does the rock belong to? Silurian
b. What is the age range of the rock? 416-444 million years
c. Which geologic principle is being used to date the age of the rock? Faunal
Succession.
8. Imagine a paleontologist finds a rock with both Acanthoscaphites and Tetragramma:
a. What geologic time period does the rock belong to? Cretaceous
b. What is the age range of the rock? 65-146 million years
c. Which geologic principle is being used to date the age of the rock? Faunal
Succession.
Interpreting the Fossil Record
9. Look carefully at the animals that belong to the Mammalia genus. What type of environment
do you think they lived in? Land
10. Look carefully at the animals that belong to the Brachiopoda phylum. What type of
environment do you think they lived in? Water (ocean)
27
11. Look carefully at the animals that belong to the Mollusca phylum during the Mesozoic era.
What type of environment do you think they lived in? Water (ocean)
12. Looking at the animals in each phylum and how they have changed. Make a generalized
statement of how size changes with time. They become larger.
13. Looking at the animals in each phylum and how they have changed. Make a generalized
statement of how complexity changes with time. They become more complex.
14. Write a generalized statement of how animal complexity and size changes with time.
Animals become larger and more complex as time passes.
Closure Activity:
Draw a sketch of what you think animals of the following would like 2 million years into the
future.
a. Mollusca
b. Equus
Each of these should show a larger and more complex fossil (more ridges, spines, details).
Extensions:
At the end of the Paleozoic, the super-continent of Pangea formed, closing the oceans that
separated the previous land masses.
c. Explain how this change in the land and oceans would affect the environment.
There would be less oceans, more land. The temperatures would be warmer closer
to the equator, cooler at higher latitudes because water acts as a buffer that helps
keep temperature more moderate.
d. Explain how the fossils would reflect the change in the environment. There would
be a decrease in ocean fossils and an increase in land fossils.
28
Mineral and Rock Identification
Benchmarks:
SC.D.1.4.4 Knows that Earth’s systems and organisms are the result of a long, continuous
change over time.
SC.H.2.4.4 Knows that scientists assume that the inverse is a vast system in which basic rules
exist that may range from very simple to extremely complex, but that scientists operate on the
belief that the rules can be discovered by careful, systemic study.
Objective/Purpose:
•
•
•
•
•
•
Investigate the physical and chemical characteristics of common minerals.
Perform basic tests to determine the identification of common minerals.
Classify minerals based on chemical composition.
Recognize important uses of common minerals.
Investigate the physical properties of common rocks.
Identify common rocks using physical inspection.
Background Information/Engagement:
Rocks are the basic material of the earth’s crust. The shape of the land is, in part, determined by
the type of rock below the surface soil.
Rocks are made up of minerals. In order to identify rocks, geologists need to be able to identify
minerals. Some minerals are gemstones such as amethyst, and diamond. Other minerals are
used in industry such as iron and gypsum.
In this lab you will identify some common rock forming minerals and identify some basic rocks.
Terms Used in this Investigation
Mineral – A solid, inorganic substance that has a definite atomic structure, a definite
chemical composition, and is naturally occurring (not man-made).
Rock – A mixture of minerals.
Streak – Color of the powder of a mineral after it has been scratched across an unglazed
porcelain tile.
Hardness – The ability of a mineral to scratch another mineral.
Luster – The way light reflects off the surface of a mineral.
Cleavage/Fracture – When a mineral is broken it will either cleave, or it will fracture.
Cleavage - The formation a flat surface when a mineral is broken.
Fracture – The appearance of an uneven edge when a mineral is broken.
Foliation – Layers of crystals found in metamorphic rocks.
Problem Statement:
How can physical and chemical properties be used to identify common minerals and rocks?
29
Materials (per set-up):
Common rock forming minerals
Mineral Identification chart
Streak Plate
Small Magnet
Dilute HCL or vinegar
Mineral Identification chart
Common rocks, and one non-rock
Rock Identification chart
Hand lens
Hardness kit (glass, penny, steel nail)
Safety Goggles
Rock Identification chart
Procedure:
Mineral Identification
10. Neatly copy the data table, found in the next section, into your lab report. Be sure to draw
as many empty rows as you have samples of minerals. For example, if you have six
minerals, draw six rows.
11. Write the number of your minerals in the correct column.
12. Using the hand lens, examine each mineral. Perform the mineral identification tests.
Record the information for each mineral in the correct column.
13. Using a mineral identification chart, determine the name for each mineral. The online
website http://geology.csupomona.edu/alert/mineral/minerals.htm is very useful. You may
also use the one in your textbook.
Rock Identification
1. In the next part of the lab you are going to identify rocks. To make this part of the lab more
interesting, one sample is not a rock. As you identify the samples, try to identify which
sample is not a rock.
2. Neatly copy the data table, found in the next section, into your lab report. Be sure to draw
as many empty rows as you have samples of rocks. For example, if you have five rocks,
draw five rows.
3. Write the number of your rocks in the correct column.
4. Using the hand lens, examine each rock for clues to determine if the rock formed from
molten material. Notice the rock’s color and texture. Observe if there are any crystals or
grains in the rock.
5. Using the hand lens, examine each rock for clues to determine if the rock formed from
particles of other rocks. Observe the texture of the rock to see if it has any tiny,
well-rounded grains or small pieces of shells (fossils). Look for layers of sediments.
6. Using the hand lens, examine each rock for clues to determine if the rock formed under heat
and pressure. Observe if the rock has flat layers of crystals or shows colored bands.
7. Record the information for each rock in the correct column.
8. Using a rock identification chart, determine the name for each rock. You may use the rock
chart located in your textbook.
30
Data (Table and Observations)
Mineral Identification Table
Mineral
Number
Luster
Hardness
(Metallic or
Nonmetallic)
Color
Streak
Color
(Light or
Dark)
Cleavage or
Fracture
Other
Properties
(magnetism,
acid reaction,
etc.)
Mineral
Name
Rock Identification Table
Rock
Number
Color
(Light or
Dark)
Crystals/Grains
Texture
(fine, medium,
coarse)
Layers or
Type of Rock
Foliations
Sedimentary
(if none, state so)
Igneous Intrusive
Rock Name
Igneous Extrusive
Metamorphic
Data Analysis (Calculations) – none
Results and Conclusions:
Understanding Minerals
20. Which test was the most useful in identifying minerals?
21. Which test was the least useful in identifying minerals?
22. Compare and contrast fracture and cleavage.
23. Which test(s) evaluated physical properties of minerals?
24. Which test(s) evaluated chemical properties of minerals?
25. Select three of your mineral samples. Research and describe their common use or economic
value.
Understanding Rocks
10. Which physical properties did you use to identify igneous rocks?
11. Which physical properties did you use to identify sedimentary rocks?
12. Which physical properties did you use to identify metamorphic rocks?
13. What physical property was most useful in classifying rocks? Why?
14. What is the difference between the size of the crystals/grains in an intrusive and an extrusive
igneous rock?
15. Which sample is not a rock?
a. How did you determine that it was not a rock?
b. What do you think this “mystery rock” is? Explain your answer.
31
Closure Activity:
As a group, discuss the physical/chemical properties used to identify the mineral and rock
samples. Check the identity of some or all the samples.
Extensions:
Minerals are classified by their chemical composition. Carefully read and complete the attached
Mineral Classification worksheet.
Each rock type can become another type of rock. Complete the attached Rock Cycle worksheet.
32
Show Your Understanding
Name
Date
Period
Lab Extension: Mineral Classification
Mineral Groups
Silicates: Si + O + one or more metals
Carbonates: C03 + one or more metals
Oxides: O + one or more metals
Sulfates: S04 + one or more metals
Sulfides: S + one or more metals
Halides: CI or F + a metal
(usually sodium, potassium, calcium)
Native Elements: An element not combined with any other element
Below are the names and chemical formulas of 26 common minerals.
Carefully look at the chemical formula of each mineral and compare it to the information above.
In the space provided, write the name of the mineral group each mineral belongs to.
1. Quartz
2.
Potassium (Orthoclase)
Feldspar
Si02
KAISi308
Graphite
C
4. Diamond
C
3.
5.
Hematite
6. Magnetite
7. Ice
Fe203
Fe304
H20
8. Platinum
Pt
9. Gold
Au
33
10. Galena
PbS
11. Cinnabar
HgS
12. Pyrite
FeS2
13. Plagioclase Feldspar
14. Gypsum
CaAlSi208
CaS04-2H2O
15. Barite
BaS04
16. Halite
NaCI
17. Fluorite
CaF2
18. Sylvite
KCI
19. Calcite
CaC03
20. Dolomite
CaMg(C03)2
21. Muscovite
KAI2(AISi3010)(OH) 2
22. Olivine
Fe2Si04
23. Anhydrite
CaS04
24. Corundum
AI203
25. Silver
Ag
26. Copper
Cu
34
Show Your Understanding
Name
Date
Period
Lab Extension: The Rock Cycle
Below is an outline of the rock cycle. Fill in the blanks with the following terms:
Melting and Cooling
Heat and Pressure
Igneous
Metamorphic
Erosion, Deposition and Cementation
35
Mineral and Rock Identification
Teacher Guide
Lesson Lead (Engagement)
Show pictures of interesting rock formations such as the Grand Canyon, sinkholes, and
balancing rocks (use textbook, PowerPoint, media center books, or any other available source).
Ask students how they think the formations were made. Have them speculate if all rocks would
form the same structures.
Prior Knowledge
Prior to this lab, students should know how to carry out mineral and rock identification, and
know how to determine the different types of mineral groups. In particular, students should
know how to perform the following mineral identification tests:
luster (metallic, nonmetallic, pearly, waxy, glassy or vitreous, brilliant, oily, dull, earthy)
hardness using Moh’s Hardness scale and common objects such as their fingernail, a penny,
glass, and a nail)
streak
cleavage* (single plane, cubes, or oblique angles)
fracture* (irregular, conchoidal, splintery, fibrous)
acid reactivity (be sure to have students use goggles)
magnetism
double refraction
fluorescence (optional)
phosphorescence (optional)
*Most schools will not have enough samples of minerals for students to actually break the
minerals to see if they cleave or fracture. Explain that the samples were already broken
from much larger samples. If there is a flat surface on the mineral, then the mineral cleaved
and formed the surface. Emphasize that none of the mineral samples were cut.
Answers - Results and Conclusions:
The mineral and rock properties and identities will vary depending on which rock and mineral
samples your students use. You should have common minerals such as quartz, pyrite, hematite,
galena, graphite, biotite, calcite (clear samples so that students can see double refraction), halite,
gypsum, talc, and fluorite.
Common rocks should include easily recognizable samples of granite, sandstone, basalt, coal,
snowflake obsidian (regular obsidian is easily confused as a mineral by most students), shale,
coquina, breccia, pumice, schist, gneiss, and marble (most students will think that marble is an
igneous rock, so be sure to explain how to recognize marble).
You should have one non-rock sample such as an obvious mineral. The idea is that you want
students to see that rocks are composed of more than one mineral.
36
Understanding Minerals
1. Which test was the most useful in identifying minerals? Answers will vary depending on the
samples. Accept any logical response.
2. Which test was the least useful in identifying minerals? Answers will vary depending on the
samples. Accept any logical response.
3. Compare and contrast fracture and cleavage. They both occur when a rock is broken, but
cleavage produces a flat surface whereas a fracture is uneven.
4. Which test(s) evaluated physical properties of minerals? All except the acid test: luster,
color, streak, hardness, cleavage/fracture, magnetism, double refraction, etc.
5. Which test(s) evaluated chemical properties of minerals? The acid test.
6. Select three of your mineral samples. Research and describe their common use or economic
value. Answers will vary depending on the samples. Accept any logical response.
Understanding Rocks
16. Which physical properties did you use to identify igneous rocks? The appearance of crystalline
texture.
17. Which physical properties did you use to identify sedimentary rocks? The appearance of grains of
sediment and/or fossils.
18. Which physical properties did you use to identify metamorphic rocks? The appearance of foliations.
19. What physical property was most useful in classifying rocks? Why? Answers will vary depending
on the samples. Accept any logical response.
20. What is the difference between the size of the crystals/grains in an intrusive and an extrusive
igneous rock? Intrusive crystals tend to be small, requiring the use of a microscopic or hand
lens. Extrusive crystals are large enough to be easily seen without the aid of a microscope
or hand lens.
21. Which sample is not a rock?
a. How did you determine that it was not a rock? Answers will vary depending on the
samples. Accept any logical response.
b. What do you think this “mystery rock” is? Explain your answer. Answers will vary
depending on the samples. Accept any logical response.
Closure Activity:
As a group, discuss the physical/chemical properties used to identify the mineral and rock
samples. Check the identity of some or all the samples.
Extensions:
Minerals are classified by their chemical composition. Carefully read and complete the attached
Mineral Classification worksheet. See the following completed worksheet for answers.
Each rock type can become another type of rock. Complete the attached Rock Cycle worksheet.
See the following completed worksheet for answers.
37
Show Your Understanding
Name Answer Key
Period
Date
Lab Extension: Mineral Classification
Mineral Groups
Silicates: Si + O + one or more metals
Carbonates: C03 + one or more metals
Oxides: O + one or more metals
Sulfates: S04 + one or more metals
Sulfides: S + one or more metals
Halides: CI or F + a metal
(usually sodium, potassium, calcium)
Native Elements: An element not combined with any other element
Below are the names and chemical formulas of 26 common minerals.
Carefully look at the chemical formula of each mineral and compare it to the information above.
In the space provided, write the name of the mineral group each mineral belongs to.
1. Quartz
Si02
Silicate
KAISi308
Silicate
Graphite
C by itself
Native Element
4. Diamond
C by itself
Native Element
Fe203
Oxide
Fe304
Oxide
H20
Oxide
8. Platinum
Pt by itself
Native Element
9. Gold
Au by itself
Native Element
2.
3.
5.
Potassium (Orthoclase)
Feldspar
Hematite
6. Magnetite
7. Ice
38
10. Galena
PbS
Sulfide
11. Cinnabar
HgS
Sulfide
12. Pyrite
FeS2
Sulfide
CaAlSi208
Silicate
CaS04-2H2O
Sulfate
15. Barite
BaS04
Sulfate
16. Halite
NaCI
Halide
17. Fluorite
CaF2
Halide
18. Sylvite
KCI
Halide
19. Calcite
CaC03
Carbonate
20. Dolomite
CaMg(C03)2
Carbonate
21. Muscovite
KAI2(AISi3010)(OH) 2
Silicate
22. Olivine
Fe2Si04
Silicate
23. Anhydrite
CaS04
Sulfate
24. Corundum
AI203
Oxide
25. Silver
Ag by itself
Native Element
26. Copper
Cu by itself
Native Element
13. Plagioclase Feldspar
14. Gypsum
39
Show Your Understanding
Name Answer Key
Date
Period
Lab Extension: The Rock Cycle
Below is an outline of the rock cycle. Fill in the blanks with the terms below.
Melting and Cooling
Metamorphic
Heat and Pressure
Igneous
Erosion, Deposition and Cementation
40
Sea-Floor-Spreading
Benchmarks:
SC.D.1.4.2 The student knows that the solid crust of Earth consists of slow-moving, separate
plates that float on a denser, molten layer of Earth and that these plates interact with each other,
changing Earth’s surface in many ways (e.g., forming mountain ranges and rift valleys, causing
earthquake and volcanic activity, and forming undersea mountains that can become ocean
islands).
Also assesses benchmarks that deal with the development and modification of scientific theory:
SC.H.1.4.1, SC.H.1.4.2, SC.H.1.4.3, SC.H.1.4.5, SC.H.1.4.6
Also assesses SC.B.1.4.1 that deals with energy transfer required in the building and rebuilding
of earth.
Objective/Purpose:
•
•
•
Describe the process that forms new oceanic crust.
Identify how paleomagnetism provides evidence for sea-floor spreading.
Explain how sea-floor spreading provides a mechanism for continental drift.
Background Information/Engagement:
Sea-Floor-Spreading - Along the entire length of Earth’s mid-ocean ridge, the sea floor is
spreading, that is, the ocean floor is being split open. This process allows new material to be
added to the ocean floor. Although this takes place constantly, it is difficult to observe directly.
Magnetic Reversals – The earth’s magnetic field has reversed throughout geologic history.
Evidence for magnetic reversals can be found at the location of sea-floor-spreading. Where the
sea floor is splitting apart, lava moves upward, cools and forms new ocean floor. As the lava
cools, it records the magnetic field of the earth at that time. Therefore, we can see the reversals
of the magnetic field recorded in the ocean floor.
In this lab you will build a model to help understand the process of sea-floor-spreading and how
magnetic reversals are recorded in the ocean floor.
Problem Statement:
How does sea-floor spreading add material to the ocean floor?
Materials (per set-up):
Scissors
Metric ruler
1 sheet of unlined, white paper
1 sheet of unlined, colored paper
Colored markers or pencils
41
Procedure:
1. Beginning at a short edge of the white paper, draw lines parallel to the short side using the
values listed for distance in the table below. The lines will vary in spacing and you must
also vary the lines in thickness. Use two different colors for marking each polarity.
Distance
(cm)
6.5
7.7
10.0
20.5
24.5
27.5
Magnetic
Polarity
Normal
Normal
Reversed
Reversed
Normal
Reversed
Age
(millions of years)
0.5
0.6
0.8
1.6
1.9
2.2
Example: This is only a partial example. Not all the lines are
drawn, nor are they drawn correctly. You need to carefully
measure and draw all the lines
2. Fold the paper in half lengthwise and write the word “START” at the top end of both halves
of the paper. Using the scissors carefully cut the paper in half along the fold line making two
strips of paper.
3. Continue with the next step using the colored sheet of paper.
4. Bringing the two short ends together, lightly fold the colored
sheet of paper in half, then in half again, then in half again.
Unfold the paper, leaving the creases in the paper. Your paper
should resemble an accordion, folded into eighths.
5. Fold this sheet in half lengthwise.
42
6. Starting at the lengthwise fold, draw lines 5.5 cm long in the middle crease and the two
creases closest to the ends of the paper.
7. Carefully cut the lines you drew making sure that the
paper is still folded.
8. After cutting, unfold the paper to show three slits in the paper.
9. Put the two striped strips of paper together so that their
“START” labels touch one another. Insert the “START”
ends of the strips up through the center slit and then pull
them toward the side slits.
10. Insert the ends of the strips into the side slits. Pull the ends of the strips and watch what
happens at the center slit.
11.
Practice pulling the strips through the slits until you can make the two strips come up and go
down at the same time.
43
Data (Table and Observations)
1. Neatly copy the data table below into your lab report.
2. With your strips of paper fully pulled through the center of the colored paper, record the
lines of the magnetic pattern into the top row of your data table. Pay close attention to the
width of each line.
3. In the second row, state the type of magnetic polarity each line represents, normal or
reversed.
4. In the third row, record the age of the rocks directly below each line.
Left Edge
Edge
Magnetic Pattern
Center
Right
Magnetic Polarity
Age of Rocks
Example: As in the previous examples, the information in the table is not correct. The example
is only showing you the main idea of how to record the information into the table.
44
Data Analysis (Calculations) – none
Results and Conclusions:
Understanding the Model
1. What feature on the ocean floor does the center slit represent?
2. What do the side slits represent?
3. What do the lines on the strips represent?
4. Is earth’s current polarity normal or reversed?
Analyzing the Model
5. Think about the internal structure of the earth. What part of the earth is underneath the
colored paper?
6. Think about the topographic features on the bottom of the ocean. What two prominent
topographic features of the ocean floor are missing from the model at the center slit?
7. Think about the topographic features on the bottom of the ocean. What prominent
topographic feature is missing at the side slits?
8. How does the age of the ocean floor closest to the center slit differ from the age of the ocean
floor near a side slit?
9. Make a general statement regarding the age of rocks as distance increases from the center
slit.
Evaluating Sea-Floor-Spreading
10. What type of plate boundary is represented at the center slit?
11. Why does your model have identical patterns of magnetic lines on both sides of the center
slit?
12. The lines of normal and reversed polarity are not all of equal width. What does this tell you
about the lengths of time represented by normal and reversed polarity?
13. Explain how differences in density and temperature provide some of the force needed to
move the strips in your model.
14. In order for an object to move, energy is needed. Where do you think the energy to move
the plates comes from?
15. Why do ages of the rocks change as you move away from the center slit?
16. What plate tectonic process is occurring at the side slits?
17. The Earth is about 4.6 billion years old. Think about what is occurring in your model of seafloor-spreading. Why do you think the oldest ocean floor is only about 200 million years
old?
18. Describe the change that is occurring to the size of the oceans as a result of sea-floorspreading.
19. Describe how the process shown in your model explains continental drift.
Closure Activity:
• Label the parts of the attached handout.
• Use your own words to describe the process of sea-floor-spreading.
Extensions:
Imagine that an island formed as a result of eruptions at the mid-ocean ridge. How could you
modify your model to show this island? How could you show what would happen to the island
over a long period of time?
45
Show Your Understanding
Name
Date
Period
Lab Extension: Sea-Floor-Spreading
I. Use the terms below to identify the parts of the sea-floor spreading process and associated
land forms. Note: the diagram is not drawn to scale.
Place the letter of the term in its correct location.
A. Oceanic Plate
D. Ocean Trench
Mountains
B. Continental Plate
C. Rift Valley
E. Subduction
F. Continental
G. Convection
II. Use your own words to describe the process of sea-floor-spreading.
46
Sea-Floor-Spreading – Teacher Guide
Lesson Lead (Engagement)
Choose one or both of the following:
1. Show pictures of the Hawaiian Islands (use textbook, PowerPoint, media center books, or
any other available source). Tell students that the largest island is the only island that has
active volcanoes and that the ages of the rocks on the islands indicate that the larger islands
are younger than the smaller islands. In fact, the smaller the island, the older it is. Ask
students to speculate as to why this may be. Do not explain the reason (tectonic plates are
moving over a “hot spot”), rather, let students know that they are going to create a model of
the earth’s plates, their movement, and evaluate the model, and that the model should help
explain the reason.
2. Show pictures of the mid-ocean ridge or the African Rift Valley (use textbook, PowerPoint,
media center books, or any other available source). Ask students to speculate as to how the
ridge and rift structures are formed. Do not explain the reason (tectonic plates are moving
apart resulting in volcanic mountains that are continuing to be split in half), rather, let
students know that they are going to create a model of the earth’s plates, their movement,
and evaluate the model, and that the model should help explain the reason.
Prior Knowledge
Prior to this lab, students should have been exposed to the concepts of continental drift, seafloor-spreading, plate tectonics, topographic features of the ocean floor, paleomagnetism,
converging and diverging boundaries, and the structures located at each boundary type.
Answers - Results and Conclusions:
Understanding the Model
1. What feature of the ocean floor does the center slit represent? Any of the following terms
are acceptable: mid-ocean ridge, diverging area, spreading center, rift valley or zone.
2. What do the side slits represent? Any of the following: subduction zone, edge of continents,
ocean trench, or converging area.
3. What do the lines on the strips represent? Magnetic polarity or orientation.
4. Is earth’s current polarity normal or reversed? Normal.
Analyzing the Model
5. Think about the internal structure of the earth. What part of the earth is underneath the
colored paper? Either of the following: mantle, asthenosphere
6. Think about the topographic features on the bottom of the ocean. What two prominent
topographic features of the ocean floor are missing from the model at the center slit?
(1)Mountain, volcano, or volcanic mountain, and (2) rift valley.
7. Think about the topographic features on the bottom the ocean. What prominent topographic
feature is missing at the side slits? Ocean trench.
8. How does the age of the ocean floor closest to the center slit differ from the age of the ocean
floor near a side slit? The closer the ocean floor is to the center, the younger it is; the
farther away from the center (closer to the sides) the older it is.
47
9. Make a general statement regarding the age of rocks as distance increases from the center
slit. As distance increases, the rocks become older.
Evaluating Sea-Floor-Spreading
10. What type of plate boundary is represented at the center slit? Converging.
11. Why does your model have identical patterns of magnetic lines on both sides of the center
slit? The magma from the mantle moves upward and cools. As it hardens, it records the
polarity of the magnetic field of Earth.
12. The lines of normal and reversed polarity are not all of equal width. What does this tell you
about the lengths of time represented by normal and reversed polarity? The length of time
between magnetic reversals was not the same. Sometimes it was longer before a reversal
occurred, sometimes it was shorter.
13. Explain how differences in density and temperature provide some of the force needed to
move the strips in your model. As the magma heats up, it becomes less dense and moves
upward. It hits the lithosphere and moves sideways. As it moves sideways, it drags the
plates of the lithosphere with it. Also as the magma moves sideways beneath the lithosphere,
it cools. As the magma cools, it becomes more dense and sinks.
14. In order for an object to move, energy is needed. Where do you think the energy to move
the plates comes from? From the heat generated by the fusion occurring in the Earth’s core.
15. Why do ages of the rocks change as you move away from the center slit? Magma is moving
upward in the center, cools, and hardens. After it hardens, it is split apart and pushed away
as new magma moves up. The older material keeps getting pushed away as new material
comes up. Therefore, older rocks are on the side, and newer rocks are in the center.
16. What plate tectonic process is occurring at the side slits? Subduction.
17. The Earth is about 4.6 billion years old. Think about what is occurring in your model of seafloor-spreading. Why do you think the oldest ocean floor is only about 200 million years
old? As the ocean floor moves sideways and runs into continents, the ocean floor plunges
beneath the continental plate (subducted). As the ocean floor is subducted, it is exposed to
heat, melts and becomes part of the asthenosphere. Therefore, it is melted/destroyed before
it becomes very old.
18. Describe the change that is occurring to the size of the oceans as a result of sea-floorspreading. The oceans are becoming larger where sea-floor-spreading is occurring.
19. Describe how the process shown in your model explains continental drift. As new ocean
floor is being formed and split apart, it pushes the continents apart.
Closure Activity:
• Label the parts of the attached handout. See attached for answers.
• Use your own words to describe the process of sea-floor-spreading. Answers will vary, but
should be detailed mentioning magma (or lava) moving upward, solidifies, is split apart,
and pushes the continents apart. It should continue stating the ocean floor is becoming
larger.
Extensions:
Imagine that so much molten rock erupted from the mid-ocean ridge that an island formed. How
could you modify your model to show this island? How could you show what would happen to
the island over a long period of time? Answers will vary. Accept any logical and creative way
that would show the island being split and separated as the ocean moves apart. The islands will
leave some sort of “trail” as the ocean floor becomes larger and carries the island halves away
from the center.
48
Show Your Understanding
Name Answer Key
Date
Period
Lab Extension: Sea-Floor-Spreading
I. Use the terms below to identify the parts of the sea-floor spreading process and associated
land forms. Note: the diagram is not drawn to scale.
Place the letter of the term in its correct location.
A. Oceanic Plate
D. Ocean Trench
Mountains
B. Continental Plate
C. Rift Valley
E. Subduction
F. Continental
G. Convection
II. Use your own words to describe the process of sea-floor spreading.
49
Modeling Our Solar System and Kepler’s Laws of Motion
Benchmarks:
SC.H.2.4.1 The student knows that scientists assume that the universe is a vast system in which
basic rules exist that may range from very simple to extremely complex but that scientists
operate on the belief that the rules can be discovered by careful, systemic study.
SC.E.1.4.1 The student understands the relationships between events on earth and the
movements of the Earth, its moon, the other planets, and the sun.
Objective/Purpose:
•
•
Construct a scale model of the solar system based on the size of the major objects.
Construct a scale model of the solar system based on the distance between the major objects.
Background Information/Engagement:
Space is so huge it is difficult to visualize the size of our solar system, and the size of the
individual planets. We often get the idea that the planets are really close to each other, and that
they may even collide with each other.
The distance from Earth to the Sun is about 150,000,000 km (93,000,000 miles). Even though
this sounds like a huge distance, it is small compared to the distance between Earth and Pluto.
The enormous distances of the planets from the Sun are most easily described when compared
to the relative distance between the Earth and the Sun. We describe this relative distance
between the Earth and the Sun as one astronomical unit or 1 A.U. One A.U is equal to
150,000,000 km.
In this activity you will create a scale model of the solar system and a scale model of the size of
the sun and each planet. From this lab you will see how empty space is; that is why we call
space “space” because there is almost nothing there.
In this lab we will also examine Kepler’s Second Law of Planetary Motion.
Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion:
First Law: "The orbit of every planet is an ellipse with the sun at one of the foci."
Second Law: "A line joining a planet and the sun sweeps out equal areas during equal
intervals of time."
This law means that planets travel faster when they are closer to the sun and
slower when they are farther away from the sun.
Third Law: "The squares of the orbital periods of planets are directly proportional to the
cubes of the semi-major axis of the orbits."
Problem Statement:
How empty is our Solar System?
50
Materials (per set-up):
10 meters of adding machine tape
Basic calculator
Meter sticks
Pencils
Procedure:
1. Neatly copy the table from the next section into your lab report. The data table lists each
planet, its average distance from the sun in millions of kilometers, and its diameter. There
are also columns left blank for you to fill in, as explained below.
2. Distance from the Sun in A.U.s – If one A.U is 150 million km, then to determine the A.U.
of a planet, simple divide the actual distance in kilometers by 150. This can be calculated by
using the formula:
A.U. of Planet Planet’s = Actual Distance / 150
(For example)
0.72 A.U. for Venus
=
108 / 150
3. Scaled Distance from the Sun – If the Earth’s distance from the Sun was represented by
20cm, how many centimeters would represent Venus’ distance from the Sun? This can be
calculated by using the formula:
A.U x
(For example)
20cm = Scaled Distance of Planet from Sun
0.72 A.U. x 20cm =
14.4cm
4. Scaled Diameter – Using a scale of 1cm for each 7,000,000 km, what scale would be the
scaled diameter of the Sun and each planet? This can be calculated by using the formula:
Diameter in cm
(For example)
=
0.2cm =
Actual Diameter / 7,000,000
1,400,000 / 7,000,000
5. Complete the data table as described above.
6. Creating the Model – Obtain a piece of adding machine tape about 10 meters in length. A
few centimeters from one end draw a circle whose diameter is the same the scaled diameter
from the Sun. Blacken this circle with pencil or pen and label is as the Sun. At the
calculated distance for Mercury, place a very small dot with a sharp pencil point. (Note:
even this dot is too large to represent Mercury accurately, but we can’t draw things smaller
using an ordinary pencil or pen). Continue to place each planet on the tape at its properscaled distance from the Sun. In each case, represent the planet by a circle at the correct
scaled size. Label each planet.
7. You should soon realize that the planets are so small, compared to their distance from the
sun, that you can’t draw them small enough. That is OK, just make a small point and label it
with the planet’s name. If you are careful, you might be able to draw Jupiter and Saturn to
scale.
51
Data (Table and Observations)
Size and Distance of Planets in the Solar System
Planets and
Actual
Distance
Actual
Scaled
Minor Planet
Distance from Sun Diameter Distance
from Sun
(A.U.)
(km)
of Planets
(106 km)
(cm)
Sun
----1,400,000
--Mercury
58
4878
Venus
108
0.72
12104
14.4
Earth
150
1
12756
20
Mars
228
6794
Jupiter
778
142796
Saturn
1427
120660
Uranus
2871
52400
Neptune
4497
50450
Pluto
5914
2445
Scaled
Diameter
(cm)
0.2
1
Data Analysis (Calculations) –
Show a sample of each type of calculation you performed for this lab.
Distance from the Sun in A.U. –
Scaled Distance from the Sun –
Scaled Diameter –
Results and Conclusions:
1. Which planets gave you the most difficulty in drawing their proper size using the calculated
scale?
2. Compare the pattern of spacing of the inner planets with the pattern of spacing of the outer
planets.
3. There seems to be three sets of pairs if you compare the planets by their diameter. List the
other planet that has nearly the same diameter for each of the following planets:
a. Venus
b. Jupiter
c. Neptune.
52
4. Bodes Law - Complete the number series:
0
3
6
12
Add 4 to each number above and divide by 10. Write answers below:
0.4
0.7
a. This is Bode’s number system, known as Bode’s Law. How do these numbers
compare to the relative distance of planets from the Sun in A.U.’s?
b. How does Bode’s Law account for the asteroids?
5. Looking at your model of the solar system, and referring to Kepler’s Laws of Motion:
a. Which planet will revolve the fastest?
b. Which planet will revolve the slowest?
c. Which planets will revolve slower than Earth?
Closure Activity:
Using Kepler’s Laws of Motion as a guide, if you knew the distance from the sun to a planet,
what other information could you determine about the planet’s orbit?
Extensions:
Make a concept map of the solar system using the following terms: sun, inner planet, outer
planet, minor (dwarf) planets, the names of each of the major planets, and names of each of the
minor planets.
53
Modeling Our Solar System and Kepler’s Laws of Motion
Teacher Guide
Lesson Lead (Engagement)
3. Draw a circle on the board and tell the students it represents the sun. Ask students to come
to the board and draw what they think is the correct size circle for each planet, compared to
the size of the circle you drew for the sun.
Use this engagement activity to discuss the different sizes of the planets, and the order of the
planets from the sun.
Discuss what scale models are, and why they are used in science.
4. Draw a smaller circle on the board and ask someone to come up and draw another circle
where the first planet would be located, based on the size of the sun. Ask another student to
draw a circle for the second planet, and so on.
Explain to the students that this lab activity will show the distances of the planets from the
sun.
Prior Knowledge
Prior to this lab, students should already know the names of the major and minor planets, the
order of the planets from the sun, and be exposed to Kepler’s Laws of Planetary Motion.
Answers - Results and Conclusions:
1. Which planets gave you the most difficulty in drawing their proper size using the calculated
scale? Students should answer the smallest planets: Pluto, Mercury, Mars
2. Compare the pattern of spacing of the inner planets with the pattern of spacing of the outer
planets. The students should easily see that the inner planets are much closer to the sun, but
the outer planets are much farther away. They should recognize that the terms “inner” and
“outer” have real meaning as they relate to the solar system.
3. There seems to be three sets of pairs if you compare the planets by their diameter. List the
other planet that has nearly the same diameter for each of the following planets:
d. Venus - Earth
e. Jupiter - Saturn
f. Neptune - Neptune
54
4. Bodes Law - Complete the number series: each number is doubled
0
3
6
12
24
48
96
192
384
768
38.8
77.2
Add 4 to each number above and divide by 10. Write answers below:
0.4
0.7
1
1.6
2.8
5.2
10
19.6
g. This is Bode’s number system, known as Bode’s Law. How do these numbers
compare to the relative distance of planets from the Sun in A.U.’s? Students should
realize that the numbers in Bode’s Law are almost identical to the A.U.s up till the
outer planets.
h. How does Bode’s Law account for the asteroids? The asteroids lie between Mars
and Jupiter. Bode’s value of 2.8 is actually the distance of the asteroid belt.
5. Looking at your model of the solar system, and referring to Kepler’s Laws of Motion:
i. Which planet will revolve the fastest? Mercury, it is closest to the sun
j. Which planet will revolve the slowest? Pluto, it is furthest away.
k. Which planets will revolve slower than Earth? Those further away than Earth: Mars,
Jupiter, Saturn, Uranus, Neptune, and Pluto.
Closure Activity:
Using Kepler’s Laws of Motion as a guide, if you knew the distance from the sun to a planet,
what other information could you determine about the planet’s orbit? You could determine the
planets orbital period.
Extensions:
Make a concept map of the solar system using the following terms: sun, inner planet, outer
planet, the names of each of the major planets, and names of each of the minor planets.
There is more than one way to create a concept map, but here is one example:
The Major and Minor Planets
Sun
Major Planets
Inner Planet
Mercury
Venus
Earth
Mars
Outer Planets
Jupiter
Saturn
Uranus
Neptune
Minor Planets
Pluto
Sedna
Eris
55
SALT WATER DENSITY LAB ACTIVITY
Benchmarks:
SC.D.1.4.1 – The student knows how climatic patterns on Earth result from an interplay of many
factors (Earth’s topography, its rotation on its axis, solar radiation, the transfer of heat energy where
the atmosphere interfaces with lands and oceans, and wind and ocean currents). AA
SC.A.1.4.3 – The student knows that a change from one phase of matter to another involves a gain
or loss of energy.
(Also assesses benchmarks SC.D.2.4.2, SC.H.2.4.1, SC.H.3.4.1, SC.H.3.4.3, SC.H.3.4.6)
Objective/Purpose:
• Examine the properties of density and the relationship between mass and volume
• Utilize science lab equipment to accurately measure volume, weight, and density
• Compare the density of water samples of various salinities
• Identify factors that affect the density of ocean water
• Relate how density differences in bodies of water affect the movement which occurs
throughout them
Background Information/Engagement:
The ocean contains several minerals, but the most common on is sodium chloride (NaCl), or more
commonly known as salt. The saltiness, or salinity, of ocean water is about 35 parts per thousand.
To make a sample of water that has approximately the same salinity as the ocean, your teacher used
the following recipe:
3.5 g of salt + 96.5 g of water = 100 g of salt water
The salinity of this water is expressed as three parts per hundred. In other words, there are 3½ parts
of salt in a total volume of 100 parts of salt water. This is the same as 35 parts per thousand.
Salinity greatly affects which organism can live in water. Some fish, insects, and plants require
fresh water. Fresh water contains some dissolved minerals, such as NaCl, but in much smaller
amounts than are found in the ocean. Ocean-dwelling plants and animals have special structures to
deal with the water’s saltiness. Some fish have pores through which they excrete excess salt.
Since the ocean contains more salt than fresh water, it is denser than fresh water. Therefore, fresh
water will float on top of ocean water. Density is a physical trait of matter. The density of matter
can be determined by dividing the volume of that matter by its mass. The formula that expresses
density is:
D = m/v where D = density, v = volume, and m = mass.
For example, if the volume of a sample is 10 milliliters, and the mass of that is 5 grams, its density
is:
D = m/v where D = 5g/10mL then D = 0.5g/mL
Problem Statement:
What properties affect the density of various water samples?
56
Materials:
Balance
Sample of “fresh” water (stored in large beaker)
Sample of “ocean” water (stored in large beaker)
Salt
Small paper cup or other reusable container
Graduated cylinder
Paper towels
Procedures:
1. Weigh the small cup or container. Record your measurements in the data table.
2. Fill the cup about one-half full from the large beaker labeled “fresh water.” Weigh the cup and
water again. Record your measurements.
3. By subtraction, determine the weight of the fresh water. Record your results.
4. Pour the contents of your cup into the graduated cylinder. Determine the volume of your water
sample to the nearest 0.1mL and record in the data table. After recording the data, discard the water
from the cylinder and dry.
5. Completely dry the small cup. Re-weigh the cup and record your measurements.
6. Repeat steps 2, 3 and 4 using the ocean water sample.
7. The Great Salt Lake in Utah is six to eight times as salty as the ocean. Make a 100mL sample of
water that is eight times as salty as the “ocean” water. Calculate the amount of salt based on the
formula used to create the “ocean” water as discussed in the background information.
8. Find the density of the “Great Salt Lake” water and record your results.
Data (Table and Observations)
Data Tables for Weight of Sample Cup
Weight
(g)
Weight
(g)
Weight
(g)
Empty sample cup
Empty sample cup
Empty sample cup
Sample cup with
“Fresh” water
sample
Sample cup with
“Ocean” water
sample
Sample cup with
“Great Salt Lake”
water sample
Difference
Difference
Difference
Data Table for Weight, Volume, and Density of “Fresh” Water Samples
Weight (g)
Volume (mL)
Density (g/mL)
“Fresh” water sample
“Ocean” water sample
“Great Salt Lake” water sample
57
Data Analysis (Calculations):
Students will perform and record all mathematical calculations in this section.
Results and Conclusions:
1. Compare the appearances for each of the water samples.
2. When a river enters the ocean, would you expect to find the fresh river water on top of the salty
ocean water or vice versa? Why?
3. Buoyancy refers to how much water a floating object displaces. If you compared how you float
in the Great Salt Lake, the ocean, and a freshwater lake, in which body of water would you float
highest? The lowest? Based on what you understand about density, explain why this is so.
4. Depending on the weather, the degree of salinity of the Great Salt Lake varies. Explain why this
phenomenon occurs.
5. Salinity can also vary in oceans. How may the level of salinity be different for Arctic regions
versus Equatorial regions? Explain what factors would contribute to the variance in salinity of these
areas.
6. Explain why it was important that all three samples be the same temperature through this
activity. In what way would temperature affect your density data?
7. If you were a shipping expert, you would calculate the maximum weight of your ship’s cargo
based on the body of water you are traveling. How would the analysis from this activity help in
determining the weight capacities of your ship traveling through the ocean versus a river?
Closure Activity:
The teacher will lead a class discussion about how your buoyancy changes from fresh water, ocean
water, and chlorinated pool water. Also, discuss whether their body type and other intrinsic
characteristics impact their ability to float.
Extensions:
Students should research what instruments scientists use to determine the salinity of water samples
and there is a more sophisticated method or instrument for measuring density of water.
58
TEACHER GUIDE – SALT WATER DENSITY LAB ACTIVITY
Engagement:
Begin class by writing the following journal topic on the board: What is the difference between the
water you drink and the water at the beach? Allow students five minutes to write in their journals on
this topic, and then have a brief discussion.
Lesson Lead:
Prepare the “ocean” water using the recipe in the background information for students and place in
a large beaker. Place “fresh” water (tap water) in another large beaker. Label beakers accordingly.
In procedure #7 the students are asked to prepare a sample of water that is eight times saltier than
the “ocean” water sample. It does not tell them how to prepare the solution. Since you used 3
grams of salt in 97 grams of water in the “ocean” water, “Great Salt Lake” water will use 24 grams
of salt in 76 grams of water. Depending on the size of sample cups the students use, you may need
to make more than 100mL of water samples; if so, adjust accordingly.
The teacher must discuss the importance of understanding the vocabulary that is associated with this
activity. Students must understand the concept of mass, volume, weight, density, salinity, and how
molecules are arranged in the various phases of matter. It is also important for the student to
understand that different regions of Earth have different climatic conditions that ultimately affect
the density of the oceans of that area.
Answer Key – Results and Conclusions
Answers in the data table will vary.
1. “Ocean” water may be slightly cloudier than fresh water and “Great Salt Lake” water will be
significantly greater in turbidity.
2. Fresh water floats on top of ocean water because it is less dense than salt water.
3. You will float highest in the Great Salt Lake water due to the high salinity and you will float the
lowest in the fresh water due to the lower salinity. Because salt water is denser than fresh water,
less water is displaced in salt water.
4. Rain dilutes the water and makes it less salty.
5. Salinity is lower near the equator because precipitation is so high therefore diluting the ocean
water. Ocean salinity is at the lowest in the Arctic due to glacier melting and diluting the water.
6. It is important that the activity only have one independent variable – salinity. An increase in
temperature would cause the density of the water sample to decrease and conversely, a decrease in
temperature would cause the density of the water to increase.
7. Ships traveling through bodies of fresh water would not be able to carry as much weight as those
traveling through oceans. The salinity causes differences in density which allow for greater weight
capacities in water areas with higher salinity.
59
ALIEN PERIODIC TABLE
(Modified from Prentice Hall: Physical Science Explorer – Chemical Building Blocks ©2002)
Benchmarks:
SC.A.2.4.5 – The student knows that elements are arranged into groups and families based on
similarities in electron structure and that their physical and chemical properties can be predicted.
(Also assesses benchmarks SC.A.1.4.1, SC.A.1.4.2, SC.A.1.4.5, SC.A.2.4.1, SC.B.2.4.2)
Objective/Purpose:
• Categorize elements into periods and groups based on atomic structure.
• Familiarize students with physical and chemical properties of elements.
• Understand that electrons move in a particular manner between elements based on its
electron configuration and inherent properties.
• Distinguish chemical bonds that form between elements.
Background Information/Engagement:
Imagine that scientists have made radio contact with life on a distant planet. The planet is
composed of many of the same elements as are found on Earth. But the inhabitants of the planet
have different names and symbols for the elements. The radio transmission gave data on the known
chemical and physical properties of 30 that belong to Groups 1, 2, 13, 14, 15, 16, 17, and 18. You
need to place the alien elements into a blank periodic table based on these properties.
Problem Statement:
Where do alien elements fit into Earth’s periodic table using information on elemental properties?
Materials:
Blank Alien Periodic Table
Periodic table from text (used for reference)
Colored pencils
Procedures:
1. Obtain the blank periodic table.
2. Listed below are the data on the chemical and physical properties of the 30 elements. Place the
elements in their proper position in the blank periodic table.
a. The noble gases are bombal (Bo), wobble (Wo), jeptum (J), and logon (L). Among these
gases, wobble has the greatest atomic mass and bombal the least. Logon is lighter (in
mass) than jeptum.
b. The most reactive group of metals are xtalt (X), byyou (By), chow (Ch), and quackzil
(Q). Of these metals, chow has the lowest atomic mass. Quachzil is in the same period
as wobble.
c. Apstrom (A), vulcania (V), and kratt (Kt) are nonmetals whose atoms typically gain or
share one electron. Vulcania is in the same period as quackzil and wobble.
d. The metalloids are Ernst (E), highho (Hi), terribulum (T), and sississ (Ss). Sississ is the
metalloid with the greatest atomic mass. Ernst is the metalloid with the lowest atomic
mass. Highho and terribulum are in Group 14. Terribulum has more protons than
highho. Yazzer (Yz) touches the zigzag line, but it’s a metal, not a metalloid.
e. The lightest element of all is called pfsst (Pf). The heaviest element in the group of 30
elements is eldorado (El). The most chemically active nonmetal is apstrom. Kratt reacts
with byyou to form table salt.
60
f. The element doggone (D) has only 4 protons in its atom.
g. Floxxit (Fx) is important in the chemistry of life. It forms compounds made of long
chains of atoms. Rhaatrap (R) and doadeer (Do) are metals in the fourth period, but
rhaatrap is less reactive than doadeer.
h. Magnificon (M), goldy (G), and sississ are all members of Group 15. Goldy has fewer
total electrons than magnificon.
i. Urrp (Up), oz (Oz), and nuutye (Nu) all gain 2 electrons when they react. Nuutye is
found as a diatomic molecule and has the same properties as a gas found in Earth’s
atmosphere. Oz has a lower atomic number than urrp.
j. The element anatom (An) has atoms with a total of 49 electrons. Zapper (Z) and pie (Pi)
lose two electrons when they react. Zapper is found in planet Earth’s crust.
3. Use all of the provided information to complete the blank alien periodic table provided. Be sure
to create a color chart which lists each elements FAMILY name.
Data (Table and Observations)
See attachment, Alien Periodic Table
Data Analysis (Calculations):
None
Results and Conclusions:
1. Create a table indicating the Earth names that correspond to the 30 alien elements in order of
atomic number.
2. Explain which alien elements you were able to place on the blank periodic table with just a
single clue and how that one clue assisted in the placement.
3. Why did you need two or more clues to place other elements? Explain using examples.
4. Why could you use clues about atomic mass to place elements, even though the table is now
based on atomic number?
5. Which groups of elements from Earth’s periodic table are not included in the alien periodic
table?
6. Do you think it is likely that an alien planet would lack the group of elements mentioned in
question #5? Explain.
7. The procedures are written in (a,b,c) format for each of the alien elements. Did you follow the
order or was it necessary to skip some sections to make progress in completing the table?
8. Explain why the groups of metals mentioned in procedure #2b are the most reactive on the
periodic table.
9. Procedures #2c and #2i both discuss electron movement. Explain how you know which
elements typically gain, lose, or share electrons.
Closure Activity:
The teacher will lead a class discussion about which clues the students found most helpful, which
clues were the most difficult to understand in placing the alien elements, and what would the
students change about the clues.
Extensions:
Students will be assigned one of Earth’s elements identified in this activity. They will be
responsible for researching the element. Students will identify physical and chemical properties, list
common uses of the element, and construct a model of the elements electron configuration
including energy levels. Students must also include all the information listed on the periodic table.
61
TEACHER GUIDE – ALIEN PERIODIC TABLE
Engagement:
Ask the students to imagine two elements: sodium and chlorine. Sodium is a highly reactive metal
that when violently erupts when in contact with water. Chlorine is a toxic gas that if inhaled will
kill you. So then, why when you combine them, they create table salt? A substance that is essential
to human life! Explain to the students that substances can significantly change if the electron
configuration changes. Use the textbook to show pictures of these elements.
Lesson Lead:
The teacher must have previously discussed with the students how the periodic table is arranged and
how elements react with other elements based on their electron configuration. In addition, students
must be able to identify which groups of elements are likely to form chemical bonds and explain
which type of bonding occurs. Students must understand how to locate the atomic number and
atomic mass on the periodic table.
Answer Key – Results and Conclusions
1. Students will create a table with the following information:
Atomic #
Element
Alien
Name
Atomic #
Element
Alien
Name
Atomic #
Element
Alien
Name
1
Hydrogen
Pfsst
11
Sodium
Byyou
31
Gallium
Doadeer
2
Helium
Bombal
12
Magnesium
Zapper
32
Germanium
Terribulum
3
Lithium
Chow
13
Aluminum
Yazzer
33
Arsenic
Sississ
4
Beryllium
Doggone
14
Silicon
Highho
34
Selenium
Urrp
5
Boron
Ernst
15
Phosphorus
Magnificon
35
Bromine
Vulcania
6
Carbon
Floxxit
16
Sulfur
Oz
36
Krypton
Wobble
7
Nitrogen
Goldy
17
Chlorine
Kratt
37
Rubidium
Xtalt
8
Oxygen
Nuutye
18
Argon
Jeptum
38
Strontium
Pie
9
Fluorine
Apstrom
19
Potassium
Quackzil
49
Indium
Anatom
10
Neon
Logon
20
Calcium
Rhaatrap
50
Tin
Eldorado
2. Student answers will vary.
3. Student answers will vary.
4. Generally, atomic mass also increases as you increase in atomic number.
5. Rare Earth Metals, Transition Metals
6. Yes, these groups exist on Earth and the many of the other elements are man-made.
7. Student answers will vary.
8. They are the most reactive due to their electron configuration; each of the elements listed in
procedure #2b have one valance electron and are likely to react with other elements.
9. Atoms are more stable when their energy levels are filled with electrons. There are three types
of bonds associated with chemical bonding: covalent bonding, ionic bonding, and metallic bonding.
In covalent bonding, two elements share electrons. In ionic bonding, two elements that are
oppositely charged are held together. In metallic bonding, outer electrons are shared and move
freely around the atom.
62
ALIEN PERIODIC TABLE
1
18
1
2
13
14
15
16
17
2
3
4
5
63
ANSWER KEY – ALIEN PERIODIC TABLE
1
18
1
Pf
2
Bo
1
2
3
4
5
Pfsst
2
13
14
15
16
17
Bombal
3
Ch
4
D
5
E
6
Fx
7
G
8
Nu
9
A
10
L
Chow
Doggone
Ernst
Floxxit
Goldy
Nuutye
Apstrom
Logon
11
By
12
Z
13
Yz
14
Hi
15
M
16
Oz
17
Kt
18
J
Byyou
Zapper
Yazzer
Highho
Magnificon
Oz
Kratt
Jeptum
19
Q
20
R
31
Do
32
T
33
Ss
34
Up
35
V
36
Wo
Quackzil
Rhaatrap
Doadeer
Terribulum
Sississ
Urrp
Vulcania
Wobble
37
X
38
Pi
49
An
50
El
Non-metals
Alkali Metals
Halogens
Alkaline Earth Metals
Xtalt
Pie
Anatom
Eldorado
Metalloids
Other Metals
Noble Gases
64
ENDOTHERMIC AND EXOTHERMIC REACTIONS LAB ACTIVITY
Benchmarks:
SC.A. 1.4.1 – The student knows that the electron configuration in atoms determines how a
substance reacts and how much energy is involved in its reactions.
SC.A.1.4.5 – The student knows that the connections (bonds) form between substances when outershell electrons are either transferred or shared between their atoms, changing the properties of
substances.
SC.A.1.4.4 – The student experiments and determines that the rates of reaction among atoms and
molecules depend on the concentration, pressure, and temperature of the reactants and the presence/
absence of catalysts. AA
(Also assesses benchmarks SC.A.1.4.2, SC.A.1.4.3, SC.A.2.4.1, SC.A.2.4.2, SC.A.2.4.5)
Objective/Purpose:
• Illustrate how chemical reaction can either give off heat (exothermic) or absorb heat
(endothermic).
• Express that atoms rearrange themselves in chemical reactions to form different molecules
and compounds.
Background Information/Engagement:
Changes go on about you all the time. Some changes are chemical changes, such as gasoline
burning or a nail rusting. Conversely, some changes are physical such as changing from solid to
liquid. But what is really happening when a chemical change occurs? What is the nature of a
chemical reaction?
Problem Statement:
What are some signs that a chemical reaction has taken place?
Materials:
• Sodium Bicarbonate (Baking soda)
• Calcium chloride
• Red food coloring
• Warm water
• Teaspoon
• Ziploc baggie (small or medium size)
• Graduated cylinder
Procedures:
1. Add 20mL of water to the plastic bag. In the next steps, predict what you believe will happen
with the addition of each substance to the baggie.
2. Add 5 drops of food color to the bag. Seal the bag and gently mix the solution around to evenly
distribute the contents.
3. Using your tactile, visual, and auditory skills, make observations about what is happening in the
bag. Record your observations. Caution: Do not point bag toward face.
4. Open the bag carefully and add one teaspoon of calcium chloride to the solution. Seal the bag
and mix the contents.
65
5. Using your tactile, visual, and auditory skills, make observations about what is happening in the
bag. Record your observations.
6. Open the bag carefully; quickly add a teaspoon of baking soda. Seal the bag and mix the
contents.
7. Using your tactile, visual, and auditory skills, make observations about what is happening in the
bag. Record your observations. Caution: Do not point the bag toward your face.
8. Allow the bag to sit, sealed, for 5 minutes. Record your observations of any changes that may
occur.
9. Dispose contents of bag per instructions provided by your instructor.
Data (Table and Observations)
Qualitative Observations
What changes do you see?
Solutions
Color
Change?
Temperature
Change?
Explain.
Foam or
Bubbles
Present?
Gas
Production?
How do you
know?
Classify as
Physical or
Chemical
Change
Explain how
you know.
Water + Food
Coloring
Water + Food
Coloring +
Calcium
Chloride
Water + Food
Coloring +
Calcium
Chloride +
Baking Soda
Water + Food
Coloring +
Calcium
Chloride +
Baking Soda
(After 5 min.)
Data Analysis (Calculations):
None
Results and Conclusions:
1. What evidence of physical changes did you observe?
2. What evidence of chemical changes did you observe?
3. When a chemical reaction releases energy, it is called exothermic reaction. Exo means
“outside” and therm means “heat.” Exothermic reactions release heat. Which one of the
reactions in this lab was exothermic?
4. If exothermic refers to the release of heat, what do you think endothermic means? Which one of
the reactions in this lab was endothermic?
66
5. Without opening the bags, how can you tell if a gas was produced?
6. Explain how you knew when the final reaction was complete?
7. What evidence would you give to show that a chemical reaction did indeed occur? Explain your
reasoning using your knowledge of atomic structure.
8. What senses did you use to make observations during this lab? How might you use scientific
instruments to extend your senses in order to make more observations?
9. This equation tells us what chemical reaction happened in the bag.
2NaHCO3 + CaCl2 -----------> CaCO3 + 2NaCl + H2O + CO2
What gas was produced in this reaction?
Closure Activity:
Discuss with the class other “homemade” reactions they know of. Lead a class discussion about
labels on chemicals in their home and the importance of using each one according to the
manufacturer’s instructions and practicing safe methods.
Extension:
Use your observation skills to find evidence of chemical reactions in your kitchen. Look for
productions of gases, color changes, and the formation of precipitates. Write a summary and
discuss in upon return to class.
67
TEACHER GUIDE –
ENDOTHERMIC AND EXOTHERMIC REATIONS LAB ACTIVITY
Engagement:
Ask the students if they ever wondered how those first aid kits can contain a “cold pack” and it
actually become cold just by striking it with both hands. Demonstrate this reaction by having a few
hot/cold packs on hand so the students can feel the difference. Explain to the students that they
have the ability to make their own hot or cold pack depending on the chemicals they have at home.
Lesson Lead:
Have students perform the Endothermic or Exothermic Lab providing guidance and help where
needed. Challenge the students to use their senses for this activity and utilize the assistance of their
lab partners senses as well.
Key terms the student must understand include chemical change, physical change, chemical
reaction, physical reaction, endothermic, exothermic, and energy.
Answer Key – Results and Conclusions
1. Color change, solid to liquid
2. Gas production, temperature change, bubbles and foam
3. The exothermic reaction occurred with the addition of the calcium chloride.
4. Endothermic means to absorb heat. The addition of baking soda to the colored water produced
the endothermic reaction.
5. The bag began to inflate and pressure was created in the bag when sealed.
6. The reaction was complete when the temperature no longer changed and the gas production
ceased.
7. There are two signs that a chemical reaction occurred: a change in temperature and the formation
of a gas.
8. Students used the sense of touch, sight and hearing. You could improve your accuracy by using
a thermometer, a pressure gauge, and a color indicator apparatus.
9. Carbon dioxide (CO2)
68
EARTHQUAKES AND SUBDUCTION BOUNDARIES LAB ACTIVITY
(Modified from Glencoe Laboratory Manual: Earth Science ©2006)
Benchmarks:
SC.B.1.4.1 – The student knows how knowledge of energy is fundamental to all the scientific
disciplines (e.g., the energy required or biological processes in living organisms and the energy
required for the building, erosion, and the building of the Earth).
SC.D.1.4.2 – The student knows that the solid crust of Earth consists of slow-moving, separate
plates that float on a denser, molten layer of Earth and that these plates interact with each other,
changing the Earth’s surface in many ways (e.g., forming mountain ranges and rift valleys, causing
earthquake and volcanic activity, and forming undersea mountains that can become ocean islands).
(Also assesses benchmarks SC.D.1.4.3, SC.D.1.4.4, SC.H.1.4.1, SC.H.1.4.2, SC.H.1.4.3,
SC.H.1.4.5)
Objective/Purpose:
• Compare actual earthquake data from two areas where subduction is occurring
• Evaluate the relationship between relative age and density of tectonic plates, and the rate of
subduction of the plates
• Manipulate real data to understand how such data is interpreted and used in support of a
scientific theory
• Use graphical analysis to determine the direction of movement of tectonic plates
Background Information/Engagement:
Most earthquakes occur at plate boundaries. The deepest earthquakes occur at subduction
boundaries where the lithosphere is plunging down into the mantle. Deep earthquakes are defined
as having a depth of 300 km or more. Shallow earthquakes are less than 70 km in depth.
Earthquakes between 70 km and 300 km are considered to have moderate depth.
Behavior of subducting plate is determined by the age of the rocks that the plate is composed of.
Older crust is cooler and therefore denser than younger crust. Older, cooler, denser crust subducts
faster and at a steeper angle than younger, warmer, less dense crust.
Problem Statement:
What is the relationship between the relative age and density of the plates and how do these
properties affect the rate of subduction?
Materials:
Graph paper
Map of the tectonic plate boundaries
Ruler
Procedures:
1. Look at both sets of earthquake data in the table below. One set of data is for Tonga, and the
other is for Chile.
69
Data Table A
Tonga Data
Chile Data
Long. °W
Depth (km)
Long. °W
Depth (km)
Long. °W
Depth (km)
Long. °W
Depth (km)
176.2
173.8
175.8
174.9
175.7
175.9
175.4
174.7
176.0
175.7
173.9
177.7
174.9
178.5
177.9
179.2
178.7
173.8
178.3
177.0
270
35
115
40
260
190
250
35
160
205
60
580
50
505
565
650
600
50
540
350
174.6
178.8
176.8
177.4
173.8
178.0
177.7
174.1
177.7
179.2
178.8
178.1
175.1
178.2
176.0
178.6
174.8
178.2
179.1
177.8
40
580
340
420
60
520
560
30
465
670
590
510
40
550
220
615
35
595
675
460
67.5
66.9
68.3
69.3
62.3
70.8
61.7
68.4
69.8
66.5
69.8
67.3
67.7
69.5
68.3
67.9
69.1
69.2
63.8
68.6
180
175
130
60
480
35
540
120
30
220
55
185
120
75
110
140
95
35
345
125
66.7
68.1
66.7
65.2
67.5
69.7
68.2
67.1
66.2
66.3
68.6
66.4
68.5
65.5
68.1
210
145
200
285
170
50
160
230
230
215
180
235
140
290
130
2. Copy the Earthquake Summary Data Table under the Data Section of the lab report. Count the
number of shallow earthquakes (less than 70 km) for both Tonga and Chile. Record your values in
the Earthquake Data Summary Table. Repeat counting the number of intermediate and deep
earthquakes for each area and record your results in the summary table.
3. Add the numbers in both columns of the Earthquake Summary Data Table. Record your results.
4. Examine the graph paper. There are two graphs: one for Tonga and the other for Chile. Notice
the axes. One axis records the depth of earthquakes, and the other records the longitude.
5. Plot the data from Tonga on the Tonga graph and plot the data for Chile on the Chile graph.
6. Do not connect the dots. Instead, draw a best-fit line for the points. A best-fit line is a single
line that shows the trend of the data without having to pass though all points.
7. Assume the line you have drawn is the upper surface of a subducting plate.
8. Complete the questions in the Results and Conclusions section of your lab report.
70
Data (Table and Observations)
Earthquake Summary Data Table
Earthquake Type
Earthquake Depth
Shallow
Tonga Total
Chile Total
< 70 km
Intermediate
70-300 km
Deep
> 300 km
Total Number of Earthquakes
Data Analysis (Calculations):
Students will write any mathematical equations required in this section.
Results and Conclusions:
1. Locate the Tonga and Chile areas on the map.
a. What plate is subducting in each location?
b. Under which plate is each plate being subducted?
2. Locate the East Pacific Rise on the map.
a. Compare the distance for the Tonga area from the East Pacific Rise with the distance of
the Chile area from the East Pacific Rise. What is the difference in distance from the Tonga
area and the Chile area?
b. Mid-ocean ridges are the source of oceanic crust. If the East Pacific Rise is the source of
the subducting crust on both areas, how do the ages of the two subducting plates compare?
3. Look at the values in the Earthquake Summary Data Table. How does the depth of the majority
of the earthquakes at Tonga compare with those at Chile?
4. Look at the graphs. The lines represent profiles of the subducting plates for the two areas.
a. Which area is the subducting plate moving westward?
b. Which plate is subducting at a steeper angle?
5. For the Chile data, the deepest earthquake occurred at longitude 61.7°W and at a depth of 540
km. If the rocks at the focus began subducting 10 million years ago, and are now 1000 km from
their original position, what is the average rate of descent (in cm/year) of the subducting plate?
Show your work to receive credit.
6. Would you expect the subduction rate at Tonga to be more or less than the rate at Chile?
Explain your answer.
7. Summarize the differences between the subducting plate at Chile and Tonga by comparing the
following:
a. distance from the assumed source of lithosphere
b. age
c. angle of descent
d. number of deep earthquakes
71
Closure Activity:
The teacher will lead a class discussion about which the areas of Tonga and Chile. Ask the students
why they believe those two areas were chosen for this activity. Be sure to discuss concepts the
following concepts: convection, density of rocks, age of subducting plates, and proximity for
tectonic plate boundaries
Extensions:
Students will be asked to research other tectonic plates listed on the map used for this activity.
They will be responsible for researching the plates and determining the relative ages of each.
Students must also discuss the direction of movement for the tectonic plates and what type of
boundaries is produced between them.
72
73
TEACHER GUIDE –
EARTHQUAKES AND SUBDUCTION BOUNDARIES LAB ACTIVITY
Engagement:
Create an analogy that explains the movement of plates. For example, a boy on a skateboard; when
the skateboard moves, so does the boy. This can be related to plate tectonics (the skateboard) and
the crust material that moves (the boy) due to those underlying forces. Students should visualize the
vastness of these plates and the construction and destruction that they cause on Earth’s surface.
Lesson Lead:
Students should work independently on this activity. Each student should have one plate tectonic
map and one sheet of graph paper specifically designed for the data presented in this activity.
If the student is unfamiliar with best-fit curves, demonstrate how to draw a straight line through a
set of scattered points to make the trend clear. Point out that, because of measurement error,
scattered data points are not necessarily a truer indication of the shape of the boundary than the
best-fit curve. In reality, a subducted plate does not descend in a perfectly straight line.
The concepts studied in this activity are maps, earthquakes, and plate tectonics, particularly a
subduction zone plate boundary. The student will learn or be refreshed on using latitude and
longitude for mapping purposes. The activity should be used in a unit on plate tectonics so that the
student has a basic understanding of plate tectonics, plate boundaries, and types of crust. It is also
useful that the class have a discussion about the different types of evidence used to support the
theory of plate tectonics.
The students should have background knowledge about plate tectonics, differences in density of
plates, relationship to depth of earthquakes and magnitude, and locating coordinates including
direction on a map.
Answer Key – Results and Conclusions
1. At Tonga, the Indian-Australian Plate is subducting under the Pacific Plate. At Chile, the Nazca
Plate is subducting under the South American Plate.
2. Tonga is located farther from the East Pacific Rise than Chile. Based this location, Tonga’s plate
is made of older, denser material; conversely, Chile’s plate is composed of younger, less dense
crust.
3. There are more deep earthquakes at Tonga than Chile.
4. The Pacific Plate is moving westward and the area of Tonga is subducting at a steeper angle.
5. 540 km ÷ 10 million km = 0.000054 km; student must then covert to centimeters (cm) to
complete answer (Answer = 5.4 cm/year)
6. Tonga’s rate of subduction is slower; student explanations will vary however, they must discuss
the age and density of crust material of each plate.
7. The subducting plate at Chile is closer to the source of oceanic crust versus Tonga. The area of
Tonga contains older rock, is subducting at a steeper angle and has more deep earthquakes than the
area of Chile.
74
PLATE TECTONIC BOUNDARIES MAP
(Modified from Glencoe Laboratory Manual: Earth Science ©2006)
PLATE TECTONIC BOUNDARIES MAP
(Modified from Glencoe Laboratory Manual: Earth Science ©2006)
75
GREENHOUSE EFFECT LAB ACTIVITY
Benchmarks:
SC.B.1.4.5 – The student knows that each source of energy presents advantages and disadvantages
to its use in society (e.g., political and economic implications may determine a society's selection of
renewable or nonrenewable energy sources).
SC.D.1.4.1 – The student knows how climatic patterns on Earth result from an interplay of many
factors (Earth’s topography, its rotation on its axis, solar radiation, the transfer of heat energy
where the atmosphere interfaces with lands and oceans, and wind and ocean currents). AA
SC.G.2.4.1 – The student knows that layers of energy-rich organic materials have been gradually
turned into great coal beds and oil pools (fossil fuels) by the pressure of the overlying earth and
that humans burn fossil fuels to release the stored energy as heat and carbon dioxide.
(Also assesses benchmarks SC.G.2.4.2, SC.G.2.4.5, SC.G.2.4.6, SC.H.1.4.7, SC.H.3.4.3)
Objective/Purpose:
• Create a model demonstrating the greenhouse effect.
• Evaluate the ability of atmospheric gases to limit the absorption of heat in a given space.
• Measure temperature variations using laboratory equipment and record data.
• Recognize the role of humans and our ability to help control greenhouse gases
Background Information/Engagement:
When sunlight strikes the earth’s ground, water, and biomass they all absorb radiation and heat up.
Some of this heat is conducted to the air next to the earth and some is re-radiated as infrared
radiation.
In a greenhouse, the heat that is conducted to the air is trapped within the greenhouse walls and so
builds up in the relatively small space of the greenhouse. This is one “greenhouse effect”. But it is
not the “greenhouse effect” that is warming our planet. If the greenhouse is made up of glass, a
second “greenhouse effect” comes into play as well. Glass is transparent to sunlight, but is
effectively opaque to infrared radiation. Therefore, the glass warms up when it absorbs some of the
infrared radiation that is radiated by the ground, water, and biomass. The glass will then re-radiate
this heat as infrared radiation, some to the outside and some back into the greenhouse. The energy
radiated back into the greenhouse causes the inside of the greenhouse to heat up. If the greenhouse
is covered with plexiglass (plastic) instead of glass, this second effect doesn’t come into play
because polyethylene is effectively transparent to infrared radiation. Yet plexiglass covered
greenhouses work almost as well as glass ones. This indicates that the primary way that
greenhouses heat up is by restricting the flow of warmed air to the outside of the greenhouse.
Greenhouse gases trap heat in the same way that glass does. This is all part of the greenhouse effect
that keeps the Earth warm.
The greenhouse effect happens because of certain naturally occurring substances in the atmosphere.
Unfortunately, since the Industrial Revolution, humans have been pouring huge amounts of those
substances into the air, including carbon dioxide (CO2), nitrous oxide (NO2), methane gas (CH4)
and water vapor. Earth’s natural systems are not able to utilize the large quantities of greenhouse
gases effectively, consequently, may be contributing to global warming.
Problem Statement:
How can you model the greenhouse effect caused by Earth’s atmosphere?
76
Materials:
• 2 empty containers such as fish aquarium, a large beaker, or a flask
• Dry ice
• Gloves or tongs
• Safety glasses
• Heat lamp
• Four thermometers (Celsius or Fahrenheit)
• Heavy duty tape
• Styrofoam cup of water
Procedures:
1. Allow thermometers to acclimate to room temperature.
2. Tape one thermometer to the top of the container. The thermometer may be placed
vertically or horizontally.
3. Tape the second thermometer inside the container, near the bottom.
4. Place a heat lamp over the container.
5. Turn on the heat lamp.
6. After three minutes, record the temperature of each thermometer.
7. Keep the heat lamp on and place a chunk of dry ice into the cup of water and place the cup
into one of the containers. Safety concerns: Handle the dry ice only while wearing gloves
or using the tongs. Do not place the dry ice in a closed container.
8. Allow the CO2 vapor to fill the container.
9. While this is happening, observe the temperature reading of the outside thermometer and the
inside thermometer if you can see it.
10. When the CO2 vapor begins to subside, record the time then temperature of each
thermometer and compare the measurements.
11. Leave the heat lamp on and allow all of the CO2 to leave the container.
12. Three minutes later, record the temperature of the two thermometers.
13. Make observations and conclusions about this experiment.
Figure 1: Suggested Equipment Set-Up
Lab Set-Up without
carbon dioxide
Lab Set-up with
carbon dioxide
77
Data (Table and Observations)
Time Interval
Top of
Container –
Without CO2
Temperature (circle °F or °C)
Bottom of
Top of
Container –
Container –
Without CO2
With CO2
Bottom of
Container –
With CO2
0 minutes of heat
exposure
3 minutes of heat
exposure
After container fills
with CO2
After CO2 subsides
Immediately after
depletion of CO2
3 minutes after
depletion of CO2
Data Analysis (Calculations):
None
Results and Conclusions:
1. Which of the two thermometers had the highest reading after the carbon dioxide had filled the
container?
2. What happened to the temperature inside of the container as the carbon dioxide filled the
container?
3. If greenhouse gases become too thick in Earth's atmosphere, describe two major effects that they
can have on Earth.
4. Recent satellite data indicates that greenhouse gases such as carbon dioxide have increased.
This increase may be contributing to warmer ocean temperatures in the northern hemisphere.
However, ocean temperatures in the southern hemisphere are slightly decreasing. Infer why.
5. How might increased greenhouse gases affect the water cycle?
6. When green plants photosynthesize, they take carbon out of the atmosphere. Design an
experiment in which you could use green plants and other materials used in this lab to study the
effects of carbon dioxide on global warming.
Closure Activity:
Be sure to emphasize that our planet’s greenhouse effect is a good thing. It keeps our planet at a
livable temperature. Concerns over global warming and global climate change are still a much
debated topic among scientists. Reinforce the idea that many scientific topics are not fully
understood, and that scientific views are continually changing as new information is acquired.
78
Extensions:
Compose a story of an imaginary carbon atom as it moves through Earth’s ecosystems. Your
teacher will describe how your story is to be presented. Your short story must meet the following
criteria:
1. Your carbon atom must complete a cycle. In other words, it must end in a location to
where it started.
2. Your carbon atom must spend time at least once in each of the following locations:
• The atmosphere
• A living thing
• The ocean
• In a fossil fuel such as oil or coal
79
TEACHER GUIDE – GREENHOUSE EFFECT LAB ACTIVITY
Engagement:
During the weeks prior to starting this unit, suggest to students that they bring in news articles and
website information on the greenhouse effect, global warming, and global climate change to post on
a bulletin board. As a class, list what the students think they know about the greenhouse effect.
Divide the class into groups. Have the groups take five more minutes for each student to write
down one question they have about the greenhouse effect that no one else in their group can answer.
Post the questions to the class and ask if anyone can suggest an answer to any of the questions.
Tell the class that you will leave the ideas and questions for students to refer to as they gather and
evaluate information about the greenhouse effect. Explain that the class will begin their
investigations by conducting an experiment on a simple model of the Earth's atmosphere.
Lesson Lead:
This activity should be conducted with at least two persons per lab group to ensure accurate
measurements and time intervals. During the lab, the students investigate how having an
atmosphere allows the temperature of the planet to increase relative to a planet with no atmosphere.
Develop some basic definitions and creating a useful glossary of important terms and concepts.
Some of the key terms to be used in the unit are energy, heat, light, global warming and the
greenhouse effect.
Answer Key – Results and Conclusions
1. The thermometer on the outside of container.
2. The temperature dropped because most of the heat was being reflected at the surface by the
carbon dioxide. The carbon dioxide was too thick to allow heat into the container.
3. Earth will begin to heat up due to an increase in greenhouse gases, and then it will cool because
not enough solar energy can reach the surface.
4. Fewer people live in the southern hemisphere therefore less greenhouse gases are created there.
5. Warmer air has the potential to condense more moisture, global warming could increase Earth’s
precipitation patterns.
6. Student answers will vary but will utilize the equipment from this activity.
80
CORIOLIS EFFECT
Benchmarks:
The student recognizes that processes in the lithosphere, atmosphere, hydrosphere, and biosphere
interact to shape the Earth.
SC.D.1.4.1 Knows how climatic patterns on Earth result from an interplay of many factors (Earth’s
topography, its rotation on its axis, solar radiation, the transfer of heat energy where the atmosphere
interfaces with lands and oceans, and wind and ocean currents).
Objectives/Purpose
•
•
•
Compare weather systems in the northern and southern hemisphere.
Make drawings to justify generalizations.
Use simple apparatus to demonstrate the Coriolis Effect.
Background Information/Engagement
Coriolis Effect is an inertial force described by the 19th-century French engineer-mathematician
Gustave-Gaspard Coriolis in 1835. Coriolis showed that if the ordinary Newtonian laws of motion
of bodies are to be used in a rotating frame of reference, an inertial force--acting to the right of the
direction of body motion for counterclockwise rotation of the reference frame or to the left for
clockwise rotation--must be included in the equations of motion.
The effect of the Coriolis force is an apparent deflection of the path of an object that moves within a
rotating coordinate system. The object does not actually deviate from its path, but it appears to do so
because of the motion of the coordinate system.
The Coriolis Effect is most apparent in the path of an object moving longitudinally. On the Earth an
object that moves along a north-south path, or longitudinal line, will undergo apparent deflection to
the right in the Northern Hemisphere and to the left in the Southern Hemisphere. There are two
reasons for this phenomenon: first, the Earth rotates eastward; and second, the tangential velocity of
a point on the Earth is a function of latitude (the velocity is essentially zero at the poles and it
attains a maximum value at the Equator). Thus, if a cannon were fired northward from a point on
the Equator, the projectile would land to the east of its due north path. This variation would occur
because the projectile was moving eastward faster at the Equator than was its target farther north.
Similarly, if the weapon were fired toward the Equator from the North Pole, the projectile would
again land to the right of its true path. In this case, the target area would have moved eastward
before the shell reached it because of its greater eastward velocity. An exactly similar displacement
occurs if the projectile is fired in any direction.
81
The Coriolis deflection is therefore related to the motion of the object, the motion of the Earth, and
the latitude.
82
Problem Statement:
What effect does the Earth’s rotation have on a moving object?
Materials:
Circular cardboard
Pin or nail
“Chalkable” globe (optional)
Procedures:
Part I:
1. The Coriolis Effect can be easily and cheaply demonstrated with a circular piece of
cardboard like that which comes with pizza.
2. Pin or nail the cardboard so that it is allowed to rotate freely.
3. Rotate it smoothly with one hand, and with the other hand draw a straight line from the
center towards a particular fixed direction.
4. You should notice a definite spiral to the line, despite the fact that the hand movement was
linear.
5. Repeat the demonstration by rotating the opposite direction. You should be able to draw
some conclusions about the direction of apparent deflection in the northern hemisphere
versus the southern hemisphere.
Part II (optional):
You can do the same demonstration as above with a “chalkable” globe. This is very realistic,
and an excellent way to firmly fix the concept of the Coriolis effect in your mind.
Data (Table and Observations): Record your results according to your teacher’s instructions.
Data Analysis (Calculations): none
Results and Conclusions:
1. What happened to the line as you rotated the cardboard?
2. What happens to the line as you get further toward the edge?
3. What happens if you spin it fast or slow?
4. Repeat the procedure. Is there any other way you can demonstrate the Coriolis Effect?
Closure Activity:
Essay Question-- Demonstrate that the Coriolis effect in the southern hemisphere is a mirror image
of that in the north, that is, air masses curve to the left no matter which direction they move,
including East-West.
Extensions
Investigate these links on Internet resource information regarding the Coriolis Effect.
http://www.ems.psu.edu/fraser/Bad/BadCoriolis.html
Exploration
Consider current weather systems found world-wide. Describe any rotating patterns you see; are
there any noticeable differences between the northern and southern hemispheres? Follow other map
links found at The Weather Channel Web Site to verify your generalizations. Make quick sketches
to justify your position.
83
Determining Dew Point
Benchmarks
SC.A.1.4.3 The student knows that a change from one phase of matter to another involves a gain or
loss of energy.
SC.H.3.4.3 The student knows that scientists can bring information, insights, and analytical skills to
matters of public concern and help people understand the possible causes and effects of events.
Objectives/Purpose
• To use one method of measuring the amount of water vapor in an air sample.
• You will also see the relationship of this amount to weather conditions and other
environmental factors.
Background Information
In this activity you will determine the dew point temperature for the air outside and inside the
classroom. You will carefully cool the can of water until condensation forms on the outside. The
temperature of the water when you see condensation is the dew point temperature.
Dew point is the temperature to which a gas must be cooled where condensation of water first
occurs. A gas that has reached its dew point temperature is considered saturated.
Typically, the warmer air or gases are the more moisture they tend to hold and as they cool, the
gases lose their ability to retain moisture so it drops out in the form of condensation. During the
summer months the air is very warm (depending on your location) and can carry much moisture.
For example: Say the outside air temperature is 85oF on a sunny summer day. The dew point
temperature may range from absolute zero (theoretically) to 84 oF. You can feel whether or not it is
a humid or dry day as you step outside. If the dew point temperature is close to the air temperature
you may even be able to see the moisture causing a haze in the air. On that same day, if it were to
all of a sudden rain, the air temperature may stay at 85 oF, but the dew point temperature will now
also be 85 oF, as the air will be saturated with moisture.
You may have experienced dew on your lawn early in the morning. This happens because overnight
the air temperature cooled to the dew point temperature and condensation was formed. During the
winter (again depending on your location), you may notice that the air is very dry, causing skin and
lips to chaff and chap more readily.
Because of the low temperatures, the air cannot hold much moisture. Even still, the air can become
saturated, causing frost or snow to form if the temperatures are below zero. When this happens, the
term is now called “frost point” as opposed to “dew point.”
Engagement
Discuss student experiences with condensation (such as moisture accumulating on a mirror in a
steamy bathroom or moisture appearing on the inside of a car window.
84
Problem Statement:
How do you determine Dew Point?
Materials
Small or medium-sized metal can
Warm water
Crushed ice
Spoon
Thermometer
Wet and dry bulb thermometer (optional)
Metal container
Procedures
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
8.
9.
On a separate sheet of paper, copy Table 1.
Record your observations in the table (see the section below).
Fill the can about half full with warm water.
Place the thermometer in the water. Position the thermometer so it doesn’t touch the sides or
bottom of the can.
Add a spoonful of ice. Watch the sides of the can for condensation as you stir the water.
CAUTION! Stir with the spoon, not the thermometer.
Continue adding spoonfuls of ice, and continue stirring until condensation, or dew forms on the
outside of the can. Record this temperature as the dew point in the data table.
Remove the contents from the can.
Repeat steps 1 to 4 outdoors.
Data (Table and Observations)
Table 1
Location
Dew Point
Classroom
Outdoors
Data Analysis (Calculations):
None
Results and Conclusions:
1. What is the dew point of the air in your classroom?
2. What is the dew point outdoors?
3. Compare the dew point of the air in your classroom to the dew point of the air outdoors.
4. List the variables in this activity.
5. List one reason why your dew point may not be the same as the dew point for other groups in
your classroom.
85
Conclusion/Closure Activity:
The teacher will lead a class discussion about which clues the students found most helpful, which
clues were the most difficult to understand in placing the alien elements, and what would the
students change about the clues.
Write a short paragraph defining dew point, based on the activity you just completed.
Extensions:
Set up a station outdoors on the school grounds to measure relative humidity and dew point. For
measuring relative humidity use wet and dry bulb thermometer (optional). For dew point testing, set
out a metal container, check the container each morning to see if the dew point was reached the
night before. Then test to find the relative humidity if apply.
86
FINDING AN EPICENTER
Benchmarks:
SC.C.1.4.1 The student knows that all motion is relative to whatever frame of reference is chosen
and that there is no absolute frame of reference from which to observe all motion.
SC.D.1.4.2 The student knows that the solid crust of Earth consists of slow moving, separate plates
that float on a denser, molten layer of Earth and that these plates interact with each other, changing
the Earth’s surface in many ways (e.g., forming mountain ranges and rift valleys, causing
earthquake and volcanic activity, and forming undersea mountains that can become ocean islands).
SC.H.3.4.1 The student knows that performance testing is often conducted using small-scale
models, computer simulations, or analogous systems to reduce the chance of system failure.
Objectives/Purpose:
• Analyze P waves and S waves to determine the distance from a city to the epicenter of an
earthquake.
• Determine the location of an earthquake epicenter using the distance from the three cities to
the epicenter of an earthquake
Background Information:
An earthquake releases energy that travels through Earth in all directions. This energy is in the form
of waves. Two kinds of seismic waves are P waves and S waves. P waves travel faster than S waves
and are the first to be recorded at a seismograph station. The S waves arrive after the P waves. The
time difference between the arrival of the P waves and the S waves increases as the waves travel
farther from their origin. This difference in arrival time, called lag time, can be used to find the
distance to the epicenter of the earthquake. Once the distance from three different locations is
determined, scientist can find the approximate location of the epicenter. .
Problem Statement:
How is the epicenter of an earthquake determined?
Materials:
• Calculator
• Drawing compass
• Ruler
Procedures:
1. The average speed of P waves is 6.1 km/s. The average speed of S waves is 4.1 km/s.
Calculate the lag time between the arrival of P waves and S waves over a distance of
100 km.
2. The graph below show the seismic records made in three cities following an earthquake. These
traces begin at the left. The arrows indicate the arrival of the P waves. The beginning of the next
wave on each seismograph record indicates the arrival of the S wave. Use the time scale to find
the lag time between the P waves and the S waves for each city.
87
0
50
100
150
200
3. Record lag time for each city in Table 1 (see the section below).
4. Use the lag times found in step 2 and the lag time per 100 km found in step 1 to calculate the
distance from each city to the epicenter of the earthquake by using the equation below.
Distance = measured lag time(s) x 100 km
Lag time for 100 km
5. Record distance in Table 1 (see the section below).
6. The map on the next page shows the location of the three cities. Using the map scale on the
map, adjust the compass so that the radius of the circle with Austin at the center is equal to the
calculation for Austin in step 2. Put the point of the compass on Austin. Draw a circle on the
map.
7. Repeat step 6 for Bismarck and for Portland. The epicenter of the earthquake is located near the
point at which the three circles intersect.
88
Scale: 1cm = 400 Km
Data (Table and Observations):
City
Austin
Bismarck
Portland
TABLE 1
Lag Time (seconds)
Distance from city to epicenter
Data Analysis (Calculations):
Record your calculations.
Results and Conclusions:
1. Evaluating Data Describe the location of the earthquake’s epicenter. To which city is the
earthquake epicenter closest?
2. Analyzing Processes. Why measurements from three locations must be used to find the
epicenter of an earthquake?
Extension
What is the probability of a major earthquake occurring in the area where you live? If an earthquake
did occur in your area, what would most likely cause the earthquake?
89
EARTHQUAKE WAVES: WALK-RUN ACTIVITY
Benchmarks:
SC.C.1.4.1 The student knows that all motion is relative to whatever frame of reference is chosen
and that there is no absolute frame of reference from which to observe all motion.
SC.D.1.4.2 The student knows that the solid crust of Earth consists of slow moving, separate plates
that float on a denser, molten layer of Earth and that these plates interact with each other, changing
the Earth’s surface in many ways (e.g., forming mountain ranges and rift valleys, causing
earthquake and volcanic activity, and forming undersea mountains that can become ocean islands).
SC.H.3.4.1The student knows that performance testing is often conducted using small-scale
models, computer simulations, or analogous systems to reduce the chance of system failure.
Objectives/Purpose:
• Determine the arrival time of P and S waves from the epicenter
• Interpreter Time-travel curves
• Locate the epicenter in an Earthquake.
Background Information:
The mechanical properties of the rocks that seismic waves travel through quickly organize the
waves into two types. Compress ional waves, also known as primary or P waves, travel fastest, at
speeds between 1.5 and 8 kilometers per second in the Earth's crust. Shear waves, also known as
secondary or S waves, travel more slowly,
usually at 60% to 70% of the speed of P
waves.
P waves shake the ground in the direction
they are propagating, while S waves shake
perpendicularly or transverse to the
direction of propagation.
Although wave speeds vary by a factor of
ten or more in the Earth, the ratio between
the average speeds of a P wave and of its
following S wave is quite constant. This
fact enables seismologists to simply time
the delay between the arrival of the P
wave and the arrival of the S wave to get a quick and reasonably accurate estimate of the distance
of the earthquake from the observation station. Just multiply the S-minus-P (S-P) time, in seconds,
by the factor 8 km/s to get the approximate distance in kilometers.
The principal use of seismograph networks is to locate earthquakes.
Although it is possible to infer a general location for an event from the
records of a single station, it is most accurate to use three or more stations.
Locating the source of any earthquake is important, of course, in assessing
the damage that the event may have caused, and in relating the earthquake to
its geologic setting.
90
Given a single seismic station, the seismogram records will yield a measurement of the S-P time,
and thus the distance between the station and the event. Multiply the seconds of S-P time by 8
km/s for the kilometers of distance. Drawing a circle on a map around the station's location, with a
radius equal to the distance, shows all possible locations for the event. With the S-P time from a
second station, the circle around that station will narrow the possible locations down to two points.
It is only with a third station's S-P time that you can draw a third circle that should identify which
of the two previous possible points is the real one:
Problem Statement:
How do seismic waves behave?
Materials:
• Handout with data tables and questions
• Graph paper (or copies of Figures 1 and 2) and compasses
• Calculator and stopwatch
• Ruler/Straight-edge
• Pencils (or colored pencils)
Procedures:
Part One: Constructing the Travel-Time Graph
We will perform a learning activity that models (1) S and P wave propagation and (2) a technique
used by seismologists to locate earthquakes. We will use the Walk – Run method, in which S
wave propagation is simulated by walking and P wave propagation is simulated by running. The
Walk – Run method requires an “open space” of about 30 x 30 meters—a playfield or a
gymnasium.
The purpose of this activity is to model the different speeds of P and S waves as they travel from
the epicenter of an earthquake. The procedure is in two parts (your teacher will indicate where the
data for part one is to be recorded on Data Table 1).
You will work in groups, following directions provided by your teacher. Some students will be
timers or data recorders and others will play the role of S or P waves. Be sure that you understand
your assigned task.
1. Measure a 30-meter distance, using a meter wheel or a pre-cut length of rope that is 30 meters
long.
2. Your teacher will station a student with a stopwatch at 10 meters, one at 20 meters and one at
30 meters. S-Waves (Walk). At "go" students Walk to an established cadence to the end of the
30 meter distance. The timers record the length of time, in seconds, that it takes for the
Walking students to pass their respective stations. Repeat this step the number of time
instructed by your teacher and record the length of time on Data Table 1. Students should try to
Walk at the same speed each time. Be sure that the results from your trials produce similar
times.
3. Calculate the averages for each distance to arrive at an estimate “Walk” rate. This is the
simulated S wave rate of propagation.
4. P-Waves (Run). Students who represent P waves will establish a running speed for the
activity. At "go" students Run from the same location to the three timers who will measure the
length of time, in seconds, it took for the Runners to pass their stations, and record it on the
Data Table 1. Repeat this step the number of time instructed by your teacher and record the
91
length of time on Data Table 1. Students should try to Run at the same speed each time. Be
sure that the results from your trials produce similar times.
5. Calculate the averages for each distance to arrive at an estimate “Run” rate. This is the
simulated P wave rate of propagation.
6. Average the data for the trials for Running times and Walking times, and put the data on the
board for all to share.
7. Construct a graph (Figure 1) with distance in meters on the x-axis, and time in seconds on the
y-axis, using different colored pencil lines (or the symbols and line patterns) for the Walk
times and Run times. Plot the points using the appropriate symbols and draw a straight line that
approximately fits the data points. Use Figure 1 and the appropriate scales for the Walk – Run
method to construct the graph of travel times. This travel time curve is just like the travel time
curves that are used to determine the speeds of seismic waves in the Earth. The travel time
curves are necessary to “calibrate” the distance calculation in the triangulation method that will
be used in Part Two. This triangulation technique is often used to locate earthquakes from
seismograms from three or more seismograph stations using the S and P arrival times,
specifically, the S minus P times.)
Part Two: Locating an Earthquake using S minus P (Run – Walk) times and Triangulation
1. Students selected to represent P and S waves agree upon an "epicenter" within the area of the
field (within a 30 x 30 m square) that your teacher has defined.
2. Student timers take up positions at three different positions around the perimeter of the field
that represent seismograph stations. Mark the locations of the stations with flags [or masking
tape]. A suggested layout for the seismograph stations is illustrated in Figure 2. The stations
are not required to be at the corners of the square area but this geometry is easy and effective
and thus enhances understanding of the triangulation method. This diagram can also be used
for plotting the segments of circles to locate the epicenter by triangulation.
3. Students representing P and S waves take positions at the epicenter (one P wave and one S
wave student facing each of the three stations). At the signal, "go," all six students representing
the seismic waves depart from the chosen "epicenter" toward their respective assigned timers
("seismograph stations"), at the speeds established in Part One. These students represent the P
and S waves that propagate in all directions away from the earthquake focus. Note: Each
student representing an S wave (Walking) should be paired with a student representing a P
wave (Running) so as to have 3 pairs of simulated earthquake waves traveling in 3 different
directions.)
4. Timers will measure the length of time BETWEEN the arrivals of the Running student ("P
wave") and that of the Walking student ("S- wave"). (On the stopwatch, press start at the
arrival of the Running student, and press stop at the arrival of the Walking student.) These
observations are exactly analogous to the arrival times of S and P waves. The time of the
earthquake (origin time) is unknown. All that can be determined from the recordings at a
single station is the difference between the P wave arrival time and the S wave arrival
time.(The absolute times of the P and S arrivals are also known, but the difference between
these times is the quantity that is used for triangulation to locate the epicenter.) This time
difference is called the S minus P (S – P) time and is like the Walk – Run time of our
simulation.
5. Record this difference, in seconds, on Data Table 2. Repeat this step, and record the
difference in arrival times. Recover all materials and return to the classroom.
6. Refer to Data Table 2. Use the graph constructed earlier to determine the distance to the
epicenter from each of the seismograph stations.(Use the Walk minus Run line to correlate the
difference in arrival times to the distance in meters by locating each travel difference on the y
axis (time axis) and tracing a line horizontally to the Walk minus Run line. From this point,
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trace a line vertically to the x axis (distance axis). The location on the x axis will be the
inferred distance from the corresponding station to the epicenter.)
7. Construct a "map" of the field on graph paper (Figure 2) with the positions of the stations
(timers) marked. Be sure to establish an appropriate scale for your own activity so that it fits on
the graph paper (the attached map with stations, Figure 2, could be used for this step; the scales
are given for the 30 x 30 m area for the Walk – Run method.
8. Use a compass to draw a circle around each timer position (station). The point of the compass
should be on the station and the radius of the circle will be the distance to the epicenter
determined in step 10. The point at which the three circles intersect represents the epicenter
(see example of triangulation in Figure 3).
9. Because of possible errors in the travel time and distance measurements, the circles may not
intersect exactly at one point. Compare the actual location of the epicenter (from distance
measurements made earlier) with the inferred location determined by the triangulation (plot the
actual location on the graph). The actual location should be plotted on the graph after the
triangulation measurements have been plotted and the estimated epicenter location determined.
Compare the location found from triangulation with the actual epicenter location. Measure the
distance on the graph from the actual location to the location determined by triangulation.
Check results with your teacher.
Data (Table and Observations):
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Results and Conclusions:
Part 1. After you have constructed your graphs, answer the following questions.
1. Pick any point on the graph you have constructed for the Walking time or Running time.
What does that point represent?
2. What is the speed of the Walking students (representing S wave propagation) in m/s?
3. What is the speed of the Running students (representing P wave propagation) in m/s?
4. Compare these speeds to the speeds of P and S waves (P-waves travel about 6000-8000 m/s (68 km/s) and S-waves about 3500-4500 m/s (3.5-4.5 km/s) for propagation through the Earth's
crust and upper mantle.
Part 2. After you have drawn your map, answer the following questions.
1. In what ways were the Walking and Running students SIMILAR to P and S waves? In what
ways were they DIFFERENT?
2. What is the size of the error in the determination of the epicenter by triangulation? How large
is the error compared to the distances from the stations to the actual epicenter (the distances
traveled by the seismic waves)? What are the possible causes of the error?
3. What were some shortcomings in this activity that prevented us from determining the epicenter
perfectly? Do you think these problems could be controlled? Do you have suggestions for how
we could improve the experimental design?
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NEWTON’S 2ND LAW OF MOTION
Benchmarks:
SC.C.1.4.2— The student knows that any change in velocity is acceleration.
SC.H.1.4.7— The student understands the importance of a sense of responsibility, a commitment
to peer review, truthful reporting of the methods and outcomes of investigations, and making the
public aware of the findings.
Objectives/Purpose
• Describe how motion or distance traveled depends on mass and force.
• Investigate the relationship between force, mass, and acceleration as described by Newton’s
2nd Law of Motion.
Background Information
Newton’s Second Law takes up where the First Law ends. The First Law describes inertia:
A body will not change its existing state of motion unless an unbalanced force acts on that body. In
other words, without an unbalanced force, a body will remain still if still, or, if moving, keep
moving in the same direction at a constant speed.
But what happens when an unbalanced force acts on an object? The Second Law tells us that
this type of force will change the velocity of an object by changing either its speed or its direction or
both. Such changes in velocity are called acceleration. So, we can say that any unbalanced force
acting on an object produces acceleration.
This experiment is designed to verify Newton’s 2nd Law of Motion. Force equals mass
multiplied by acceleration. This law states that a force on an object will cause it to accelerate in the
direction of the force. The greater the force exerted on the object, the greater the acceleration. For
any given force, the greater the mass of an object, the smaller the acceleration.
In this experiment, the force will be applied by rolling balls of different masses down a
ramp. A wooden, glass, and metal ball will be used to vary the force used. A small box (or paper
cup) with a hole cut in one side will be used to measure the acceleration by measuring how far the
box travels. The box will be placed at the bottom of the ramp to catch the balls. A second part of
this experiment will use a constant force (metal ball), and the mass of the object at rest (the box)
will be varied by adding washers to the top of the box.
The greater the mass of the ball rolling down the ramp, the farther the box should travel.
When more mass (washers) is taped to the box, the box should move less.
Problem Statement
How can the changes of masses (balls) rolling down a ramp demonstrate the relationships between
force, mass, and acceleration (Newton’s second law)?
Materials
• Ramp (1 meter long), can use cove molding or meter sticks
with side rails on each side to keep the balls on the ramp;
• 3 balls, wooden, glass, and metal (12 mm or ½ inch works
well);
• A small cardboard bow (7 x 6 x 4 cm), or a paper cup (cut a
3 x 3 hole in one side of the cup at the very top on one side);
•
•
•
•
3 medium size washers
Meter stick
4 textbooks
Tape and Graph paper
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Procedure
Part 1:
1. After reading the procedure, answer the 1st question before starting the experiment.
2. Make an inclined plane using the cove molding and four textbooks.
3. Place the box or cup upside down on the table at the bottom of the ramp with the opening
facing the ramp, so it will catch a ball as it is rolled down the ramp.
4. Roll the wooden ball down the ramp and measure how far the box or cup moved from its
starting position.
5. Record your data (table 1) and repeat twice.
6. Roll the glass ball down the ramp and measure how far the box or cup moved from its
starting position.
7. Record your data (table 1) and repeat twice.
8. Roll the metal ball down the ramp and measure how far the box or cup moved from its
starting position.
9. Record your data (table 1)
10. Plot your results, with the type of ball on the x-axis, and the distance the box or cup moved
on the y-axis.
Part 2:
1. Tape 1 washer on top of the box or cup.
2. Roll the metal ball down the same ramp and measure how far the box or cup moved from its
starting position.
3. Record your data (Table 2) and repeat twice.
4. Repeat with two washers, then with three washers.
5. Record your data (table 2) and repeat twice.
6. Plot your results, with the number of washer on the x-axis, and the distance the box or cup
moved on the y-axis.
Data Tables:
Table 1: Distance Traveled and Time Taken by Different Balls
Type of
Distance (cm)
Time (s)
Balls
Trial 1
Trial 2
Average
Trial 1
Trial 2
Average
Wooden
Glass
Metal
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Table 2: Number of Washers versus Distance Cup/Box Moved and Time Taken
Number
Distance
Time
Distance
Time
of
Trial Trial
Trial Trial
Trial Trial
Trial Trial
Average
Average
Average
Average
Washers
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
1
2
3
1. Write a hypothesis for both parts of this experiment.
Results and Conclusion
2. How does the force of the moving object (type of ball) affect the distance traveled by the cup?
3. How does the mass of the object at rest (box or cup) affect how far it travels when hit by the
metal ball?
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4. Describe the relationship between force (mass of ball) and the distance the box or cup moved.
Describe the relationship between the mass of the box or cup, and the distance the box or cup
moved
5. Did your results support your hypothesis? Was the Newton’s Second Law proved? Explain.
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Teacher Guide
Engagement
Tap Prior Knowledge
Review by asking about the definition of inertia and the First Law of Motion. Explain that Sir Isaac
Newton discovered other things about motion and today that we will be looking at some of these.
Relate Activity and Concept
Newton's Second Law of Motion allows us to distinguish between a "big push" and a "little push." It
also allows us to predict how different masses will move when more or less force is applied.
Connect to Other Everyday Examples
Imagine the effect you would have on a preschool child on roller-skates (blades) versus the effect
on a ninth grade skater.
• Which would accelerate faster? (the preschooler)
• Why? (he/she is smaller )
Share with Neighbor
Have the students write a short description about their own experiences pushing or pulling different
things. Give them some time to share these descriptions with the members of their groups.
Lesson lead
In this lesson, students will use Newton's Second Law of Motion to determine the relationship
among an object's mass, the force applied to move it and how quickly it moves.
Answers to lab questions
1. Answers will vary.
2. The more force (greater mass of the ball), the farther the cup will travel.
3. The more mass (number of washers), the shorter the distance the cup will travel.
4. The greater the force of the moving object (mass), the greater the distance the object at rest will
move. The greater the mass of the object at rest, the less it will move.
5. Answers will vary.
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The School Board of Miami-Dade County, Florida, adheres to a policy of nondiscrimination
in employment and educational programs/activities and programs/activities receiving
Federal financial assistance from the Department of Education, and strives affirmatively to
provide equal opportunity for all as required by:
Title VI of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 - prohibits discrimination on the basis of
race, color, religion, or national origin.
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employment on the basis of race, color, religion, gender, or national origin.
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basis of gender.
Age Discrimination in Employment Act of 1967 (ADEA), as amended - prohibits
discrimination on the basis of age with respect to individuals who are at least 40.
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of wages to women and men performing substantially equal work in the same
establishment.
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disabled.
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individuals with disabilities in employment, public service, public accommodations
and telecommunications.
The Family and Medical Leave Act of 1993 (FMLA) - requires covered employers
to provide up to 12 weeks of unpaid, job-protected leave to "eligible" employees for
certain family and medical reasons.
The Pregnancy Discrimination Act of 1978 - prohibits discrimination in
employment on the basis of pregnancy, childbirth, or related medical conditions.
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race, gender, national origin, marital status, or handicap against a student or
employee.
Florida Civil Rights Act of 1992 - secures for all individuals within the state
freedom from discrimination because of race, color, religion, sex, national origin,
age, handicap, or marital status.
School Board Rules 6Gx13- 4A-1.01, 6Gx13- 4A-1.32, and 6Gx13- 5D-1.10 prohibit harassment and/or discrimination against a student or employee on the
basis of gender, race, color, religion, ethnic or national origin, political beliefs,
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and Section 295.07 (Florida Statutes), which stipulate categorical preferences for
employment.
Revised 5/9/03
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