THE "PUBLIC IMAGE" OF GEORGE WALLACE
IN THE 1968 PRESIDENTIAL, ELECTION
APPROVED:
I&JO/V L&JUJwdi
Major Professor
Minor P r o f e s s o r
D i r e c t o r of t h e D e p a r t m e n t o F S p e e c h a n d D r a m a
D e a n of t h e G r a d u a t e S c h o o l
T H E " P U B L I C IMAGE" O F GEORGE W A L L A C E
IN THE 1968 P R E S I D E N T I A L E L E C T I O N
THESIS
P r e s e n t e d to t h e G r a d u a t e C o u n c i l of the
N o r t h T e x a s S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y in P a r t i a l
F u l f i l l m e n t of t h e R e q u i r e m e n t s
F o r the D e g r e e of
MASTER O F S C I E N C E
by
R o b e r t W. R a s b e r r y , B. A.
Denton, T e x a s
August, 1969
TABLE OF CONTENTS
Chapter
I.
Page
INTRODUCTION.
.
1
"The Image" as a R h e t o r i c a l Tool
P u r p o s e of the Study
Historical Overview
B i o g r a p h i c a l S k e t c h of G e o r g e W a l l a c e
"II.
" T H E IMAGE, " A T H E O R E T I C A L VIEWPOINT . . . .
32
The N a t u r e of " T h e I m a g e "
" T h e I m a g e " in P o l i t i c s
C r e a t i o n of " T h e I m a g e "
III.
" T H E IMAGE" AND GEORGE W A L L A C E IN 1968 . . .
77
The W a l l a c e C a m p a i g n
Ideological Dimension
Personal Dimension
Technical Dimension
- IV.
CONCLUSION
124
BIBLIOGRAPHY
132
in
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
N i n e t e e n h u n d r e d s i x t y - e i g h t w a s i n c r e d i b l e in m a n y r e s p e c t s .
The y e a r was u n p r e c e d e n t e d and r e c o r d e d m a n y " f i r s t s .
M
Man maneu-
v e r e d within the m o o n ' s g r a v i t a t i o n a l pull; a m a n lived and functioned
with a t r a n s p l a n t e d h e a r t .
I n d i v i d u a l s a n d g r o u p s of s t u d e n t s , b l a c k s ,
h i p p i e s , y i p p i e s , r i g h t i s t s , l e f t i s t s , and d i s s i d e n t s d e m a n d e d t o be
h e a r d and h e e d e d .
T h e y e a r w a s one of c o n f r o n t a t i o n , a y e a r w h e n t h e
E s t a b l i s h m e n t b e c a m e the enemy, and the alienated b e c a m e the activist.
It w a s a y e a r w h e n few e x p e c t e d t h e a s t o u n d i n g a n d w e r e r e l u c t a n t to
accept the unthinkable.
rampant.
Riots, a s s a s s i n a t i o n s , and invasions w e r e
M a n y A m e r i c a n s v i e w e d t h e p o l i t i c a l s c e n e w i t h i m a g e s of
a p p r e h e n s i o n , a l a r m , and diffidence.
Voters carelessly groped for a
m a n w i t h s o l u t i o n s to t h e s e p e r p l e x i t i e s .
In s h o r t , the A m e r i c a n p u b l i c
w a s s u s c e p t i b l e t o s t r o n g if not r a t i o n a l v o i c e s in 1968.
F r o m c o a s t t o c o a s t the p e o p l e w e r e i m p r e s s i o n a b l e a n d r e a d y
for change.
E x - G o v e r n o r G e o r g e C. W a l l a c e of A l a b a m a , a s a t h i r d
p r e s i d e n t i a l candidate, t h r e a t e n e d Republican and D e m o c r a t i c cont e n d e r s w i t h a s t a l e m a t e if not v i c t o r y .
I n d e p e n d e n t P a r t y " b a n n e r , he v o w e d to
t h e y wanted to h e a r .
H
Running under
M
n
The American
tell the A m e r i c a n people what
H i s m e s s a g e of p e a c e , u n i t y , a n d
tf
law and order1'
w a s w e l c o m e d by m a n y , s c r u p u l o u s l y e x a m i n e d by f e w , but f i n a l l y
r e j e c t e d by t h e m a j o r i t y .
T h i s s t u d y w i l l v i e w t h e " p u b l i c i m a g e " of G e o r g e W a l l a c e
d u r i n g 1968 a n d i t s e f f e c t on t h e e l e c t i o n .
h a s been b r o a d l y applied to history,
Although
,!
the i m a g e " concept
economics, psychology, anthro-
pology, and social psychology, its r e l e v a n c e to the c o m m u n i c a t i o n
field and r e l a t i v e
p r o c e s s e s has been virtually ignored until recently.
This introductory chapter will p r e s e n t
a r h e t o r i c a l tool,
(1) a d i s c u s s i o n of t h e i m a g e a s
(2) t h e p u r p o s e of t h e s t u d y ,
(3) a n h i s t o r i c a l b a c k -
g r o u n d of t h e t i m e s p r e c e d i n g t h e 1968 c a m p a i g n , and (4) a b i o g r a p h i c a l
p o r t r a i t of G e o r g e C . W a l l a c e ,
"The Image" as a Rhetorical Tool
R h e t o r i c a l t h e o r i s t s f r o m ancient to m o d e r n t i m e s have recogn i z e d t h e i m p a c t of t h e s p e a k e r ' s c h a r a c t e r in e f f e c t i n g p e r s u a s i o n .
F o r e x a m i n a t i o n p u r p o s e s , the s o u r c e (or s p e a k e r ) is usually studied
s e p a r a t e l y f r o m t h e m e s s a g e o r s p e e c h , c a u s i n g a b r e a k d o w n in t h e
n o r m a l communication situation.
F o r the l i s t e n e r h o w e v e r , the s o u r c e
and m e s s a g e a r e viewed as a m o n i s t i c p r o c e s s with the m e s s a g e being
s i m p l y an e x t e n s i o n of t h e s o u r c e .
C o m m u n i c a t i o n t h e o r i s t s beginning with A r i s t o t l e have d e s c r i b e d
a n d r e c o r d e d t e c h n i q u e s and t r a i t s e f f e c t i v e s p e a k e r s s h o u l d u s e f o r
persuasive purposes.
A r i s t o t l e ' s t h r e e a r t i s t i c p r o o f s f o r t h e a r t of
p e r s u a s i o n w e r e p a t h o s (emotion), logos (logic),
character).
and e t h o s
(speaker's
In d i s c u s s i n g e t h o s he w r o t e :
. . . t h e s p e a k e r m u s t not m e r e l y s e e t o it t h a t h i s s p e e c h
[ a s a n a r g u m e n t ] s h a l l b e c o n v i n c i n g a n d p e r s u a s i v e , but he
m u s t (in and by t h e s p e e c h ] g i v e t h e r i g h t i m p r e s s i o n of
h i m s e l f , and get h i s j u d g e {audience) i n t o t h e r i g h t s t a t e of
m i n d . . . . it i s h i g h l y i m p o r t a n t t h a t t h e s p e a k e r s h o u l d
e v i n c e a c e r t a i n c h a r a c t e r , and t h a t t h e j u d g e s s h o u l d
c o n c e i v e h i m t o b e d i s p o s e d t o w a r d s t h e m in a c e r t a i n w a y ,
a n d f u r t h e r , if p o s s i b l e , t h a t t h e j u d g e s t h e m s e l v e s s h o u l d
have a c e r t a i n attitude towards him.
In c r e a t i n g e t h o s in a n d b y t h e s p e e c h , A r i s t o t l e d o e s n o t
recognize the
n
reputation,f or
cation situation.
present tense.
,f
i m a g e n a s p e a k e r b r i n g s to t h e c o m m u n i -
A s a r e s u l t , e t h o s h a s no p a s t o r f u t u r e , but o n l y a
A r i s t o t l e i m p l i e d h o w e v e r , the m u t u a l i n t e r d e p e n d e n c e
of t h e s p e e c h a n d s p e a k e r ' s p a s t
b e c a u s e good c h a r a c t e r c a n e n h a n c e
a s p e e c h 1 s e f f e c t i v e n e s s , w h i l e good s p e e c h c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ( c o n t e n t ,
o r g a n i z a t i o n , style and d e l i v e r y ) support the s p e a k e r 1 s c h a r a c t e r .
D u r i n g R o m a n and R e n a i s s a n c e p e r i o d s t h e A r i s t o t e l i a n c o n c e p t
of e t h o s w a s e x p a n d e d a n d c l a r i f i e d
and w r i t e r s continued to d i s c u s s
t h e i n t e r a c t i o n of t h e s p e a k e r a n d s p e e c h .
George Campbell discussed
t h e e f f e c t of s p e a k e r e t h o s in h i s book, P h i l o s o p h y of R h e t o r i c , by
noting that
. . t o be good is the only s u r e w a y of b e i n g l o n g e s t e e m e d
g o o d , a n d t o be e s t e e m e d good i s p r e v i o u s l y n e c e s s a r y t o o n e ' s b e i n g
h e a r d w i t h d u e a t t e n t i o n and r e g a r d .
,f
^
H e e x p a n d s t h e r o l e of c h a r a c -
t e r s o t h a t it i n c l u d e s a s p e a k e r ' s e n t i r e r e p u t a t i o n .
T h e r h e t o r i c a l c r i t i c t o d a y s t i l l e m p l o y s t h e c o n c e p t of e t h o s
and e t h i c a l proof.
S t u d i e s of i n t e r a c t i o n b e t w e e n t h e s o u r c e of a
m e s s a g e and the m e s s a g e itself a r e a l s o used.
M o s t of t h e s o u r c e
c r e d i b i l i t y studies, however, a r e c o n c e r n e d with a s p e a k e r ' s influence
on t h e a u d i e n c e ' s a c c e p t a n c e of t h e m e s s a g e c o n t e n t .
Little has been
* L a n e C o o p e r , t r a n s l a t o r , T h e R h e t o r i c of A r i s t o t l e (New Y o r k ,
1932), p. 91.
2
p. 119.
G e o r g e C a m p b e l l , P h i l o s o p h y of R h e t o r i c
New Y o r k , 1871),
d o n e in d e t e r m i n i n g the e f f e c t of m e s s a g e c o n t e n t on t h e a u d i e n c e ' s
a c c e p t a n c e of t h e s p e a k e r .
A s t a t e m e n t f r o m Speech C r i t i c i s m , by
T h o n s s e n a n d B a i r d , e x e m p l i f i e s t h e d e s i r e d a r e a of r e s e a r c h d u r i n g
their time.
"A r h e t o r i c a l j u d g m e n t i s a c o m p o s i t e of d a t a a n d i n t e r -
p r e t a t i o n t h a t i s i n t e n d e d to r e v e a l the e f f e c t of a g i v e n s p e e c h u p o n
3
a p a r t i c u l a r g r o u p of l i s t e n e r s . "
R e c e n t l y , c o n t e m p o r a r y c r i t i c s h a v e b e e n a s s u m i n g t h a t the
a i m of s p e e c h c r i t i c i s m s h o u l d i n c l u d e e v a l u a t i o n of a n y s i g n i f i c a n t
a s p e c t of the r h e t o r i c a l t r a n s a c t i o n .
t o r y f r o m which to c h o o s e .
The e a g e r c r i t i c h a s a v a s t r e p e r -
F o r e x a m p l e , he m a y study the c o m m u n i -
c a t i o n , i t s a b u n d a n c e o r l a c k of i d e a s a n d a r t i s t r y , i t s r e l a t i o n t o
current intellectual, scientific, religious, political, philosophical,
e d u c a t i o n a l , o r a r t i s t i c p r o b l e m s , i t s r e l a t i o n to t h e s p e a k e r ' s d e e d s ,
its v a l u e , i m p a c t , o r r e s u l t s .
The c r i t i c should not be bound b y
p r e v i o u s a p p r o a c h e s or methodology but should develop h i s p e r s o n a l
i d e a s , t h o u g h t s , and s t y l e s .
A n t h o n y H i l l b r u n e r in C r i t i c a l D i m e n s i o n s :
P u b l i c A d d r e s s C r i t i c i s m , r e i t e r a t e s this need:
It w o u l d b e an e r r o r (to e m u l a t e a p p r o a c h e 0 b e c a u s e it w o u l d
l i m i t h i s p o t e n t i a l , a n d in f a c t u n d e r m i n e h i s m o v e s t o w a r d
f u l f i l l i n g h i s own c r e a t i v e p r o b i n g s a n d p o s s i b i l i t i e s . W h e r e
p o s s i b l e , the c r i t i c s h o u l d l o o k f o r m e t h o d s t h a t w o u l d
p r o v i d e u n i q u e a s s e s s m e n t s , a s s e s s m e n t s in d e p t h of the
s p e a k e r T s i m p a c t upon s p e c i f i c a u d i e n c e s as well a s upon h i s
t i m e s . T h i s i s the^Least t h a t he c a n do a s an e f f i c a c i o u s
s c h o l a r and c r i t i c .
H i l l b r u n e r a l s o f e e l s the c r i t i c s h o u l d u t i l i z e e l e m e n t s of a p a r t i c u l a r
3
L e s t e r T h o n s s e n and A. C r a i g B a i r d , Speech C r i t i c i s m
(New Y o r k , 1948), p . 9 .
4
_
A n t h o n y H i l l b r u n e r , C r i t i c a l D i m e n s i o n s : The A r t of P u b l i c
A d d r e s s C r i t i c i s m (New Y o r k , 1966)7" p<> 72„
t h e o r y of i n t e n t w h i c h fit not only t h e s p e e c h , s p e a k e r , o r s i t u a t i o n ,
but a l s o t h e t i m e s .
F e w i n d i v i d u a l s , in v i e w i n g r e t r o s p e c t i v e l y t h e 1968 p o l i t i c a l
y e a r , w o u l d c a t e g o r i z e it a s a t r a d i t i o n a l c a m p a i g n .
That year intro-
d u c e d t o t h e A m e r i c a n s c e n e t h e f i r s t m a j o r t h i r d p a r t y c a n d i d a c y in
r e c e n t y e a r s and t h e p r o c l a i m e d " N e w P o l i t i c s . "
Politicians searched
f o r u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e n e w t e c h n o l o g i c a l e n v i r o n m e n t p e r c i p i t a t e d b y
the e l e c t r o n i c m e d i a and its p s y c h i c
and s o c i a l c o n s e q u e n c e s .
Because
of t h e n e w a n d e x p a n d e d m e d i a t h e m e s s a g e of the p o l i t i c a l c o m m u n i c a t o r
h a d l o s t m u c h of i t s i m p o r t a n c e ,
had t a k e n its p l a c e .
and the p o l i t i c i a n ' s
Tl
public i m a g e "
S i n c e t h e v i s u a l d i m e n s i o n of t h e p o l i t i c a l c o m -
m u n i c a t i o n had b e e n e x t e n d e d , t h e p u b l i c f o u n d it e a s i e r t o f o r m a n
i m a g e of i t s p o l i t i c a l l e a d e r s v i a t e l e v i s i o n r a t h e r t h a n o t h e r a n a c h r o nistic media.
T h i s s t u d y w i l l d i s c u s s , at a l a t e r p o i n t , t h e v i s u a l
i m a g e 1 s d e c i s i v e i n f l u e n c e on i n d i v i d u a l p o l i t i c a l c h o i c e .
B e c a u s e t h e n e w c o n c e p t of " p u b l i c i m a g e 1 1 p l a y e d a n i m p o r t a n t
r o l e in t h e 1968 p o l i t i c s , it s e e m s f e a s i b l e to u s e a n e w r h e t o r i c a l
a p p r o a c h in e x a m i n i n g t h i s c o n c e p t .
T h o m a s D. H a r r i s o n , w h o h a s
done c o n s i d e r a b l e w o r k with "the i m a g e " f r o m a r h e t o r i c a l p e r s p e c t i v e ,
states:
. . . [the i m a g e ] h a s i t s r o o t s p r i m a r i l y in r a t i o n a l i s m a s
o p p o s e d t o b e h a v i o r i s m . It is a m o d e l of t h e p r a g m a t i c s of
h u m a n c o m m u n i c a t i o n f r o m t h e p o i n t of v i e w of the p e r c e i v e r .
P e r s u a s i o n i s m e a s u r e d in t e r m s of the e f f e c t of r h e t o r i c on
t h e m i n d of t h e p e r c e i v e r r a t h e r t h a n u p o n s u b s e q u e n t b e h a v i o r
o r u p o n t h e p u r p o s e of t h e s p e a k e r . T h e i m a g e i s u s e f u l
b e c a u s e it d i r e c t s u s i n t o t h e m i n d of t h e a u d i t o r , b e c a u s e it
p o i n t s t o w a r d s t h e m a n n e r in w h i c h c o m m u n i c a t i o n a l t e r s t h a t
m i n d , and b e c a u s e it f a c i l i t a t e s a n u n d e r s t a n d i n g of t h e
.
m a n n e r in w h i c h p e r s u a s i o n f u n c t i o n s a s a p r i n c i p l e of
social cohesion,
T h e i m p o r t a n c e of u s i n g t h e
,!
public image11 concept as a r h e t o r i -
c a l t o o l in l i e u of t h e e t h o s c o n c e p t l i e s in e x a m i n i n g a l l t h e w a y s a
s p e a k e r c o m m u n i c a t e s h i m s e l f and h i s m e s s a g e s a n d t h e i r e f f e c t s u p o n
t h e a u d i e n c e 1 s a c c e p t a n c e of t h e s p e a k e r a n d h i s s p e e c h .
Rhetorical
p e r s u a s i o n is v i e w e d f r o m t h e p e r c e i v e r ' s p o i n t of v i e w - - n o t t h e
s p e a k e r ' s nor the c r i t i c ' s .
P u r p o s e of t h e S t u d y
T h e i n t e n t i o n of t h i s s t u d y i s t o e x a m i n e t h e p u b l i c i m a g e of
G e o r g e W a l l a c e in t h e 1968 p r e s i d e n t i a l c a m p a i g n f r o m i t s e a r l i e s t
i n c e p t i o n t o i t s g e n e r a l a c c e p t a n c e and a t t h e s a m e t i m e , t o d e t e r m i n e
if t h i s i m a g e c o n t r i b u t e d t o h i s d e f e a t at t h e p o l l s .
The s t u d y w i l l s e e k
t o be a n i n t e r p r e t a t i v e r a t h e r t h a n e x h a u s t i v e h i s t o r i c a l r e s e a r c h
s u m m a r y and will a t t e m p t to view W a l l a c e ' s i m a g e f r o m a s an o b j e c t i v e
posture
as possible.
B o t h p r i m a r y a n d s e c o n d a r y s o u r c e s w i l l be
u s e d in o r d e r t o r e f l e c t t h e f e e l i n g t h a t p e o p l e h a d t o w a r d W a l l a c e .
A v a i l a b l e p u b l i c o p i n i o n p o l l s w i l l be e m p l o y e d t o s h o w v o t e r i n t e n t
a n d a t t i t u d e s t o w a r d the i s s u e s , c a n d i d a t e s , a n d r e l a t e d f a c t o r s .
T h e " i m a g e " c o n c e p t w i l l be c o n s t r u c t e d p r i m a r i l y f r o m t h e
w o r k of t h r e e m e n :
Walter Lippmann, Public Opinion, Kenneth E.
B o u l d i n g , T h e I m a g e : K n o w l e d g e in L i f e and S o c i e t y , a n d D a n i e l J .
%
B o o r s t i n , T h e I m a g e : A G u i d e t o P s e u d o - E v e n t s in A m e r i c a .
In
a d d i t i o n , a n i n t e r p r e t a t i v e w o r k on t h e p u b l i c i m a g e , " T h e P u b l i c
5
T h o m a s Dail H a r r i s o n , "The Image: A S y s t e m s Approach to
t h e R h e t o r i c a l A c t , " u n p u b l i s h e d p a p e r , D e p a r t m e n t of S p e e c h a n d
D r a m a , C e n t r a l S t a t e C o l l e g e , E d m o n d , O k l a h o m a , 1968, p. 2.
I m a g e of t h e ' N e w S o u t h ' in the N o r t h , 1870-1890"
Master's thesis,
D e p a r t m e n t of S p e e c h ,
(Unpublished
U n i v e r s i t y of O k l a h o m a , 1966),
by T h o m a s D. H a r r i s o n , w i l l be u s e d .
T h e d e s i g n of t h e s t u d y i s t w o - f o l d .
F i r s t , this t h e s i s s e e k s to
d e v e l o p a t h e o r e t i c a l c o n s t r u c t o r s e r i e s of g u i d e l i n e s to b e u s e d f o r
e x a m i n i n g p o l i t i c a l b e h a v i o r a s d e t e r m i n e d by t h e a t t i t u d e s a n d i m a g e s
t h e e l e c t o r a t e h a s of t h e p o l i t i c i a n a n d t h e p o l i t i c a l p r o c e s s .
Importance
i s p l a c e d u p o n t h e r o l e c o m m u n i c a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s p l a y in f o r m u l a t i n g
and r e i n f o r c i n g the " i m a g e s . "
The study c o n s i d e r s "the i m a g e "
as
c o m m u n i c a t e d b y m a s s m e d i a a n d v i e w s t h e u n i q u e r o l e of e l e c t r o n i c
m e d i a in c r y s t a l i z i n g n a t i o n a l a t t i t u d e s .
S e c o n d l y , t h e t h e o r e t i c a l c o n s t r u c t is a p p l i e d t o a c a s e s t u d y of
G e o r g e W a l l a c e and h i s p u b l i c i m a g e in t h e 1968 p r e s i d e n t i a l c a m p a i g n .
T h i s c a s e s t u d y e x a m i n e s t h e p e r s o n a l a n d i d e o l o g i c a l d i m e n s i o n s of
W a l l a c e ' s i m a g e a s w e l l a s the t e c h n o l o g i c a l a s p e c t of t h e m e d i a r o l e .
The study is divided into f o u r c h a p t e r s .
Following this
d i s c u s s i o n , C h a p t e r I g i v e s an h i s t o r i c a l o v e r v i e w p r e c e d i n g t h e
1968 p r e s i d e n t i a l c a m p a i g n a n d a s h o r t b i o g r a p h i c a l s k e t c h of G e o r g e
Wallace.
In b u i l d i n g a t h e o r e t i c a l c o n s t r u c t ,
three questions:
t h e r o l e of
C h a p t e r II a n s w e r s
(1) W h a t i s t h e n a t u r e of " t h e i m a g e ? "
" t h e i m a g e " in p o l i t i c s ?
and
(3)
How i s
(2) W h a t i s
"the image"
created?
C h a p t e r III e x a m i n e s t h e p u b l i c i m a g e of G e o r g e W a l l a c e a s it
w a s d e v e l o p e d d u r i n g the 1968 p r e s i d e n t i a l y e a r .
developed:
Three ideas are
(1) t h e p a s t , p r e s e n t , a n d f u t u r e p e r s o n a l i m a g e of
Wallace,
(2) t h e i d e o l o g i c a l d i m e n s i o n and p u b l i c a t t i t u d e s , a n d
(3) t h e t e c h n o l o g i c a l t r a n s m i s s i o n of W a l i a c e ! s i m a g e to t h e p u b l i c .
C h a p t e r IV w i l l o f f e r c o n c l u d i n g r e m a r k s on t h e s t u d y .
Historical Overview
P e r h a p s t h e t e m p e r of t h e t i m e s o r the i m a g e s of t h e p o l i t i c a l
c o n t e n d e r s t h r e a t e n e d A m e r i c a n s in 1968, n e v e r t h e l e s s , t h e y w e r e
g r i p p e d by a p e r v a s i v e d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n a n d a n i r r i t a b l e s e n s e of p e s s i m i s m which clouded all f o r e c a s t s .
nation want?
respond?
W h a t t y p e of l e a d e r s h i p d i d t h e
T o w h a t k i n d of a p p e a l s and p r o m i s e s w o u l d t h e v o t e r s
Could the populace be p a c i f i e d ?
What w e r e his s t r a t e g i e s ?
If so, w h o w o u l d do i t ?
No p r o f e s s i o n a l p o l i t i c i a n in t h e c o u n t r y
could a n s w e r t h e s e q u e s t i o n s with any finality.
The National Com-
m i t t e e f o r an E f f e c t i v e C o n g r e s s took the nation1 s p u l s e the f i r s t w e e k
in J a n u a r y a n d r e p o r t e d :
n
A t a l l l e v e l s of A m e r i c a n l i f e , p e o p l e s h a r e
s i m i l a r f e a r s , i n s e c u r i t i e s , and gnawing doubts to such an i n t e n s e
d e g r e e t h a t t h e c o u n t r y m a y in f a c t be s u f f e r i n g f r o m a k i n d of n a t i o n a l
nervous breakdown. . . .
a d e p r e s s i o n of t h e n a t i o n a l s p i r i t . I ! ^
The
m a j o r i t y of A m e r i c a n s c o n t e m p l a t e d the p r e s i d e n t i a l p o l i t i c s w i t h a
s t r o n g , s i m p l e , and u n h a p p y i m a g e of w h a t w a s h a p p e n i n g t o t h e i r
country.
n
A c a t c h p h r a s e i n d i c a t i v e of t h e t i m e s w a s t h a t t h e n a t i o n w a s
b e i n g t o r n a p a r t by the w a r and t h e c i t i e s .
ff
T e n s i o n s b u i l d i n g s i n c e t h e a s s a s s i n a t i o n of P r e s i d e n t K e n n e d y
h a d e r u p t e d i n t o v i o l e n c e and p r o t e s t .
n
1968), 18.
T h e B i g Show:
P o l i t i c s 1968,
T h i s r e a c t i o n w a s ignited by the
11
N e w s w e e k , L X X I ( J a n u a r y 8,
c i v i l r i g h t s m o v e m e n t a n d f u e l e d by p r o l o n g e d i n v o l v e m e n t in V i e t n a m .
T h i s v i o l e n c e a r o s e b e c a u s e p e o p l e c o m m i t t e d to s o c i a l c h a n g e c o n f r o n t e d p e o p l e c o m m i t t e d t o t h e s t a t u s quo.
C r i t i c s of t h e d e m o n -
strations contended that such outbreaks w e r e " u n - A m e r i c a n ,
h a d o c c u r r e d i n f r e q u e n t l y in t h e p a s t .
H
and
T h o s e who h e l d t h i s a t t i t u d e
o v e r l o o k e d m a j o r g r o u p s in h i s t o r y t h a t w e r e i n v o l v e d in v i o l e n t
political movements.
Among those w e r e the A m e r i c a n Indians, Appa-
l a c h i a n f a r m e r s , A m e r i c a n c o l o n i s t s , w h i t e S o u t h e r n e r s , White,
A n g l o - S a x o n , P r o t e s t a n t A m e r i c a n s ( W A S P ' s ) , W o m a n ' s S u f f r a g e and
7
others.
Some citizens d e c l a r e d A m e r i c a was a
tf
s i c k society 1 * w h i l e
o t h e r s a r g u e d it w a s m e r e l y e x p e r i e n c i n g t h e o l d e s t p r o b l e m of
p o l i t i c s - - t h e n o n v i o l e n t t r a n s f e r of p o w e r .
Although the a n s w e r was
n e b u l o u s , one f a c t w a s e v i d e n t ; t h e n u m b e r a n d v a r i e t y of p a r t i c i p a n t s
in d e m o n s t r a t i v e p r o t e s t s i n c r e a s e d a n d e n c o m p a s s e d a l a r g e r p o r t i o n
of s o c i e t y m e m b e r s .
D i s s i d e n t students and black f a c t i o n s w e r e
joined by v a r i o u s m i d d l e - c l a s s g r o u p s and r e s p e c t a b l e p r o f e s s i o n a l s
such as t e a c h e r s , d o c t o r s , n u r s e s , r e s e a r c h e r s , and c l e r g y m e n .
T h e h i s t o r i c a l b a c k d r o p of t h e 1968 e l e c t i o n y e a r c a n n o t be
m i n i m i z e d in t h i s study* h o w e v e r , o t h e r e v e n t s s u c h a s the V i e t n a m
w a r a n d r a c i a l v i o l e n c e need to b e a n a l y z e d f o r t h e i r i n f l u e n c e s in the
election results.
7
F o r e x c e l l e n t s u m m a r y on v i o l e n t p o l i t i c a l m o v e m e n t s s e e :
J e r o m e H. S k o l n i c k , T h e P o l i t i c s of P r o t e s t (New Y o r k , 1969),
pp. 10-24.
10
The Vietnam War
U n i t e d S t a t e s i n v o l v e m e n t i n a l l m a j o r w a r s s i n c e 1775 h a s
i n d u c e d d o m e s t i c p r o t e s t and v i o l e n c e .
Until r e c e n t l y this w a s a
m a r g i n a l and e a s i l y ignored phenomenon b e c a u s e the m a g n i f i e d p a t r i o t i s m o b s c u r r e d t h e v o i c e s of d i s s e n t .
The violent conflict a r i s i n g
f r o m opposition to the V i e t n a m w a r followed a d i f f e r e n t c o u r s e .
This
i s t h e f i r s t t i m e a l a r g e n u m b e r of y o u t h s a n d s t u d e n t s h a v e b e e n
violately opposed.
sentiment.
P r e v i o u s l y , t h e y w e r e t h e m a j o r s o u r c e of p a t r i o t i c
This also m a r k s the f i r s t time opponents have realized
increasing popular support for
,f
their cause.
11
T h e r e i s a c o r r e l a t i o n b e t w e e n t h e d e g r e e of m i l i t a r y i n v o l v e m e n t a n d t h e m a g n i t u d e of t h e p r o t e s t .
t h e s p r i n g of 1965 a f t e r t h e f i r s t
,f
N o r t h V i e t n a m began and the f i r s t
w e r e l a n d e d in South V i e t n a m .
T h e f i r s t r e a l d i s s e n t c a m e in
nonretaliatoryn air attacks against
f!
acknowledgedn U.S. combat troops
S i n c e t h a t t i m e t h e s c o p e of p r o t e s t
had g r o w n w i t h e s c a l a t i o n of m a n - p o w e r a n d g e n e r a l w a r e f f o r t s .
The
w a r had t a k e n a h i g h t o l l of A m e r i c a n l i v e s , e v e n s u r p a s s i n g t h e n u m b e r
k i l l e d in K o r e a by t h e s p r i n g of 1967, a n d b e w i l d e r e d c i t i z e n s a s k e d ,
"Why?"
The q u e s t i o n i s t h e s a m e e v e r y w h e r e , t h o u g h a s k e d d i f f e r e n t l y .
P r i o r to and including 1 9 6 8 , t h e r e w a s no c o m p l e t e l y o r g a n i z e d
A n t i - W a r M o v e m e n t in the United S t a t e s .
Instead^ h u n d r e d s of ad hoc
g r o u p s had a p p e a r e d in r e s p o n s e to s p e c i f i c V i e t n a m i s s u e s s u c h a s
e s c a l a t i o n s , bombing r e s u m p t i o n s , and d r a f t p o l i c i e s .
A r e p o r t by
J e r o m e H. Skolnick, e n t i t l e d The P o l i t i c s of P r o t e s t , d i s c u s s e s the
p a r a l l e l i s m of d e m o n s t r a t i o n s and o p p o s i t i o n .
^Ibid. , p. 29.
11
. . . t h e s i z e of d e m o n s t r a t i o n s v a r i e s d i r e c t l y w i t h the
p o p u l a r o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e w a r d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d 1965 t o 1968.
T h u s , t h e s t r e n g t h of t h e m o v e m e n t w o u l d s e e m t o be causallyr e l a t e d t o w i d e s p r e a d A m e r i c a n a t t i t u d e s and s e n t i m e n t s
toward the w a r . . . . T h e r e is a w i d e s p r e a d feeling among those
who p a r t i c i p a t e in a c t i v e c r i t i c i s m of t h e w a r t h a t t h e m o v e m e n t w o u l d c o l l a p s e w i t h o u t t h e p r e s e n c e of a w o r s e n i n g m i l i t a r y
s i t u a t i o n a n d a d o m e s t i c s o c i a l c r i s i s , and t h i s f e e l i n g g a i n s
c r e d e n c e f r o m t h e s l a c k e n i n g of p r o t e s t s a f t e r P r e s i d e n t
J o h n s o n ' s s p e e c h of M a r c h 31, 1968, and t h e p r e o c c u p a t i o n
w i t h f , s t r a i g h t , f p o l i t i c s d u r i n g t h e M c C a r t h y and K e n n e d y
campaigns, °
T h e a t t i t u d e s of a l a r g e p e r c e n t a g e of the d i s s e n t e r s c o u l d n o t
be a l i g n e d w i t h t h e w a r a n d i t s s u p p o s e d c a u s e s .
T h e y f o u n d it d i d
not q u a l i f y a s a j u s t w a r a s d e f i n e d by St. T h o m a s A q u i n a s .
He felt a
j u s t w a r m u s t m e e t t h r e e q u a l i f i c a t i o n s : (1) t h e c a u s e m u s t b e j u s t ,
(2) t h e r u l e r m u s t be l e g i t i m a t e , and
(3) t h e m e a n s e m p l o y e d m u s t
be p r o p o r t i o n a t e t o t h e e n d s in v i e w .
T o a g r e a t m a j o r i t y of A m e r i c a n s t h e c a u s e in V i e t n a m w a s
unjust.
T h e y did not s e e t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e w a r n o r h e a r t h e b l a r e
of t r u m p e t s o r
n
d a y of i n f a m y 1 1 to a n n o u n c e i t s p r e s e n c e o r a r o u s e t h e
p o p u l a c e to e n e m y p r e s e n c e .
with an invasion f r o m the
It d i d not b r e a k , like t h e K o r e a n W a r ,
Communist North.
Instead, prolonged
p u b l i c a t t e n t i o n w a s g i v e n t o V i e t n a m a n d i t s i s s u e s o v e r a p e r i o d o£
years.
T h e p u b l i c w a s v a g u e l y a w a r e of t h e f a l l of D i e n b i e n p h u in
1954, t h e G e n e v a A c c o r d s , a n d P r e m i e r D i e m f s r e g i m e of a ' d e m o c r a t i c one m a n r u l e .
n
D i e m w a s f a v o r a b l y p o r t r a y e d by t h e A m e r i c a n
n e w s m e d i a u n t i l h i s d e s p o t i s m then a s s a s s i n a t i o n in N o v e m b e r , 1963.
A s the w a r c o n t i n u e d t o g r o w a n d t h e D i e m r e g i m e w a s r e p l a c e d by a
s u c c e s s i o n of s t r o n g m e n , j u n t a s , a n d s h a d o w g o v e r n m e n t s , t h e
^Ibid. , p. 31.
12
A m e r i c a n public b e c a m e i n c r e a s i n g l y a w a r e and d i s t u r b e d .
This f r u s -
t r a t i o n began snowballing a s the w a r expanded and n u m e r o u s A m e r i c a n s
gave their lives. ^
By t h e e n d of 1967 t h e c h a r a c t e r of L y n d o n B. J o h n s o n w a s
being questioned.
T h e i m a g e s of P r e s i d e n t J o h n s o n a n d S e n a t o r
G o l d w a t e r c h a n g e d c o n s i d e r a b l y a f t e r t h e 1964 e l e c t i o n .
A m a j o r i t y of
A m e r i c a n s w e r e r e l i e v e d i n 1964, w h e n B a r r y G o l d w a t e r , a m a n w h o
u r g e d a n e s c a l a t i o n of t h e w a r , w a s d e f e a t e d a n d L y n d o n J o h n s o n , a
m a n w h o s a i d no A m e r i c a n b o y s s h o u l d be s e n t t o do t h e j o b A s i a n b o y s
should do, w a s e l e c t e d .
Skolnick said:
The s c e n e c h a n g e d a f t e r t h r e e y e a r s , a s
"It s e e m s f a i r to say that t h e a n t i - V i e t n a m W a r M o v e -
m e n t h a s b e e n e n e r g i z e d in p a r t by a d e e p p e r s o n a l b i t t e r n e s s a g a i n s t
t h e s p e a k e r of t h o s e w o r d s , and w i t h o u t t h e p r o m i s e s of 1964 t h e
m o v e m e n t might have a s s u m e d a m i l d e r c h a r a c t e r .
As books about the w a r p r o l i f e r a t e d m o r e A m e r i c a n s l e a r n e d
t h e V i e t n a m e s e s i t u a t i o n h a d e v o l v e d f r o m t h e I n d o c h i n e s e W a r , in w h i c h
the United S t a t e s had openly s u p p o r t e d the F r e n c h a g a i n s t the V i e t n a m e s e .
L e g a l i t y of A m e r i c a n i n t e r v e n t i o n w a s a l s o c h a l l e n g e d , a n d P r e s i d e n t
J o h n s o n ' s r e p e a t e d a s s e r t i o n t h a t " t h r e e P r e s i d e n t s . . . [had] c o m m i t t e d t h e m s e l v e s a n d [had] p r o m i s e d t o h e l p d e f e n d t h i s s m a l l and
valiant nation, "
s e e m e d to m i s r e p r e s e n t P r e s i d e n t E i s e n h o w e r ' s
12
l e t t e r t o P r e m i e r D i e m in 1954.
T h i s p r o p o s a l w a s t o " e x a m i n e " .an
a s s i s t a n c e p r o g r a m with Diem, which indicated a willingness to
^ I b i d . , p. 36.
12
^ I b i d . , p. 37.
"Why V i e t n a m , " United States G o v e r n m e n t P u b l i c a t i o n
( W a s h i n g t o n , A u g u s t 20, 19 65), p. 5.
13
Io
f u r n i s h " a i d in d e v e l o p i n g a s t r o n g v i a b l e s t a t e . "
T h e T o n k i n Gulf
R e s o l u t i o n of A u g u s t 7, 1964, a u t h o r i z i n g t h e P r e s i d e n t
"to take all
n e c e s s a r y m e a s u r e s t o r e p e l a n y a r m e d a t t a c k a g a i n s t t h e f o r c e s of
t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a n d to p r e v e n t f u r t h e r a g g r e s s i o n , " w a s i n t e r p r e t e d
14
a s a n o v e r - e x t e n s i o n of P r e s i d e n t i a l p o w e r .
As s u b s e q u e n t e v e n t s
and i d e a s d e v e l o p e d , m a n y c i t i z e n s b e g a n q u e s t i o n i n g t h e t r u t h f u l n e s s
of t h e i r g o v e r n m e n t ' s p u r p o s e in V i e t n a m .
A m a j o r i t y of t h e d i s s e n t e r s w e r e o p p o s e d t o t h e w a r b e c a u s e
of t h e m i l i t a r y t a c t i c s e m p l o y e d .
As Arthur Schlesinger J r . wrote
c o n c e r n i n g t h e w a r , in V i o l e n c e : A m e r i c a in t h e S i x t i e s :
A n d the w a r in w h i c h we a r e p r e s e n t l y e n g a g e d i s f a r
m o r e b r u t a l i z i n g than the Second World W a r o r the K o r e a n W a r .
It i s m o r e b r u t a l i z i n g b e c a u s e t h e d e s t r u c t i o n w e h a v e w r o u g h t
in V i e t n a m i s s o w i l d l y out of p r o p o r t i o n t o a n y d e m o n s t r a t e d
i n v o l v e m e n t of o u r n a t i o n a l s e c u r i t y o r a n y r a t i o n a l a s s e s s m e n t of o u r n a t i o n a l i n t e r e s t . In t h i s w a r we a r e k i l l i n g
b e y o n d n e e d . 15
T h e u s e of n a p a l m , d e f o l i a t i o n , a n d s a t u r a t i o n b o m b i n g , a l o n g w i t h t h e
m a s s k i l l i n g s , c a u s e d m i n o r i t y g r o u p s to q u e s t i o n t h e j u s t i c e of t h e w a r
and t h e l e g i t i m a c y of t h e s y s t e m .
B a s i s f o r d i s s e n t i o n and r e v o l t w a s t r a n s m i t t e d v i a w a r c o v e r a g e by t h e m e d i a .
13
S k o l n i c k s t r e s s e s t h i s f a c t by w r i t i n g :
S e e P r e s i d e n t E i s e n h o w e r ' s l e t t e r of O c t o b e r 23, 1954, t o
P r e m i e r D i e m of S o u t h V i e t n a m , e m p h a s i z i n g t h e d e p e n d e n c y of a n y
e c o n o m i c a i d on f o r t h c o m i n g " a s s u r a n c e s " a n d " p e r f o r m a n c e " i n
t h e a r e a of " n e e d e d r e f o r m s . " T h e l e t t e r d i d not m e n t i o n m i l i t a r y
a s s i s t a n c e . D e p a r t m e n t of S t a t e B u l l e t i n ( W a s h i n g t o n , N o v e m b e r 15,
1954), p. 7 3 5 f .
14
T h e New Y o r k T i m e s , A u g u s t 6, 1964, p. 8.
15
A r t h u r Schlesinger J r . , Violence: A m e r i c a in the Sixties
(New Y o r k , 1968), p. 50.
14
This is the most fully reported war in history; one could
go further and say that this is the only war in which millions of
citizens in their homes have been granted access to immediate
experience and background knowledge that would enable them jtg>
doubt their own government's version of what was happening.
Academic and l i t e r a r y figures who set a precedent by their
widespread opposition supported the c r i t i c s .
United States Senate
"doves, 11 such as Fulbright, Morse, Hatfield, McGovern, Gore,
Kennedy, Mansfield, and McCarthy provided continual incentive for
dissenters, and they were often joined by
Stennis, and Russell.
Tf
hawks{f such as Symington,
Several of President Kennedy r s administrators
such as Galbraith, Reischauer, Schlesinger, Sorenson, and Hilsman,
sided with President Johnspn's opposition.
Men like U Thant, Pope
17
Paul, and Arnold Toynbee also encouraged critics of the war.
While the movement's main support had been white professionals,
students, and clergy, several of the groups drifted toward "confrontationism.
11
Originally, the demonstrations were non-violent marches,
sit-ins, and picketings.
Physical injuries resulted from police inter-
vention and counter-demonstrators,
when d i s s e n t e r s of the status quo
in Vietnam turned their "peaceful" gatherings into violent demonstrations
and used guerrilla tactics on college campuses.
One such incident at
San Jose State College in I^ovember, 1967, occurred when Dow Chemical,
the CIA, and the Armed Fqrces came on campus for recruitment
purposes.
Similar occurrences spread across the United States during
19 68. 1 8
16
'Skolnick, pp. 4 2 - 4 3
17
Ibid. » p. 43.
^Hugh Davis Grahaxm and Ted Robert Gurr, Violence in America:
Historical and Comparative Perspectives (New York, 1969), pp. 517-519.
15
By mid-1968 the opinion polls d e c l a r e d the dissenting m i n o r i t y
had b e c o m e the m a j o r i t y .
A G a l l u p p o l l of A u g u s t 1968, a s k e d ,
. . do you t h i n k t h e U . S . m a d e a m i s t a k e s e n d i n g t r o o p s t o f i g h t in
Vietnam.
11
S o m e 53 p e r c e n t
answered
n
yes,
M
a n d 35 p e r c e n t s a i d
19
"no.
n
An e a r l i e r r e p o r t by N e w s w e e k ( J a n u a r y 1, 1968)
disclosed
the following findings:
Quite obviously, m o r e A m e r i c a n s than not a r e still d e t e r m i n e d
t o s e e t h e U. S. n w i n n t h e V i e t n a m e s e w a r . But w i n n i n g i n
V i e t n a m d o e s n o t a p p e a r t o m e a n t o t h e m w h a t it m e a n t i n
W o r l d W a r II. W h a t m o s t A m e r i c a n s s e e m to i n s i s t on i s a n
h o n o r a b l e s o l u t i o n t h a t w i l l a v o i d h u m i l i a t i o n of t h e i r c o u n t r y .
In t h e o r y , t h a t c o n d i t i o n c o u l d be m e t if t h e w a r w e r e s i m p l y
e n d e d on t e r m s t h a t r u l e d out an i m m e d i a t e C o m m u n i s t t a k e o v e r of a l l of V i e t n a m . In p r a c t i c e , h o w e v e r , i t s e e m s p r o b a b l e t h a t t h e only w a y t h i s c o u l d be a c c o m p l i s h e d w o u l d b e f o r
t h e U. S. t o a c h i e v e a s e t t l e m e n t p e r m i t t i n g it t o s t a t i o n t r o o p s
on S o u t h V i e t n a m f o r t h e f o r e s e e a b l e f u t u r e . ^
In g e n e r a l , t h e c r i t i c s , e s p e c i a l l y in 1967 and e a r l y 1968, w e r e s u c c e s s f u l in p r o j e c t i n g t h e r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n t h e w a r and t h e A m e r i c a n
domestic crisis.
priorities.
A r e p e a t e d t h e m e b e c a m e the c r y for
n
reordered
11
Racial
Violence
T h e r a c i a l d i s o r d e r s b e f o r e e a r l y 1968 w e r e e m b e d d e d i n a
t a n g l e of s o c i a l , e c o n o m i c , p o l i t i c a l , a n d p s y c h o l o g i c a l i s s u e s a n d
c i r c u m s t a n c e s w h i c h a r o s e out of a n h i s t o r i c p a t t e r n of N e g r o - C a u c a s i a n r e l a t i o n s in A m e r i c a .
P r e s i d e n t Kennedy advanced the cause
of t h e N e g r o by s e t t i n g t h e s t a g e f o r t h e C i v i l R i g h t s A c t of 1964, a n d
P r e s i d e n t J o h n s o n s e c u r e d the e n a c t m e n t .
Although this law settled
^ S k o l n i c k , p. 44.
20nOutlook: an A m e r i c a n D i l e m m a ,
( J a n u a r y 1, 1968), 17.
11
Newsweek,
LXXI
16
the public a c c o m m o d a t i o n s i s s u e , the voting r i g h t s w e r e still u n a f f e c t e d
until l a t e r , when a m o r e e f f e c t i v e s u f f r a g e law w a s p a s s e d .
In t h e s u m m e r of 1964 s o c i o l o g i s t L e e R a i n w a t e r f o u n d t h a t
21
w o r k i n g and m i d d l e - c l a s s f a m i l i e s f a v o r e d the s o c i a l r e f o r m m o v e m e n t .
This m o v e m e n t d o m i n a t e d D e m o c r a t i c p o l i t i c s and led to the G r e a t
S o c i e t y p r o g r a m a n d t h e W a r on P o v e r t y .
viewed
n
The g e n e r a l c o n s e n s u s
t h e p o o r b l a c k man11 a s being given a c h a n c e to w o r k his w a y
o u t of p o v e r t y a n d t o p r o v e h i m s e l f w o r t h y .
As white attitudes changed,
so did the Negroes1. T h e y w e r e
g a i n i n g a n e w s e n s e of s e l f - r e s p e c t a n d s e l f - i m a g e , r e s u l t i n g f r o m t h e
civil rights m o v e m e n t and r a c i a l a d v a n c e m e n t .
The non-violent
d e m o n s t r a t i o n s in the South, new l a w s a n d c o u r t d e c i s i o n s , a c c o m p a n i e d
b y t h e i n c r e a s i n g s u p p o r t of w h i t e p u b l i c o p i n i o n , g a v e t h e N e g r o e s a
new confidence for the future.
Suddenly, a
n
r e v o l u t i o n in e x p e c t a t i o n s 1 1
a r o s e b e c a u s e N e g r o e s no l o n g e r felt t h e y had to a c c e p t s e c o n d - c l a s s
citizenship.
ever.
T h e i r c o m m o n life now a p p e a r e d m o r e i n t o l e r a b l e t h a n
The l e g i s l a t u r e and c o u r t s u c c e s s e s led to i n t e n s i f i e d e x p e c t a -
t i o n s a n d r e s u l t e d i n d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h i n t h e l i m i t s of t h e l e g a l a n d
legislative programs.
P r i c e M . C o b b s a n d W i l l i a m H. G r i e r ,
authors
of B l a c k R a g e , m a d e t h i s c l e a r .
O v e r the p a s t decade, black A m e r i c a n s have u n d e r g o n e p r o f o u n d c h a n g e s i n t h e i r c o n c e p t i o n s of t h e m s e l v e s a n d
t h e w o r l d i n w h i c h t h e y l i v e . It i s i r o n i c h o w m a n y of t h e s e
c h a n g e s h a v e r e m a i n e d u n n o t i c e d by m a n y w h i t e s , e v e n t h o s e
white A m e r i c a n s p u r p o r t i n g to m a k e s c i e n t i f i c i n q u i r i e s into
t h e t h o u g h t s , f e e l i n g s a j i d b e h a v i o r of b l a c k p e o p l e . B l a c k
A m e r i c a n s a r e undergoing a p s y c h o l o g i c a l revolution and,
21
Lewis C h e s t e r , Godfrey Hodgson and B r u c e P a g e , An
A m e r i c a n M e l o d r a m a : T h e P r e s i d e n t i a l C a m p a i g n of 1968 ( N e w Y o r k ,
wmr~~p7 32.
~
~
~~
17
c o n s i d e r i n g i t s i m p l i c a t i o n s , t h e w o n d e r i s t h a t up t o now it
has b e e n so p e a c e f u l .
N e g r o i m p a t i e n c e l e d t o the n o n v i o l e n t and v i o l e n t r e b e l l i o n s of
the m i d d l e 1960!s.
In 1963 m a n y c i v i l r i g h t s w o r k e r s s t a r t e d l o s i n g
f a i t h in t h e g o v e r n m e n t and e s p e c i a l l y t h e m a j o r p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s ,
J o h n L e w i s , in h i s a r t i c l e ,
" M a r c h on W a s h i n g t o n ,
n
states:
n
We
c a n n o t d e p e n d on a n y p o l i t i c a l p a r t y , f o r b o t h t h e D e m o c r a t s a n d the
R e p u b l i c a n s h a v e b e t r a y e d t h e b a s i c p r i n c i p l e s of t h e D e c l a r a t i o n of
Independence,
A t t h e s a m e t i m e N e g r o m i l i t a n t s c o m p l a i n e d of a c o n t r a d i c t i o n
b e t w e e n t h e l a c k of a c t i o n a t h o m e a n d A m e r i c a n c o m m i t m e n t s o v e r seas.
T h i s w a s p o i n t e d out by S a l l y B e l f r a g e in h e r a r t i c l e ,
Summer. "
"Freedom
" H o w i s it t h a t t h e g o v e r n m e n t c a n p r o t e c t t h e V i e t n a m e s e
f r o m t h e V i e t C o n g and t h e s a m e g o v e r n m e n t w i l l n o t a c c e p t t h e m o r a l
24
r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of p r o t e c t i n g p e o p l e i n M i s s i s s i p p i ? "
In m i d - 1 9 6 6 S t o k e l y C a r m i c h a e l , of t h e S t u d e n t N o n v i o l e n t
C o o r d i n a t i n g C o m m i t t e e (SNCC), b r o u g h t t o t h e p u b l i c e y e t h e s l o g a n
"Black Power. "
It w a s s o o n e v i d e n t t h a t a s h i f t of m a j o r i m p o r t a n c e
w a s taking p l a c e between the nonviolent and violent b l a c k s .
Since the
c i v i l r i g h t s m o v e m e n t w a s o r g a n i z e d on t h e a s s u m p t i o n s of A m e r i c a n
i n s t i t u t i o n s and g o v e r n m e n t r e s p o n s i v e n e s s , b l a c k m i l i t a n t s b e g a n t o
view t h e s e a s s u m p t i o n s m o r e c r i t i c a l l y . Soon the m o v e m e n t looked at
22
S k o l n i c k , p. x i .
*
23
J o h n L e w i s , " M a r c h on W a s h i n g t o n , " B l a c k P r o t e s t : H i s t o r y ,
D o c u m e n t s , a n d A n a l y s i s , 1619 t o the P r e s e n t , e d i t e d by J o a n n e G r a n t
(New Y o r k , 1968), p. 376.
24
Sally B e l f r a g e , " F r e e d o m S u m m e r , " Black P r o t e s t , edited
by G r a n t , p. 399.
18
r a c i s m in the N o r t h e r n u r b a n g h e t t o e s .
T h e v o i c e s of t h e c i v i l r i g h t s
a c t i v i s t s m e t a n d m e r g e d w i t h t h o s e of t h e b l a c k N o r t h e r n , u r b a n l o w e r class,
and soon a black militant struggle was activated.
A l t h o u g h r i o t s h a d o c c u r r e d a c r o s s A m e r i c a b e t w e e n 1963 a n d
1966, t h e y d i d n o t h a v e t h e e f f e c t of t h o s e i n 1967.
150 c i v i l d i s t u r b a n c e s .
That year r e c o r d e d
T h e s e w e r e m o r e s p e c i f i c and p r e m e d i t a t e d and
e m p l o y e d m o r e r e g u l a r i z e d u s e s of f o r c e .
Those involved felt Negro
r i g h t s w e r e still being withheld, and the white s o c i e t y could only
be
changed with violence.
Four years after Rainwater's optimistic report a similar
d o c u m e n t b o r e t h e p r o o f t h a t t h e G r e a t S o c i e t y p r o g r a m and t h e W a r
on P o v e r t y w e r e c a u s i n g b i t t e r n e s s a n d f r u s t r a t i o n a n d a p p e a r e d t o
have all but c o l l a p s e d .
R a c i a l A t t i t u d e s in F i f t e e n A m e r i c a n C i t i e s , b y
Angus C a m p b e l l and H o w a r d S c h u m a n } f o u n d a nation still divided and
moving toward two societies,
one black and one white.
the N e g r o p r o t e s t the r e p o r t found a l a r g e m i n o r i t y ,
s a m p k j O r o v e r one m i l l i o n people, did not b e l i e v e
In l o o k i n g a t
o n e - t h i r d of t h e
,f
real progress11
h a d b e e n a c c o m p l i s h e d f o r N e g r o e s ; a n d d i s c r i m i n a t i o n s in e m p l o y m e n t and housing w e r e still m a j o r p r o b l e m s .
The report also
dis-
c u s s e s the militant m i n o r i t y .
L a r g e l y contained within this t h i r d is a m u c h s m a l l e r
g r o u p of i n d i v i d u a l s w h o s e e v i o l e n c e a s n e c e s s a r y t o r i g h t
i n j u s t i c e s t h e y b e l i e v e a r e t h e l o t of t h e N e g r o i n A m e r i c a .
This g r o u p is s m a l l but not t r i v i a l in n u m b e r s . M o r e i m p o r t a n t ,
t h e s e individuals have the sympathy and p e r h a p s to s o m e
e x t e n t t h e s u p p o r t of t h e l a r g e r m i n o r i t y . . . . T h e m o s t
i m p o r t a n t fact about those inclined t o w a r d violence is that they
a r e n o t a n i s o l a t e d b a n d of d e v i a n t s c o n d e m n e d by a l m o s t a l l
o t h e r N e g r o e s , but a r e l i n k e d t o a m u c h l a r g e r g r o u p by a
19
c o m m o n d e f i n i t i o n of the p r o b l e m s t h a t b e s e t t h e N e g r o in
America.
S u r v e y m a t e r i a l f r o m Watts, N e w a r k , and D e t r o i t s u g g e s t e d
i n c r e a s i n g s u p p o r t a n d s y m p a t h y f o r r i o t s in b l a c k c o m m u n i t i e s .
Over
half t h e p e o p l e i n t e r v i e w e d in L o s A n g e l e s f e l t the r i o t in W a t t s w a s a
26
p u r p o s e f u l e v e n t w i t h a p o s i t i v e e f f e c t on t h e i r l i v e s .
They felt the
violent action o f f e r e d the only p r a c t i c a l and f e a s i b l e opportunity f o r
o v e r c o m i n g t h e i n e q u i t i e s of a
long h i s t o r y of d i s c r i m i n a t i o n .
T h e r e a c t i o n s t o m a s s v i o l e n c e b e t w e e n t h e b l a c k and w h i t e
population was quite different.
that
T h e G a l l u p p o l l in A u g u s t 1967, f o u n d
n a t i o n a l l y a l m o s t a t h i r d of a l l w h i t e p e r s o n s f e l t l o w e r r e g a r d f o r
27
N e g r o e s b e c a u s e of t h e r i o t s .
F e w r e g a r d e d the violence a s j u s t i -
f i a b l e , and t h e y s a w it a s a n e n d l e s s e x p e d i t i o n r a t h e r t h a n a p r o t e s t .
T h i s i s p o s s i b l y t r u e , f o r t h e e v e n t s of 1968 s u g g e s t t h a t v i o l e n t r a c i a l
i n c i d e n t s h a v e b e c o m e , at l e a s t t e m p o r a r i l y , p a r t of t h e r o u t i n e c o u r s e
of e v e n t s i n s t e a d of s p o r a d i c c a l a m i t i e s .
E a r l y 1968 c o n t a i n e d a r i s i n g i n c i d e n c e of d i s o r d e r s , but t h e
a f t e r m a t h following M a r t i n L u t h e r King J r . 's a s s a s s i n a t i o n w a s
unprecedented.
Several facts are significant:
(1) A p r i l } 1 9 6 8 , c o m -
p a r e d w i t h a l l of 1967, h a d n e a r l y a s m a n y d i s o r d e r s , a n d m o r e c i t i e s
and s t a t e s w e r e i n v o l v e d . (2) M o r e a r r e s t s and i n j u r i e s w e r e
25
Angus C a m p b e l l and H o w a r d Schuman, " R a c i a l A t t i t u d e s in
Fifteen A m e r i c a n Cities, " Supplemental Studies for the National
A d v i s o r y C o m m i s s i o n on C i v i l D i s o r d e r s ( W a s h i n g t o n ^ 1968), p. 62.
26
T. M . T o m l i s o n a n d D a v i d O. S e a r s , L o s A n g e l e s R i o t S t u d y :
N e g r o A t t i t u d e s T o w a r d t h e Riot, I n s t i t u t e of G o v e r n m e n t and P u b l i c
A f f a i r s , U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a ( L o s A n g e l e s , 1967), p. 33.
27
S k o l n i c k , p. 185.
20
r e c o r d e d in A p r i l 1968 t h a n in a l l of 1967 a n d a l m o s t a s m u c h p r o p e r t y
damage.
T h e r e w e r e a l s o m o r e N a t i o n a l G u a r d (34, 900 t o 27, 700)
a n d f e d e r a l t r o o p s (23, 700 t o 4, 800) m o b i l i z e d i n t h a t m o n t h t h a n in a l l
of 1967.
28
A s t h e e l e c t i o n g r e w n e a r it w a s e v i d e n t t o t h e g e n e r a l p o p u l a c e
that violence was increasing.
G e n e r a l l y , it b e g a n e a r l i e r i n 1968 and
c o n t i n u e d l o n g e r t h a n in p r e v i o u s y e a r s , a n d not a l l of t h e i n c r e a s e i n
t h e s p r i n g of 1968 c o u l d b e a t t r i b u t e d t o D r . K i n g ' s a s s a s s i n a t i o n .
w a s u n d e n i a b l y a t i m e of c r i s i s , t r a g e d y , a n d i m p e n d i n g c h a o s .
p u b l i c on b o t h t h e l e f t and r i g h t of t h e p o l i t i c a l s p e c t r u m w a s
This
The
alien-
"moderates,1' or middle m a j o r i t y , w e r e
ated f r o m t h e c e n t e r , while the
r i d d l e d by a p p r e h e n s i o n and t o r m e n t e d by c o n s c i e n c e .
c o n c e r n s e e m e d to be t h e f o r e b o d i n g t h r e a t of s o m e
The dominant
c h a n g e s in s o c i e t y
which e n c o m p a s s e d the V i e t n a m w a r and r a c i a l u p r i s i n g s .
Each
candidate p r o m i s e d l e a d e r s h i p that would c o n t r o l and m o n i t o r the
social changes that w e r e forthcoming.
29
T h e p o l l s t e r L o u i s H a r r i s , in m i d - J u l y 1968, r e v i e w e d t h e
p o l i t i c a l s c e n e and c o n c l u d e d ,
,!
A c e n t r a l f a c t of t h e l a t e 1960 f s i n
A m e r i c a i s t h a t t h e old e c o n o m i c d i v i s i o n s w h i c h w e r e the k e y s t o
30
u n d e r s t a n d i n g p o l i t i c a l b e h a v i o r no l o n g e r a p p l y .
11
He f o r e s a w t h e
n e w d i v i s i o n s b a s e d on r e a c t i o n s t o t h r e e v i t a l i s s u e s : (1) w h a t r o l e ,
28
L e m b e r g C e n t e r f o r t h e S t u d y of V i o l e n c e , R i o t D a t a R e v i e w ,
No. 2 ( W a l t h a m , M a s s a c h u s e t t e s , 1968), pp. 5 9 - 6 0 .
29
J a m e s H. M c B a t h and W a l t e r R . F i s h e r , " P e r s u a s i o n i n
P r e s i d e n t i a l C a m p a i g n C o m m u n i c a t i o n , 11 T h e Q u a r t e r l y J o u r n a l of
S p e e c h , LX ( F e b r u a r y , 1969), 19.
30
Louis H a r r i s , "The Coming Political Lineup, " Los Angeles
T i m e s ( J u l y 18, 1968), P a r t II, p. 16.
21
especially militarily,
s h o u l d A m e r i c a t a k e in t h e w o r l d ?
(2)
by w h a t
m e a n s s h o u l d m i n o r i t y m e m b e r s be a c c o r d e d e q u a l r i g h t s w i t h w h i t e s ?
and
(3) how s h o u l d i n d i v i d u a l a n d g r o u p p r o t e s t o r s be h a n d l e d ?
H a r r i s a l s o f o u n d t h a t t w o p o l i t i c a l f o r c e s , a c h a n g e c o a l i t i o n and a
n o - c h a n g e c o a l i t i o n , w e r e d e v e l o p i n g in r e s p o n s e t o t h e i s s u e s .
c h a n g e c o a l i t i o n w a s c o m p o s e d of
n
N e g r o e s , S p a n i s h - s p e a k i n g and
J e w i s h p e o p l e , t h e young, t h e a f f l u e n t , and t h e e d u c a t e d .
change coalition contained the
n
The
n
The no-
d e e p South whites, l o w - i n c o m e whites
in N o r t h e r n i n d u s t r i a l c e n t e r s , c o n s e r v a t i v e s u b u r b a n i t e s , a n d o l d e r
people.
11
He c o n c l u d e d t h a t e i t h e r g r o u p c o u l d be a d e c i s i v e f a c t o r i n
t h e 1968 o r f u t u r e e l e c t i o n s .
Although the V i e t n a m w a r and civil d i s o r d e r s w e r e p r i m e i s s u e s
t h a t d i s t o r t e d t h e p u b l i c ' s i m a g e of t h e i r w o r l d , t h e o v e r - r i d i n g q u e s t i o n
in t h e m i n d s of the A m e r i c a n v o t e r s w a s , In l i g h t of t h e i s s u e s , w h a t
candidate can best c o n t r o l the changes that t h r e a t e n society?
The
r h e t o r i c of a l l t h r e e m a j o r c a n d i d a t e s w a s c h a r g e d w i t h an e f f o r t t o
resolve pressing social upheavals via disguised persuasion.
t a s k of e a c h w a s t o m o l d a n
The
" i m a g e 1 1 of h i m s e l f a s t h e m a n m o s t
c a p a b l e of a d m i n i s t e r i n g t h e p o l i c i e s n e c e s s a r y t o c o p e w i t h t h e p r o b l e m s
of a c h a n g i n g s o c i e t y .
B i o g r a p h i c a l S k e t c h of G e o r g e W a l l a c e
A t t i t u d e s and p o l i t i c a l d r e a m s a r e f o r m u l a t e d , n u t u r e d , a n d
b r o u g h t t o f r u i t i o n a s p r o d u c t s of e a r l i e r o b s e r v a t i o n s a n d e x p e r i e n c e s .
S i n c e t h i s is a c a s e s t u d y of t h e
"public image11
of G e o r g e W a l l a c e ,
t h o s e e v e n t s w h i c h c o n t r i b u t e d to w h o he w a s a n d w h a t he w a s in t h e
1968 P r e s i d e n t i a l c a m p a i g n w i l l be e m p h a s i z e d .
22
E a r l y Life and E d u c a t i o n
G e o r g e C o r l e y W a l l a c e , t h e e l d e s t of G e o r g e C . W a l l a c e , S r . ,
and M a z e l l e S m i t h W a l l a c e ' s f o u r c h i l d r e n , w a s b o r n in Clio, A l a b a m a ,
o n A u g u s t 25, 1919.
c o u n t r y boy.
H e h a d t h e c l a s s i c c h i l d h o o d of a S o u t h e r n b a c k -
H i s f a t h e r w a s c h r o n i c a l l y ill, with only one lung, but had
the s p i r i t to c o n s t a n t l y fight, politic, and r a i s e hell.
His mother, who
m a n a g e d t h e e n t i r e f a m i l y , w a s f e r v e n t l y r e l i g i o u s and a m b i t i o u s in
31
r e g a r d to h e r c h i l d r e n .
She was a s t e r n a u t h o r i t a r i a n .
T h e f i r s t t w e l v e y e a r s of W a l l a c e ' s l i f e w e r e s p e n t i n a " r u n down" house with
In 1931, w i t h
" i n a d e q u a t e sanitairy f a c i l i t i e s "
$ 5 , 000 l e f t by a
" r i c h uncle, "
and without electricity.
the f a m i l y m o v e d into a
new b r i c k house with indoor plumbing and electricity.
With the death
of t h e f a t h e r in 1937, m o r t g a g e h o l d e r s f o r e c l o s e d o n a l l t h e f a m i l y
p r o p e r t y except the house.
T h e m o t h e r went to w o r k in o r d e r t o s u p p o r t
her four children.
In h i g h s c h o o l W a l l a c e w a s p r e s i d e n t of h i s s e n i o r c l a s s , a
d e b a t o r , a n d q u a r t e r b a c k of t h e f o o t b a l l t e a m .
He won the S t a t e Golden
G l o v e s , a b a n t a m - w e i g h t boxing c h a m p i o n s h i p , t w o y e a r s in a row, and
earned a "fighter"
life.
r e p u t a t i o n which would follow him t h r o u g h o u t his
32
He e n t e r e d the U n i v e r s i t y of A l a b a m a s h o r t l y a f t e r h i s f a t h e r ' s
d e a t h and w o r k e d h i s w a y t h r o u g h c o l l e g e and l a w s c h o o l by w a i t i n g o n
31
"A n e w l o o k at W a l l a c e - - W h a t He m a y do t o the E l e c t i o n , "
N e w s , LXV ( J a n u a r y 29, 1968), 5 6 - 5 7 .
32
"The l i f e of G e o r g e W a l l a c e , " U . S . N e w s , JLXV ( O c t o b e r 28,
1968), 4 5 - 4 7 .
U.S.
23
tables,
c l e r k i n g in t h e r e g i s t r a r 1 s o f f i c e , and d r i v i n g a t a x i .
r e c e i v e d a n LL„ B
honor court.
He
d e g r e e i n 1942 a n d w a s a m e m b e r of t h e l a w s c h o o l 1 s
With a law school d i p l o m a but no " c o n n e c t i o n s "
with
w h i c h he c o u l d p r a c t i c e in a law f i r m , h e w e n t to w o r k d r i v i n g a d u m p
t r u c k f o r t h e S t a t e H i g h w a y D e p a r t m e n t in T u s c a l o o s a .
33
The War Y e a r s
Wallace m e t and m a r r i e d Lurleen Burns,
a dime store clerk^in
1943, a n d j s o o n a f t e r , v o l u n t e e r e d f o r p i l o t t r a i n i n g w i t h t h e A r m y A i r
Corps.
B e f o r e c o m p l e t i n g t r a i n i n g he w a s s t r u c k with spinal m e n i g i t i s
and l a y e d in a c o m a , c l o s e t o d e a t h ,
for n e a r l y a week.
He s u r v i v e d
that battle but s u s t a i n e d a slight h e a r i n g impairment. With pilot p l a n s
a b a n d o n e d he e n t e r e d f l i g h t e n g i n e e r ' s
school.
D u r i n g the war, he w a s
a s s i g n e d to the B - 2 9 b o m b e r flight c r e w with the 20th A i r F o r c e G r o u p
t h a t c o n d u c t e d b o m b i n g m i s s i o n s on t h e J a p a n e s e c o a s t l a n d .
Returning
h o m e a f t e r t h e war, he w a s d i s c h a r g e d a s a flight s e r g e a n t a n d won t h e
A i r M e d a l and a B r o n z e S t a r f o r p a r t i c i p a t i o n in t h e a i r o f f e n s i v e a g a i n s t
Japan.
D i s a b i l i t y p a y m e n t s w h i c h he r e c e i v e d f r o m the V e t e r a n s
A d m i n i s t r a t i o n for a " p s y c h o n e u r o s i s condition11 l a t e r p r o v e d to be a
p o l i t i c a l q u e s t i o n which his opponents often r a i s e d .
E n t r y Into P o l i t i c s
A f t e r his d i s c h a r g e W a l l a c e r e t u r n e d to A l a b a m a and a c c e p t e d
a p p o i n t m e n t a s the state1 s a s s i s t a n t a t t o r n e y g e n e r a l .
his own
political c a r e e r ,
he r e t u r n e d t o h i s h o m e t o w n a n d w a s e l e c t e d
t o t h e s t a t e l e g i s l a t u r e i n 1946.
^ I b i d . , p. 4 5 .
E a g e r to launch
A t t w e n t y - s e v e n y e a r s of a g e h e
24
d e f e a t e d t w o o p p o n e n t s a n d s o o n o p e n e d a law o f f i c e in C l a y t o n , A l a b a m a ,
w h i c h he and h i s b r o t h e r o p e r a t e d b e t w e e n l e g i s l a t i v e s e s s i o n s .
As a young l e g i s l a t o r W a l l a c e identified h i m s e l f with J i m
F o l s o m , t h e d o m i n a n t p e r s o n a l i t y in A l a b a m a p o l i t i c s .
Folsom was
a w a r m but b o i s t e r o u s g o v e r n o r of A l a b a m a in t h e l a t e 1 9 4 0 ' s a n d
b e t w e e n 1955 and 1959.
He t r i e d w i t h o u t s u c c e s s t o b e f r i e n d N e g r o e s
a n d p o o r w h i t e s a l i k e by p r o p o s i n g s u c h m e a s u r e s a s t h e p o l l t a x
repeal.
Wallace pursued an undistinguished c a r e e r as a state legis-
l a t o r a n d c o u n t y j u d g e , a n d f o r a t i m e w o r e F o l s o m ' s c o l o r s of a
racial liberal.
A f t e r w i n n i n g e l e c t i o n a s a s t a t e c i r c u i t j u d g e he b r o k e
h i s t i e s w i t h F o l s o m , who at t h i s t i m e h a d r u i n e d h i s h e a l t h a n d c a r e e r
by h e a v y d r i n k i n g . ^
In 1958 w i t h s c h o o l d e s e g r e g a t i o n a s t h e d o m i n a n t i s s u e in
Alabama politics, Wallace r a n unsuccessfully for governor.
Described
by n e w s p a p e r r e p o r t e r s a s t h e m o r e " m o d e r a t e " of t h e two c a n d i d a t e s ,
h e w a s e n d o r s e d by t h e N a t i o n a l A s s o c i a t i o n f o r t h e A d v a n c e m e n t of
C o l o r e d P e o p l e and the A l a b a m a
Jewish community.
He a l s o r e c e i v e d
a "favorable" rating from the AFL-CIO Alabama Labor Council.
His
"big h u r t " r e s u l t e d f r o m denouncing the Ku Klux Klan, which s u p p o r t e d
t h e w i n n e r of t h e e l e c t i o n , J o h n P a t t e r s o n .
Although Wallace l a t e r
d e n i e d it f o l l o w i n g h i s d e f e a t , he i s r e p o r t e d to h a v e c o m m e n t e d ,
" J o h n P a t t e r s o n o u t - n i g g e r e d m e . And b o y s , I a i n ' t g o i n g t o be o u t 35
niggered again. "
In h i s n e x t a t t e m p t he won.
34
Luther J . C a r t e r , " G e o r g e C. Wallace: H e ' s not j u s t
w h i s t l i n g D i x i e , " S c i e n c e , C L X I I ( O c t o b e r 25, 1968), 4 3 7 .
35
D a n i e l J . B o o r s t i n , A m e r i c a n and t h e I m a g e of E u r o p e
(New Y o r k , I960), p. 267.
25
W a l l a c e had his f i r s t " f l a r e up , ! with f e d e r a l a u t h o r i t i e s in 1958
and e a r l y 195% a s C i r c u i t J u d g e .
T h i s e p i s o d e i l l u s t r a t e s perfectly;
the s t r a t e g y u s e d in building his s u c c e s s f u l c a r e e r :
" t h e s t r a t e g y of
36
c h a l l e n g e , s u r r e n d e r , and b l u s t e r - - a l w a y s u s e d in that o r d e r .
11
R e p r e s e n t a t i v e s of the U . S . C i v i l R i g h t s C o m m i s s i o n , in o r d e r
to i n v e s t i g a t e c h a r g e s of v o t e r d i s c r i m i n a t i o n , a s k e d to see A l a b a m a
v o t e r r e c o r d s in W a l l a c e 1 s d i s t r i c t .
He quickly i m p o u n d e d t h e r e c o r d s
and r e l e a s e d t h e m to a county g r a n d j u r y .
District Judge
When o r d e r e d by U. S.
Frank Johnson
to s u r r e n d e r t h e r e c o r d s o r go to j a i l
f o r c o n t e m p t , he s u r r e n d e r e d .
Y e a r s l a t e r he d e n i e d this and s t a t e d ,
" T h e s e c h a r a c t e r s f r o m t h e evil C i v i l R i g h t s C o m m i s s i o n and J u s t i c e
D e p a r t m e n t w e r e b a c k e d to t h e w a l l - - t h e y w e r e d e f i e d and b a c k e d down,
. . . t h i s 1959 a t t e m p t to have a S h e r m a n ' s m a r c h to t h e s e a had b e e n
37
stopped in the c r a d l e of the C o n f e d e r a c y .
n
T h i s episode, in t h e next
c a m p a i g n , b e c a m e the c e n t r a l t h e m e of h i s r h e t o r i c .
called Judge Johnson publicly
He s t a t e d :
M
I
in 200 s p e e c h e s on the s t u m p and on
38
TV a i n t e g r a t i n g , s c a l l a w a g g i n g , c a r p e t b a g g i n g l i a r .
M
W a l l a c e 1 s f i r s t s t e p along the t r a i l of v i c t o r i o u s d e f e a t s .
This was
As R o b e r t
S h e r r i l l p o i n t e d out in h i s book, Gothic P o l i t i c s in the D e e p South,
. . it w a s f r o m t h i s e m b a r r a s s i n g e x p e r i e n c e t h a t W a l l a c e d e v e l o p e d his a l m o s t p s y c h o t i c d i s l i k e f o r f e d e r a l j u d g e s ; i n s u l t i n g
J o h n s o n s p e c i f i c a l l y and a l l f e d e r a l j u d g e s in g e n e r a l h a s b e c o m e a
39
s t o c k m a n e u v e r . ,!
36
R o b e r t S h e r r i l l , Gothic P o l i t i c s in the D e e p South (New Y o r k ,
1968), p. 327.
'
37
38
39
I b i d . , p. 327.
I b i d . , p. 328.
Ibid.
26
G o v e r n o r of A l a b a m a
In 1962, w i t h t h e s l o g a n ,
" S t a n d up f o r A l a b a m a ,
n
Wallace
b r e e z e d t h r o u g h t o a v i c t o r y w i t h the l a r g e s t vote e v e r g i v e n a c a n d i d a t e
f o r g o v e r n o r in t h a t s t a t e .
He campaiigned on a m i l i t a n t l y s e g r e g a t i o n -
i s t p l a t f o r m and p r o m i s e d t h a t if n e c e s s a r y to p r e v e n t i n t e g r a t i o n , he
w o u l d s t a n d in t h e
n
school-house door.
n
He w a s r e p o r t e d l y b a c k e d by
t h e Ku Klux Klan.
F o l l o w i n g h i s v i c t o r y , in w h i c h t h e c o u r s e he would follow in t h e
n e a r and d i s t a n t f u t u r e w a s d e c i d e d , he told a g a t h e r i n g of s t a t e s e n a t o r s
b e f o r e his inauguration,
" I ' m going to m a k e r a c e t h e b a s i s of p o l i t i c s
in t h i s s t a t e , and I ' m going t o m a k e it t h e b a s i s of p o l i t i c s in t h i s
40
country.
u
If a n y o n e d o u b t e d h i s i n t e n t i o n s , t h e i n a u g u r a l a d d r e s s
stilled them forever.
T h e c l o s i n g l i n e s of his f a m o u s i n a u g u r a l s p e e c h
were to be r e p e a t e d o v e r and o v e r a g a i n .
people that have e v e r t r o d this earth,
n
I d r a w t h e l i n e in t h e d u s t and
t o s s t h e g a u n t l e t b e f o r e t h e f e e t of t y r a n n y .
now,'
Segregation tomorrow!
I n t h e n a m e of t h e g r e a t e s t
And I s a y , S e g r e g a t i o n
41
Segregation forever.1
M
H i s c h a n c e had
f i n a l l y a r r i v e d to b e c o m e G o v e r n o r , and t h i s p o s i t i o n w a s a s t e p p i n g
s t o n e in b e c o m i n g a m a j o r s p o k e s m a n on s t a t e s r i g h t s , c o n s t i t u t i o n a l
g o v e r n m e n t , f r e e e n t e r p r i s e , and i n d i v i d u a l p r o p e r t y r i g h t s f o r t h e
South and l a t e r the n a t i o n .
P o l i t i c s in t h e s o u t h h a s a l w a y s b e e n a n i n t e r e s t i n g a c t i v i t y to
o b s e r v e . M a n y of t h e p o l i t i c i a n s w e r e c e r t i f i a b l e p o p u l i s t s , and o t h e r s
40
M i c h a e l D e F o r r e s t , e d i t o r , G e o r g e W a l l a c e a R e b e l andH i s C a u s e (New Y o r k , 1968), p. 12.
41
C h e s t e r , H o d g s o n a n d P a g e , p. 267.
27
flamboyantly a n t i - c o m m u n i s t s ; some w e r e m o r e colorfully antif e d e r a l i s t i c , and m a n y h a v e b e e n s t r i k i n g l y a n t i - i n t e g r a t i o n a l i s t i c .
T h e f a m e t h a t r e s t e d on the s h o u l d e r s of G e o r g e W a l l a c e a s the
s t a n d a r d - b e a r e r of s e g r e g a t i o n c a m e f r o m h i s a s s u m e d s u c c e s s .
F r o m 1962 t o 1966 he w a s a p o w e r f u l l i b e r a l g o v e r n o r a n d
c o n t i n u e d t h e l i b e r a l - p o p u l i s t p o l i c i e s of t h e F o l s o m y e a r s .
He taxed
a n d s p e n t m o n e y at a n a s t o n i s h i n g r a t e , s h o c k i n g m a n y of h i s c o n s e r v a t i v e a d m i r e r s in o t h e r s t a t e s .
T h e s t a t e ' s m i s e r a b l y low a p p r o p r i a -
t i o n s f o r e d u c a t i o n w e r e d o u b l e d with t h e l a u n c h i n g of a $ 1 0 0 - m i l l i o n
school c o n s t r u c t i o n p r o g r a m to build f i f t e e n j u n i o r c o l l e g e s and
numerous trade schools all over the state.
T e a c h e r s ' pay was increased
by 47 p e r c e n t , a n d t h e f r e e t e x t b o o k p r o g r a m w a s e x p a n d e d .
Students
w e r e given a c c e s s to the school s y s t e m t h r o u g h o u t the state by a
s y s t e m of f r e e b u s t r a n s p o r t a t i o n .
He initiated the l a r g e s t m a s s i v e
r o a d b u i l d i n g p r o g r a m in t h e s t a t e ' s h i s t o r y and b e g a n an e n l i g h t e n e d
p r o j e c t to c l e a n up t h e s t a t e w a t e r w a y s .
Unemployment compensation
w a s r a i s e d a n d t h e h o u r l y w a g e of a l l s t a t e g o v e r n m e n t e m p l o y e e s
^ 42
increased.
M a n y c a l l e d W a l l a c e a p o p u l i s t , b e c a u s e of h i s b i g s p e n d i n g
programs.
But as S h e r r i l l stated:
In t h e l a s t a n a l y s i s o n e m u s t j u d g e t h e d e g r e e of
populism behind a w e l f a r e or a public-works p r o g r a m according
t o w h o p a y s f o r it. In A l a b a m a it i s t h e c o n s u m e r w h o p a y s .
. . . P a r a d o x i c a l l y , he k e p t t a x e s off b i g b u s i n e s s a n d i n d u s t r y ,
y e t t h e m o n e y l e a d e r s f e a r and d i s t r u s t h i m ; he p i l e d n e w
t a x e s and d e b t on t h e p e o p l e , and t h e y l o v e h i m . 4 3
42
C a r t e r , " G e o r g e C . W a l l a c e , " p. 4 3 7 ;
O k l a h o m a C i t y T i m e s, O c t o b e r 29, 1968, p. 24.
43
S h e r r i l l , pp. 3 3 9 - 3 4 0 .
D e F o r r e s t , p. 13;
•
28
He r a i s e d t h e r e v e n u e f o r h i s s o c i a l p r o g r a m s by i n c r e a s i n g
s a l e s t a x e s on e s s e n t i a l s l i k e food a n d g a s o l i n e , w h i c h e v e n t u a l l y h u r t
the poor people.
increased from
The state?s r e t u r n f r o m t a x e s and other r e c e i p t s
$ 6 7 3 m i l l i o n in
F-Y
1962 t o $1, 7 b i l l i o n in f i s c a l
1967, but e v e n w i t h t h i s i n c r e a s e m a n y of W a l l a c e ! s c r i t i c s in t h e s t a t e
e d u c a t i o n a l s y s t e m f e l t he f a i l e d t o p r e s s f o r n e c e s s a r y and a d e q u a t e
r e v e n u e m e a s u r e s and l e f t A l a b a m a 1 s e n t i r e e d u c a t i o n a l s y s t e m
seriously underfinanced,
44
L u t h e r J , C a r t e r p o i n t s t h i s out in
S c i e n c e , O c t o b e r 25, 1968:
The public s c h o o l s s u f f e r f r o m g r o s s d i s p a r i t i e s and u n d e r e v a l u a t i o n in t h e a s s e s s m e n t s on w h i c h l o c a l p r o p e r t y t a x e s
a r e based. A l a b a m a school people have long called f o r l e a d e r s h i p by the g o v e r n o r ' s o f f i c e a n d t h e l e g i s l a t u r e t o c o r r e c t t h e
s i t u a t i o n , but W a l l a c e n e v e r c h o s e r e a l l y t o c o m e t o g r i p s w i t h
this p r o p e r t y tax i s s u e or with other c o n t r o v e r s i a l tax p r o b l e m s . ^
On t h e q u e s t i o n of c i v i l r i g h t s W a l l a c e s p l i t w i t h t h e l i b e r a l s in
19 62.
His attorney general, Richmond F l o w e r s , u r g e d him to c o n d e m n
K l a n b o m b i n g s a n d s h o o t i n g s and n o t to c o n f u s e the q u e s t i o n of v i o l e n c e
w i t h t h e q u e s t i o n of s e g r e g a t i o n a n d i n t e g r a t i o n .
F l o w e r s l a t e r t o l d an
interviewer:
W a l l a c e r e f u s e d t o c o m e out f o r l a w a n d o r d e r i n h i s i n a u g u r a l
a d d r e s s , , He s a i d t h a t w a s i n t e g r a t i o n i s t t a l k a n d he w o u l d n o t
use such w o r d s . When I w a r n e d him that he'd have f e d e r a l
t r o o p s in A l a b a m a if he r e s i s t e d t h e d e s e g r e g a t i o n o r d e r s of
t h e c o u r t s , he s a i d , " T h a t ' s e x a c t l y w h a t I w a n t t h e m t o d o . " 4 6
W a l l a c e c a m p a i g n e d in 1962 and p r o m i s e d t o r e f u s e a n y i l l e g a l
f e d e r a l c o u r t o r d e r by s t a n d i n g in t h e " s c h o o l - h o u s e d o o r ! '
44
45
46
O k l a h o m a C i t y T i m e s , O c t o b e r 29, 1968, p . 24.
Carter,
,f
G e o r g e C. Wallace,
u
p. 4 3 7 .
O k l a h o m a C i t y T i m e s , O c t o b e r 29, 1968, p. 24.
It h a d b e e n
29
s t a n d a r d p o l i t i c a l p o l i c y in t h e S o u t h f o r c a n d i d a t e s t o s w e a r t h e y w o u l d
go t o j a i l b e f o r e s u r r e n d e r i n g t o W a s h i n g t o n .
Wallace!s promise was
d i f f e r e n t , but it c a u g h t t h e p u b l i c ! s a t t e n t i o n and i m a g i n a t i o n w h e n he
was t r u e to his word.
T h e e v e n t t o o k p l a c e i n 1963 a t the U n i v e r s i t y of
A l a b a m a in T u s c a l o o s a .
He b a r r e d t h e e n t r a n c e t e m p o r a r i l y , b u t
f i n a l l y s t e p p e d a s i d e in o b e d i e n c e
to a f e d e r a l c o u r t o r d e r .
His
n a t i o n a l i m a g e g r e w , f o r d u r i n g t h e s a m e y e a r P r e s i d e n t K e n n e d y on
t h r e e o c c a s i o n s either i s s u e d o r d e r s that f e d e r a l i z e d the A l a b a m a
N a t i o n a l G u a r d o r t h r e a t e n e d to s e n d U. S. A r m y t r o o p s t o h a n d l e t h e
state's racial troubles.
In 1965 P r e s i d e n t J o h n s o n m o b i l i z e d t h e
N a t i o n a l G u a r d to p r o t e c t d e m o n s t r a t o r s who w e r e m a r c h i n g f r o m
S e l m a t o M o n t g o m e r y in p r o t e s t of a l l e g e d v o t i n g - r i g h t s d i s c r i m i n a t i o n . ^
A f t e r W a l l a c e ' s i n c i d e n t at t h e U n i v e r s i t y , he b e g a n r e c e i v i n g
speaking invitations a c r o s s the country.
t h e c o u r s e of h i s d r e a m and h i s l i f e .
One s u c h i n v i t a t i o n c h a n g e d
A t t h e U n i v e r s i t y of W i s c o n s i n
in t h e 1963-1964 w i n t e ^ l a t e in t h e a f t e r n o o n , a m a n c a l l e d W a l l a c e ' s
s u i t e a t t h e h o t e l w i t h a f a n t a s t i c s c h e m e for r u n n i n g in t h e W i s c o n s i n
primary.
H e not o n l y r a n in W i s c o n s i n , w h e r e he r e c e i v e d 34 p e r c e n t
of t h e v o t e , but he a l s o r a n in I n d i a n a ^ p u l l i n g 38 p e r c e n t ? w i t h 43 p e r
48
c e n t in M a r y l a n d .
He l a u n c h e d h i s s h o r t D e m o c r a t i c P r e s i d e n t i a l
c a m p a i g n of 1964 d u r i n g t h e d e b a t e in C o n g r e s s on t h e 1964 C i v i l
Rights Act.
g o v e r n m e n t in t h i s c o u n t r y ,
47
48
n
He c l a i m e d t h e p e n d i n g b i l l w o u l d
n
a n d he c a l l e d it
" T h e L i f e of G e o r g e W a l l a c e ,
n
U.S.
C h e s t e r , H o d g s o n and P a g e , p. 271.
l!
d e s t r o y t h e s y s t e m of
t h e f o r e r u n n e r of l a n d
N e w s , p. 4 6 .
30
49
r e f o r m in the U n i t e d S t a t e s .
11
Four days after Senator B a r r y
Goldwater c a p t u r e d the Republican nomination, Wallace withdrew f r o m
the race.
t i e s with
H i s m a i n r e a s o n s w e r e l a c k of c a m p a i g n f u n d s a n d d i f f i c u l Tt
unpledgedn p r e s i d e n t i a l e l e c t o r s in A l a b a m a .
T h e 1964
p r i m a r i e s e s t a b l i s h e d his p o s i t i o n a s the " S o u t h e r n l e a d e r " and g a v e
b i r t h t o a n e v e n g r e a t e r i d e a , t h e p r e s i d e n t i a l c a m p a i g n of 1968.
R e a l i z i n g he m u s t s e c u r e his h o m e b a s e , and knowing t h e
n e c e s s a r y f i n a n c e s w o u l d c o m e f r o m A l a b a m a , h e h a d to r e t a i n c o n t r o l
of t h e s t a t e .
With his a d m i n i s t r a t i o n d r a w i n g t o w a r d the end, he
f r a n t i c a l l y a p p e a l e d to the l e g i s l a t u r e to a m e n d the s t a t e c o n s t i t u t i o n
s o he c o u l d s u c c e e d h i m s e l f , r e a l i z i n g m a n y of t h e l e g i s l a t o r s h a d
a l r e a d y c o m m i t t e d t h e m s e l v e s to p r o s p e c t i v e c a n d i d a t e s .
He be-
s e e c h e d , o r a t e d , and even t h r e a t e n e d to halt all s t a t e f i n a n c i a l s u p p o r t
to the l e g i s l a t o r s ' c o u n t i e s .
He u s e d a l l t h e p o l i t i c a l m u s c l e h e h a d ,
and finally the bill p a s s e d t h e House.
W h e n a S e n a t e f i l i b u s t e r b l o c k e d p a s s a g e of t h e a m e n d m e n t , he s o u g h t t o a l t e r t h e r u l e s on t h e n u m b e r of v o t e s n e e d e d
t o e n d a f i l i b u s t e r ; he a p p e a l e d t o t h e s t a t e s u p r e m e c o u r t t o
e n d t h e f i l i b u s t e r by c o u r t o r d e r ; a n d f i n a l l y , he d e c i d e d t o e n t e r
t h e c o u n t i e s of t h e r e c a l c i t r a n t s e n a t o r s t o t a k e t h e i s s u e " t o
t h e p e o p l e , 11 50
H e f a i l e d , a n d t h e S e n a t e d e f e a t e d t h e a m e n d m e n t by t h r e e v o t e s .
In d e s p e r a t i o n he t u r n e d t o h i s wife, L u r l e e n , who a g r e e d to r u n
as an obvious front.
L u r l e e n W a l l a c e won a r e s o u n d i n g victory at the
p o l l s , b u t t h e s t r e n u o u s j o b of c a m p a i g n i n g , t h e b u r d e n of t h e o f f i c e ,
a n d h e r s p r e a d i n g d i s e a s e of c a n c e r a l l o w e d h e r t o s e r v e o n l y o n e y e a r
^ " T h e L i f e of G e o r g e W a l l a c e , " p. 4 7 .
50
D e F o r r e s t , p . 13.
31
in o f f i c e .
She d i e d on M a y 7, 1968.
Although h e r death l e s s e n e d his
p o w e r of c o n t r o l , L u r l e e n f s s h o r t t e r m s e c u r e d W a l l a c e f i n a n c i a l l y .
All Southern governors
have n u m e r o u s ways to r a i s e money,
a n d W a l l a c e w a s no e x c e p t i o n .
By the m i d d l e of 1967 h e h a d o v e r o n e
m i l l i o n d o l l a r s in h i s c a m p a i g n fund 3 ,with c o n t r i b u t i o n s c o m i n g f r o m
A l a b a m a b u s i n e s s - m e n , a s p h a l t and highway c o n t r a c t i n g i n d u s t r i e s ,
a n d the s t a t e l i q u o r i n d u s t r y .
11
Foot-loose and fancy f r e e ,
n
his w a r
c h e s t s t u f f e d w i t h m o n e y , G e o r g e W a l l a c e now w a s r e a d y t o a d v a n c e
his c a u s e to the nation.
C H A P T E R II
"THE IMAGE, " A T H E O R E T I C A L VIEWPOINT
H a v i n g v i e w e d t h e h i s t o r i c a l b a c k g r o u n d of t h e 1968 e l e c t i o n s
a n d G e o r g e W a l l a c e ' s p e r s o n a l l i f e , it i s now n e c e s s a r y t o c o n s i d e r
t h e n a t u r e and r o l e of
n
t h e image11
a n d i t s t h e o r e t i c a l a p p l i c a t i o n in
o r d e r t o u n d e r s t a n d how W a l l a c e ' s p u b l i c i m a g e i n f l u e n c e d e l e c t i o n
returns.
T h e i m a g e i s not a n e w a s p e c t of e l e c t i o n s a n d c a m p a i g n s ,
but t h e s y s t e m a t i c a n a l y s i s a n d d e f i n i t i o n of it a r e r a t h e r n e w i n t h e
f i e l d of p o l i t i c a l s c i e n c e .
T h e p u b l i c i m a g e s of p o l i t i c a l c a n d i d a t e s h a v e s e r v e d f o r d e c a d e s a s s i m p l e m o d e l s of r e a l i t y .
They have a b s t r a c t e d political
c o m p l e x i t y a n d c o n f u s i o n of w h a t t h e v o t e r s i n t e r p r e t a s h u m a n c h a r a c ter,
The
"image11 can t h r u s t politicians to victorious heights or the
d e p t h s of d e f e a t .
S i n c e it i s i m p o s s i b l e f o r c a n d i d a t e s t o m e e t a l l t h e
v o t e r s , t h e y m u s t d e p e n d p r i m a r i l y on a d v e r t i s i n g a n d t h e m a s s m e d i a
to t r a n s m i t t h e i r n a m e s and i m a g e s to fellow c i t i z e n s .
T h e a d v e n t of n e w e l e c t r i c a l m e d i a h a s f o r g e d m a n y c h a n g e s i n
the
"image making" processes.
Today a public f i g u r e t r i e s to convey
h i s i m a g e o r i m p r e s s i o n v i a a s a l e s t o o l u s e d by " M a d i s o n A v e n u e "
t e c h n i c i a n s and p u b l i c r e l a t i o n o p i n i o n m o l d e r s .
w i t h p u b l i c b e h a v i o r and a t t i t u d e s
To those involved
"the i m a g e " is a c o n t e m p o r a r y
w o r d u s e d in d e s c r i b i n g t o t a l p u b l i c p o s t u r e a n d t h e i m p r e s s i o n t h e
32
33
public h a s about a p o l i t i c a l f i g u r e . ^ I m a g e b u i l d e r s a t t e m p t to show that
t h e i r c a n d i d a t e p o s s e s s e s the s a m e view of the w o r l d t h a t t h e p o t e n t i a l
T h e c a n d i d a t e 1 s c o m m u n i c a t i o n s a n d s t a n d s on i s s u e s
voters have.
a r e i n t e r p r e t e d throughout the c a m p a i g n for v o t e r and his c a n d i d a t e
image alignment.
T h e p o t e n t i a l voter is e n c o u r a g e d to vote f o r the
c a n d i d a t e c l o s e s t t o h i s own s e l f - i m a g e .
Thus, each presidential
election is r e a l l y , as S a m u e l Lubell d e s c r i b e s ,
n
a s e l f - p o r t r a i t of
A m e r i c a , a s e l f - p o r t r a i t with each ballot s e r v i n g as another b r u s h
s t r o k e a n d t h r o u g h w h i c h a l l t h e e m o t i o n s of t h e A m e r i c a n p e o p l e f i n d
2
expression.
11
T h e e l e c t r o n i c m e d i a h a v e i n t e n s i f i e d the i m p a c t of
p e r s o n a l i t y on p o l i t i c s a n d h a v e h e l p e d c r e a t e a m o r e r e a l i s t i c
"image11
of t h e p o l i t i c i a n .
T h e o b j e c t i v e of t h i s c h a p t e r i s t o a n s w e r t h r e e q u e s t i o n s :
w h a t i s t h e n a t u r e of
n
in p o l i t i c s ?
how i s " t h e i m a g e "
and
(3)
the image?"
(1)
(2) w h a t i s t h e r o l e of " t h e i m a g e "
created?
This study e s t a b l i s h e s
a t h e o r e t i c a l c o n s t r u c t a p p l i c a b l e in v i e w i n g t h e p u b l i c o p i n i o n of a n y
public figure.
C h a p t e r III a p p l i e s the c o n s t r u c t in a c a s e s t u d y of
G e o r g e W a l l a c e ! s p u b l i c i m a g e in t h e 1968 p r e s i d e n t i a l e l e c t i o n c a m p a i g n .
T h e N a t u r e of " T h e I m a g e "
i
Mental Structure
In o r d e r t o u n d e r s t a n d
with its basic components.
1968),
"the image"
a p e r s o n m u s t be f a m i l i a r
This section will d e s c r i b e the
'"William L. S a f i r e , T h e New L a n g u a g e of P o l i t i c s
p. 202.
(New Y o r k ,
2
S a m u e l L u b e l l , T h e F u t u r e of A m e r i c a n P o l i t i c s ,
(New Y o r k , 1965), p. 24.
3 r d r e v . ed.
34
h u m a n p s y c h o l o g i c a l p r o c e s s e s involved which allow
n
t h e images11 to
be c r e a t e d .
E a c h i n d i v i d u a l h a s a c o g n i t i v e s t r u c t u r e o r f r a m e of r e f e r e n c e
t h a t d e t e r m i n e s b o t h w h a t a n d how i n f o r m a t i o n w i l l b e r e c e i v e d . P e r c e p tion o c c u r s at the m o m e n t this i n f o r m a t i o n or s t i m u l u s engages the
cognitive s t r u c t u r e .
In a s e n s e o u r m i n d s aire l i k e c o m p u t e r s w h i c h h a v e b e e n
f e d v a r i o u s t y p e s of i n f o r m a t i o n . T h i s i n f o r m a t i o n , a l o n g w i t h
our " f e e l i n g s ' 1 at any given t i m e , c o m p r i s e our " c o g n i t i v e
s t r u c t u r e . 11 W e s e e t h e w o r l d t h r o u g h t h e d i s t o r t e d l e n s of t h i s
f r a m e of r e f e r e n c e . B o t h w h a t w e a t t e n d t o and t h e meaning; w e
give t o i n c o m i n g s t i m u l i a r e i n f l u e n c e d by o u r i n d i v i d u a l s t r u c tures.
O v e r t h e p r o c e s s of t i m e t h e c o g n i t i v e s t r u c t u r e b e c o m e s a
s t r u c t u r e d p r e d i s p o s i t i o n t h a t r e s p o n d s t o a g i v e n s t i m u l u s the f o r m e r b e i n g
u s e d by a n i n d i v i d u a l i n t h e p e r c e p t i o n of h i s w o r l d .
ceives
T h u s , he p e r -
t h i n g s in a p a r t i c u l a r l i g h t b e c a u s e of p r e v i o u s e d u c a t i o n , h a b i t s
of m i n d , a c c e p t e d d o g m a s , r e l i g i o u s o r s o c i a l a f f i n i t i e s , and n o t i o n s
of h i s own p e r s o n a l i n t e r e s t .
Few events, speeches, or actions fall
on c o m p l e t e l y n e w g r o u n d ^ b e c a u s e t h e p e r c e i v e r h a s p r e d e t e r m i n e d
b i a s e s , a n d t h e s e b i a s e s a r e t h e r e s u l t s of a t t i t u d e s .
When i m p o r t a n t
e v e n t s r e q u i r e f o r m a t i o n of a v i e w , t h e s e p r e - e x i s t i n g h a b i t s , d o g m a s ,
o r a t t i t u d e s h e l p d e t e r m i n e t h e i m p r e s s i o n he w i l l e x p e r i e n c e , t h e v i e w
he w i l l f o r m and u l t i m a t e l y , h i s b e h a v i o r .
An a t t i t u d e
has been de-
f i n e d by B e c k a s
. . . a l e a r n e d and m o r e or l e s s g e n e r a l i z e d and e f f e c t i v e
t e n d e n c y o r p r e d i s p o s i t i o n t o r e s p o n d in a r a t h e r p e r s i s t e n t
and c h a r a c t e r i s t i c m a n n e r , u s u a l l y p o s i t i v e l y or negatively
3
Don E . B e c k , u n p u b l i s h e d n o t e s , D e p a r t m e n t of S p e e c h a n d
D r a m a , N o r t h T e x a s S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y , D e n t o n , T e x a s , 1968.
35
( f o r o r a g a i n s t ) in r e f e r e n c e t o s o m e s i t u a t i o n , i d e a , v a l u e ,
m a t e r i a l o b j e c t o r c l a s s of s u c h o b j e c t s , o r p e r s o n s , o r g r o u p
of p e r s o n s .
T h i s i n d i v i d u a l s t a n d m a y be in r e f e r e n c e t o a p e r s o n 1 s a t t i t u d e s on
e c o n o m i c , p o l i t i c a l , o r r e l i g i o u s i n s t i t u t i o n s , o r it m a y r e f e r t o t h e
family, school, or g o v e r n m e n t .
An i n d i v i d u a l b e c o m e s a n A m e r i c a n , a m e m b e r of t h e P r e s b y t e r i a n c h u r c h or the Republican p a r t y , b e c a u s e he has a c q u i r e d appropriate attitudes concerning these institutions.
He is b o r n into a
f a m i l y t h a t p o s s e s s e s e s t a b l i s h e d a t t i t u d e s , but a s he m a t u r e s and
b e c o m e s a m e m b e r of i n s t i t u t i o n s , h e d e v e l o p s h i s own a t t i t u d e s .
His
e a r l y childhood i n t e r a c t i o n with o t h e r c h i l d r e n and adults allows him to
l a b e l t h e o b j e c t s , p e r s o n s , e v e n t s , and g r o u p s he e n c o u n t e r s a n d t o
5
e s t a b l i s h c r i t e r i a by w h i c h
he a p p r o v e s o r d i s a p p r o v e s of t h e m .
B e c a u s e of m a n ' s a b i l i t y t o c o n c e p t u a l i z e a n d f o r m i m a g e s in h i s m i n d ,
he i s a b l e t o e x p e r i e n c e t h e a t t i t u d e w i t h o u t t h e b e n e f i t of d i r e c t c o n t a c t
w i t h t h e r e f e r e n t . S h e r i f , S h e r i f , and N e b e r g a l l c o n c l u d e ,
In s h o r t , a n a t t i t u d e r e f l e c t s a f o r m of c o n s i s t e n c y in r e s p o n s e
to social stimuli. They p r o v i d e m a n with a s y s t e m a t i c , p r e d e t e r m i n e d s e t of c a t e g o r i e s w h i c h d e t e r m i n e i n a d v a n c e h i s r e s p o n s e
to v a r i o u s ideas and objects. They a r e l e a r n e d c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s ;
t e n d t o be p e r p e t u a t e d ; a r e f u s e d t o o b j e c t s ; s e r v e t o g e n e r a l i z e
r e s p o n s e and a r e value laden. Having an attitude m e a n s that
t h e i n d i v i d u a l i s n o l o n g e r n e u t r a l t o w a r d the r e f e r e n t s a n d t h a t
he i s p o s i t i v e l y o r n e g a t i v e l y d i s p o s e d in s o m e d e g r e e t o w a r d
t h e m in a l a s t i n g w a y . 6
4
D o n E., B e c k , n T h e N a t u r e of A t t i t u d e s , 11 u n p u b l i s h e d n o t e s ,
D e p a r t m e n t of S p e e c h a n d D r a m a , N o r t h T e x a s S t a t e U n i v e r s i t y ,
D e n t o n , T^xas,, 1968.
5
C a r o l y n W. S h e r i f , M u z a f e r S h e r i f a n d R o g e r E . N e b e r g a l l ,
A t t i t u d e and A t t i t u d e C h a n g e ( P h i l a d e l p h i a , 1965), p. 4.
^Bec:k,
,f
N a t u r e of A t t i t u d e s .
H
36
T h i s s e c t i o n h a s d e s c r i b e d b r i e f l y b o t h t h e f o r m u l a t i o n and t h e
e f f e c t of the h u m a n m e n t a l s t r u c t u r e .
E a c h individual has a cognitive
s t r u c t u r e a n d a t t i t u d e s w h i c h f i l t e r e x p e r i e n c e a n d d e t e r m i n e how
r e c e i v e d i n f o r m a t i o n w i l l be t r a n s l a t e d , d i v i d e d , a n d d i s t r i b u t e d i n t o
categories.
T h e b e s t w a y t o d e t e r m i n e t h e r o l e of t h e c o g n i t i v e
s t r u c t u r e in t h e d e v e l o p m e n t of p o l i t i c a l a t t i t u d e s i s t o e x a m i n e t h e
f u n c t i o n of m a n in t h e p o l i t i c a l a r e n a .
"The Image"
f!
T h e I m a g e 1 1 c o n c e p t ) a s d i s c u s s e d in t h i s t h e s i s , i s b a s e d o n
t h e c o n t r i b u t i o n of t h r e e m e n , e a c h w o r k i n g i n d e p e n d e n t l y of t h e o t h e r
- - W a l t e r L i p p m a n n , K e n n e t h E . B o u l d i n g , and D a n i e l J . B o o r s t i n .
Although all t h r e e approaches a r e related, each
" i m a g e " d i f f e r e n t l y and
it
m a n d e s c r i b e s his
involves t h e p r o c e s s e s of p e r c e p t i o n ,
cognition, i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , r e a c t i o n , and a t t i t u d e - a t t i t u d e change.
T h e a t t i t u d e c r i t e r i a ! d i s c u s s e d in t h e p r e v i o u s s e c t i o n b e c o m e s
t h e " b e l i e f s y s t e m , " w h i c h i s c o m p o s e d of n u m e r o u s " i m a g e s " of t h e
p a s t , p r e s e n t , and future, and i n c l u d e s
"all the accumulated, organized
7
k n o w l e d g e t h a t t h e o r g a n i s m h a s a b o u t i t s e l f a n d the w o r l d . "
belief s y s t e m is a lens
The
through which i n f o r m a t i o n about the p h y s i c a l
and s o c i a l e n v i r o n m e n t is viewed.
The s y s t e m o r i e n t s the individual
a n d d e f i n e s h i s e n v i r o n m e n t and i t s c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .
stereotyped b e c a u s e they o v e r s i m p l i f y reality.
All images a r e
The subjective per-
c e p t i o n d o e s not a l w a y s r e f l e c t a c c u r a t e l y t h e o b j e c t i v e r e a l i t y .
7
G e o r g e A. M i l l e r , E u g e n e G a l a n t e r and K a r l H. P r i b r a m ,
P l a n s a n d t h e S t r u c t u r e of B e h a v i o r (New Y o r k , I960), p. 16.
37
W a l t e r L i p p m a n n , d i s c u s s e d t h i s in h i s book, P u b l i c O p i n i o n , a n d
defined "stereotype"
as an o v e r s i m p l i f i e d p a t t e r n that helps people
g
f i n d m e a n i n g in t h e w o r l d .
This p a t t e r n o r " i m a g e " is often d i s t o r t e d
in a c c o r d a n c e w t l i t h e i n d i v i d u a l 1 s p r e d i s p o s i t i o n s .
[^TheJ t r i c k l e of m e s s a g e s f r o m t h e o u t s i d e i s a f f e c t e d by t h e
s t o r e d - u p i m a g e s , the preconceptions, and the p r e j u d i c e s
w h i c h i n t e r p r e t , f i l l t h e m out, and in t u r n p o w e r f u l l y d i r e c t
t h e p l a y of o u r a t t e n t i o n , a n d o u r v i s i o n i t s e l f . . . . In t h e
individual p e r s o n , the limited m e s s a g e s f r o m outside, f o r m e d
i n t o a p a t t e r n of s t e r e o t y p e s , a r e i d e n t i f i e d w i t h h i s own i n t e r e s t s a s he f e e l s a n d c o n c e i v e s t h e m .
A n o t h e r s t u d e n t of p u b l i c o p i n i o n , L a w r e n c e A. L o w e l l , put it
similarly:
" E a c h l o o k s a t , and l o o k s f o r , t h e f a c t s and r e a s o n s t o
w h i c h h i s a t t e n t i o n p o i n t s , p e r c e i v i n g l i t t l e , if a t a l l , t h o s e t o w h i c h
his mind is not d i r e c t e d .
As a r u l e , m e n see what they look for, and
o b s e r v e the things they expect to see,
I n d i v i d u a l s c a r r y " s t e r e o t y p e s " of g r o u p s , o t h e r i n d i v i d u a l s ,
a n d c l a s s e s in t h e i r m i n d s .
"Russians, "
E x a m p l e s a r e " i m a g e s " of N e g r o e s ,
"Communists, "
or the "Viet Cong. "
This stereotype
t e n d s t o s a t i s f y the i n d i v i d u a l n e e d a n d g i v e a f e e l i n g of s e c u r i t y a n d
defense against daily experiences.
K e n n e t h E . B o u l d i n g , in T h e I m a g e : K n o w l e d g e in L i f e a n d
Society, defines his
" i m a g e " of t h e w o r l d a s k n o w l e d g e .
"What I am
t a l k i n g a b o u t i s w h a t I b e l i e v e to b e t r u e ; m y s u b j e c t i v e k n o w l e d g e . It i s
8
W a l t e r L i p p m a n n , P u b l i c O p i n i o n (New Y o r k , 1932), p. 37,
9
•Ibid, , p. 23.
^ L a w r e n c e A. L o w e l l , P u b l i c O p i n i o n in W a r a n d P e a c e
( C a m b r i d g e , M a s s a c h u s e t t e s , 1923), p. 22.
38
this image that largely
g o v e r n s m y b e h a v i o r . . . . The i m a g e is built
u p a s a r e s u l t of a l l p a s t e x p e r i e n c e of t h e p o s s e s s o r .
,f
H i s m o d e l of
the i m a g e " is m u l t i - d i m e n s i o n a l and d e n o t e s
that
in a s i n g l e p e r c e p t i o n a t l e a s t t e n d i m e n s i o n s a r e i n v o l v e d f o r t h e
f o r m u l a t i o n of a m e a n i n g :
space, t i m e , objective and p e r s o n a l relation-
ships, value, emotion, c o n s c i o u s - u n c o n s c i o u s - s u b c o n s c i o u s a r e a s ,
c e r t a i n t y - u n c e r t a i n t y o r c l a r i t y - v a g u e n e s s , r e a l i t y - u n r e a l i t y , and t h e
12
public-private role.
F o r example,, t h e m e a n i n g of a p o l i t i c i a n ' s
s p e e c h d e p e n d s u p o n w h e n and w h e r e it w a s d e l i v e r e d , how it r e l a t e d t o
o t h e r e v e n t s of t h e o c c a s i o n , t h e v a l u e it h a d f o r t h e l i s t e n e r , a n d t h e
e m o t i o n it a r o u s e d .
A l s o i n c l u d e d i s how c o n s c i o u s t h e l i s t e n e r w a s
of t h e s p e e c h , w h e t h e r t h e m e a n i n g of t h e m e s s a g e w a s c e r t a i n , c l e a r
o r v a g u e , w h e t h e r t h e e v e n t w a s r e a l o r u n r e a l , a n d f i n a l l y , how o t h e r
o b s e r v e r s felt about the s a m e s p e e c h .
A l l of t h e s e d i m e n s i o n s i n f l u -
ence its interpretation.
C e r t a i n p a r t s of
n
t h e i m a g e 1 1 m a y be i m p o r t a n t a n d o t h e r s
u n i m p o r t a n t at d i f f e r e n t t i m e s , but
n
t h e image11 belongs to t h e indi-
v i d u a l p e r c e i v e r a n d no one e l s e .
Many politicans have m i s c o n s t r u e d
a n " i m a g e " t o m e a n s o m e t h i n g t h e y own o r p o s s e s s , but it b e l o n g s t o
and is the sole
item
of t h e p u b l i c .
B e c a u s e of m a n ' s a b i l i t y t o c o n c e p t u a l i z e a n d f o r m i m a g e s of
e v e n t s , p e o p l e , and p l a c e s in h i s m i n d , he e x p e r i e n c e s a t t i t u d e s and
c r e a t e s i m a g e s w i t h o u t t h e b e n e f i t of d i r e c t c o n t a c t w i t h t h e r e f e r e n t .
^ K e n n e t h E. Boulding, The I m a g e : Knowledge in Life and
S o c i e t y (Ann A r b o r , 1956), p. 6.
^ I b i d . , pp. 4 7 - 4 8 .
39
T h e ' ' i m a g e " at t h i s p o i n t b e c o m e s p u b l i c and is s h a r e d by m a n y
individuals.
This contact with the i m a g e g e n e r a t e s a f i r s t i m p r e s s i o n
t h a t i s s o o n o v e r l a i d by i n f l u e n c e f r o m p e e r s , l e a d e r s , o r t h e m a s s
media.
" P a r t of o u r i m a g e ,
,f
Boulding implies,
n
of the w o r l d ,
is the
b e l i e f t h a t t h i s i m a g e i s s h a r e d by o t h e r p e o p l e l i k e o u r s e l v e s w h o a l s o
13
a r e p a r t of o u r i m a g e of t h e w o r l d . "
T h i s " p u b l i c i m a g e " r e s u l t s f r o m a u n i v e r s e of d i s c o u r s e o r a
p r o c e s s of s h a r i n g t h e m e s s a g e a n d e x p e r i e n c e .
Although individuals
in a n a u d i e n c e h e a r t h e s a m e s p e e c h , t h e y a l l p e r c e i v e it f r o m d i f f e r ent p o s i t i o n s .
Their
" p u b l i c i m a g e " w i l l b e q u i t e s i m i l a r in c e r t a i n
a r e a s , e s p e1c4 i a l l y t h e t i m e and p l a c e of d e l i v e r y , a n d q u i t e d i f f e r e n t
* o +u
m
t h e r s . "n
D a n i e l J . B o o r s t i n in h i s b o o k , T h e I m a g e : A G u i d e t o P s e u d o E v e n t s in A m e r i c a , a p p r o a c h e s t h e " p u b l i c i m a g e " f r o m a n e t h i c a l
viewpoint.
H e f e e l s t h a t m e n in f o r m e r g e n e r a t i o n s w e r e m o t i v a t e d by
i d e a l s and v a l u e s yet to be attained.
F o r this reason Lippmann chose
to u s e the w o r d " s t e r e o t y p e . "
I h a v e b e e n s p e a k i n g of s t e r e o t y p e s r a t h e r t h a n i d e a l s , b e c a u s e
the w o r d i d e a l is u s u a l l y r e s e r v e d for what we c o n s i d e r the
good, t h e t r u e , a n d t h e b e a u t i f u l . T h u s it c a r r i e s t h e h i n t t h a t
h e r e is something to be copied or attained. . . . Our s t e r e o t y p e d w o r l d i s not n e c e s s a r i l y t h e w o r l d w e s h o u l d like it t o b e .
It i s s i m p l y t h e w o r l d w e e x p e c t it t o b e . ^
T h u s , m a n w a s m a d e by h i s e n v i r o n m e n t .
The Twentieth Century m a n
s t i l l h o l d s t h i s b e l i e f , but a l s o b e l i e v e s h i s e n v i r o n m e n t c a n be m a d e
by h i m , a l o n g w i t h i d e a l s and v a l u e s ; in o t h e r w o r d s , t h e y h a v e b e e n
13
I b i d . , p. 14.
15
L i p p m a n n , p. 104.
14
I b i d . , p. 132.
40
attained.
T h e l a n g u a g e of i d e a l s h a s b e e n r e p l a c e d by t h e l a n g u a g e of
images.
A s B o o r s t i n e x p l a i n s it, a p u b l i c i m a g e h a s f i v e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .
(1)
"An i m a g e is synthetic.
It i s p l a n n e d :
created especially
16
t o s e r v e a p u r p o s e , t o m a k e a c e r t a i n k i n d of i m p r e s s i o n . "
Because
of m a n ! s f i n i t e k n o w l e d g e a n d h i s i n a b i l i t y t o know e v e r y t h i n g a b o u t a n y
o n e t h i n g , he m u s t f o r m h i s i m a g e f r o m i n f o r m a t i o n o b t a i n e d t h r o u g h
others.
He s e e s t h i n g s a s o t h e r s m e a n f o r t h e m t o b e s e e n .
d a n g e r is a p p a r e n t h e r e :
One
it i s v e r y e a s y f o r i n d i v i d u a l s t o c o n s t r u c t
a n d c o n t r o l t h e m e a n i n g of i m a g e s by m a n i p u l a t i v e m e a n s .
T h e o v e r s h a d o w i n g i m a g e . . . c o v e r s up w h a t e v e r m a y r e a l l y
be t h e r e . B y o u r v e r y u s e of t h e t e r m [Image) w e i m p l y t h a t
s o m e t h i n g c a n be d o n e t o it; t h e i m a g e c a n a l w a y s be m o r e o r
less successfully synthesized, doctored, repaired, refurbished,
a n d i m p r o v e d , q u i t e a p a r t f r o m (though not e n t i r e l y i n d e p e n d e n t
o f ] t h e s p o n t a n e o u s o r i g i n a l of w h i c h t h e i m a g e i s a p u b l i c
portrait.
There are
,f
public images'* all around us.
On t h e i n t e r n a t i o n a l
s c e n e w e f i n d t h e m i l i t a r y , s c i e n t i f i c , and e c o n o m i c " i m a g e "
c o u n t r y w a n t s a n o t h e r to have.
u s e d by p o l i t i c i a n s :
Great Society. "
of G i b r a l t a r "
Pours, "
D o m e s t i c a l l y , it i s f o u n d in t h e s l o g a n s
" T h e New Deal, "
(Prudential Insurance Company),
and
"The
"Rock
" W h e n It R a i n s It
and "Milk F r o m Contented Cows. "
"An image is believable.
n o t b e l i e v e it.
"The F a i r Deal, "
It i s a l s o a p p a r e n t in c o r p o r a t e a d v e r t i s i n g :
"57 V a r i e t i e s , "
one
It s e r v e s n o p u r p o s e if p e o p l e do
In t h e i r own m i n d s t h e y m u s t m a k e it s t a n d f o r t h e
i n s t i t u t i o n o r the p e r s o n i m a g e d . "
18
P o l i t i c i a n s would n e v e r be e l e c t e d
" ^ D a n i e l J . B o o r s t i n , T h e I m a g e : A G u i d e t o P s e u d o - E v e n t s in
A m e r i c a (New Y o r k , 1964), p. 185.
^ I b i d . , p. 185.
^ I b i d , , p. 188.
41
a n d c o m p a n i e s w o u l d n e v e r s e l l p r o d u c t s if t h e i r
unbelievable,,
TI
f1
public i m a g e 1 1 w a s
The p u b l i c w i l l e i t h e r i g n o r e o r r e j e c t a c o m m u n i c a t e d
i m a g e if it i s n o t m a d e i n t e r e s t i n g , aippealing, a n d c o n v i n c i n g ; t h e
p u b l i c m u s t b e l i e v e it, i d e n t i f y w i t h it, and c a l l it i t s own.
,f
19
Lippmann
s a y s , c o n c e r n i n g b e l i e v a b i l i t y of s t e r e o t y p e s :
F o r w h e n a s y s t e m of s t e r e o t y p e s i s w e l l f i x e d , o u r a t t e n t i o n i s
c a l l e d to t h o s e f a c t s w h i c h s u p p o r t it, a n d d i v e r t e d f r o m t h o s e
w h i c h c o n t r a d i c t . . . . W h a t i s a l i e n w i l l be r e j e c t e d , w h a t i s
d i f f e r e n t w i l l f a l l u p o n u n s e e i n g e y e s . We do not s e e w h a t o u r
e y e s a r e n o t a c c u s t o m e d to t a k e i n t o a c c o u n t . S o m e t i m e s c o n s c i o u s l y , m o r e o f t e n w i t h o u t knowing^it, w e a r e i m p r e s s e d by
t h o s e f a c t s which fit our philosophy.
"An image is passive.
Since the image is a l r e a d y supposed
t o b e c o n g r u e n t w i t h r e a l i t y , t h e p r o d u c e r of t h e i m a g e . . .
is expected
21
t o f i t i n t o the i m a g e .
M
In o r d e r f o r an i n d i v i d u a l to n b u y , f a n i m a g e
philosophy,
he m u s t be a b l e t o a c c e p t it a n d a d a p t it to h i s o w n
philosophy.
He m u s t a l s o b e l i e v e t h e p r o d u c e r f e e l s i d e n t i c a l l y a b o u t
the image.
In t h e e a r l y m o n t h s of a p o l i t i c a l c a m p a i g n t h e i m a g e of
t h e p o l i t i c i a n i s a l i k e n e s s of t h e p a r t y , but by e l e c t i o n t i m e t h e p i c t u r e
has
n
r e v e r s e d , and the p a r t y h a s t h e i m a g e l i k e n e s s of t h e p o l i t i c i a n .
T h e i m a g e c a n be p e r f e c t .
satisfy everybody . . .
It c a n be a p r e c i s e p a t t e r n w h i c h w i l l
[but it]
o n l y w h e n it h a s b e c o m e p u b l i c .
19
i s t h e k i n d of i d e a l w h i c h b e c o m e s r e a l
n 22
T h o m a s D a i l H a r r i s o n , " T h e P u b l i c I m a g e of t h e f N e w S o u t h 1
in t h e N o r t h , 1870-1890, n
unpublished m a s t e r ' s thesis , Department
of S p e e c h , T h e U n i v e r s i t y of O k l a h o m a , N o r m a n , O k l a h o m a , 1966.
20
L i p p m a n n , p . 119.
21
B o o r s t i n , T h e I m a g e , p. 188.
??
" i b i d . , p. 189.
42
^
" A n i m a g e i s v i v i d and c o n c r e t e .
The i m a g e is l i m i t e d . .
. . It i s n o t e n o u g h if t h e p r o d u c t , t h e m a n , o r t h e i n s t i t u t i o n h a s m a n y
good q u a l i t i e s a p p r o p r i a t e t o it.
O n e o r a few m u s t be s e l e c t e d f o r
23
vivid p o r t r a y a l .
,r
A c l e a r e x a m p l e of t h i s c a n be t a k e n f r o m t h e 1948 e l e c t i o n s a n d
Truman's victory.
M a n y D e m o c r a t s had
s t r a y e d f r o m the p a r t y fold,
but r e t u r n e d b e c a u s e of a l i g n m e n t of c l a s s i s s u e s w h i c h T r u m a n s t r e s sed during the campaign.
A l t h o u g h the
n
public image"
of T r u m a n d i d
n o t c h a n g e s i g n i f i c a n t l y , t h e " p u b l i c i m a g e 1 1 of w h a t w a s i m p o r t a n t in t h e
c a m p a i g n did change.
As the c a m p a i g n p r o g r e s s e d ,
the socio-economic
issues became dominant. ^
(5)
"An i m a g e is s i m p l i f i e d .
In o r d e r t o e x c l u d e u n d e s i r e d
and u n d e s i r a b l e a s p e c t s , a n i m a g e m u s t b e s i m p l e r t h a n t h e o b j e c t it
4.
represents.
,.25
M
T h i s i s e v i d e n t in t h e s l o g a n s a d o p t e d by t h e P r e s i d e n t s : " T h e
New F r o n t i e r "
or
"The Great Society. "
t r a d e m a r k of c o r p o r a t i o n s .
It i s a l s o a p p a r e n t i n t h e
Initials such a s IBM, NBC, o r CBS
all
t r i g g e r c e r t a i n r e s p o n s e s d e p e n d i n g u p o n o u r s o u r c e of k n o w l e d g e .
Lippmann agrees:
" I n u n t r a i n e d o b s e r v a t i o n we p i c k r e c o g n i z a b l e
s i g n s out of t h e e n v i r o n m e n t .
The signs stand f o r
26
i d e a s , and t h e s e
i d e a s w e f i l l w i t h o u r s t o c k of i m a g e s . "
^ 3 I b i d . , p. 193.
24
B e r n a r d B e r e l s o n and M o r r i s J a n o w i t z , e d i t o r s , R e a d e r i n
P u b l i c O p i n i o n a n d C o m m u n i c a t i o n (New Y o r k , 1966), p. 4iaCL
25
B o o r s t i n , T h e I m a g e , p. 193.
^ L i p p m a n n , p . 88.
4 3
The " i m a g e "
s h o u l d now b e r e c o g n i z a b l e a s t h e p i c t u r e , s t e r e o -
type, knowledge, or cognition within a person*s mind.
M a n h a s in h i s
m i n d not o n l y a n i m a g e of h i m s e l f , but a n i m a g e of o t h e r p e o p l e , s i t u ations , and o r g a n i z a t i o n s .
The
p e r c e i v e r and is t u r n e d into a
the public.
" i m a g e " belongs to the individual
" p u b l i c i m a g e " a f t e r b e i n g s h a r e d by
The i m a g e has five c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .
It i s s y n t h e t i c ,
b e l i e v a b l e , p a s s i v e , vivid and c o n c r e t e , and s i m p l i f i e d .
The concept is
a l s o d e p e n d e n t u p o n t h e d i m e n s i o n s of t i m e a n d s p a c e w h i c h w i l l b e
d i s c u s s e d next.
" T h e I m a g e " in T i m e and Space
In a v i e w of " t h e i m a g e , " t h e t e m p o r a l a n d s p a t i a l e l e m e n t s
are very important.
T h i s s y s t e m i s d e p e n d e n t u p o n t i m e , f o r it i s
c o m p o s e d of c h r o n o l o g i c a l p a s t s , p r e s e n t s , a n d f u t u r e s t h a t e x e r t t h e i r
i n f l u e n c e u p o n one a n o t h e r a s t h e c o u r s e of e v e n t s u n f o l d s .
M c H u g h n o t e s in D e f i n i n g t h e S i t u a t i o n ,
As P e t e r
"the p a s t influences the s y m -
b o l i c d e f i n i t i o n of t h e p r e s e n t , t h e d e f i n i t i o n of t h e p r e s e n t i s i n f l u e n c e d by i n f e r e n c e s a b o u t t h e f u t u r e , and t h e e v e n t s of t h e f u t u r e w i l l
27
r e c o n s t r u c t o u r d e f i n i t i o n s of t h e p a s t . "
T h e d i m e n s i o n of t i m e c o u l d be d e s c r i b e d a s a h i s t o r i c a l
skeleton.
P o l i t i c i a n s , r h e t o r i c i a n s , and o t h e r i n d i v i d u a l s i n t e r e s t e d
in p e r s u a d i n g w i l l t a k e c o m p l i c a t e d i s s u e s and s i t u a t i o n s , b r e a k t h e s e
d o w n i n t o a s i m p l i f i e d s t a t e , and a t t r a c t i v e l y c o m m u n i c a t e t h e m t o t h e
public.
T h e p u b l i c r e s p o n d s by t a k i n g t h e b i t s a n d p i e c e s of t h e
27
P e t e r M c H u g h , D e f i n i n g t h e S i t u a t i o n : T h e O r g a n i z a t i o n of
M e a n i n g in S o c i a l I n t e r n a t i o n
( N e w Y o r k , 1968), p. 24.
44
m e s s a g e , a p p l y i n g t h e m t o t h e p i c t u r e s in t h e i r m i n d s , a n d f o r m u l a t i n g
a
"public image.
n
By l o o k i n g t o t h e f u t u r e t h e s k e l e t o n c o n t i n u e s t o
g r o w in a g e and m a t u r i t y .
Although the
"image11
of t h e w o r l d i s n e v e r i d e n t i c a l w i t h
r e a l i t y , m a n m u s t l i v e a n d a c t a s if it w e r e t r u e .
H e u s e s t h e t o o l of
f e e d b a c k in t h e e l i m i n a t i o n of e r r o r s o r f a l s e i m a g e s .
It i s p o s s i b l e t o
c o m p a r e t h e i m a g e of t h e f u t u r e w i t h t h e i m a g e of t h e s a m e p e r i o d
a f t e r it h a s b e c o m e t h e p a s t .
In N o v e m b e r t h e i m a g e of O c t o b e r a s it
w a s in S e p t e m b e r , c a n be r e c a l l e d , a n d t h i s c a n be c o m p a r e d w i t h t h e
i m a g e of O c t o b e r a s it i s s e e n in N o v e m b e r .
An i n d i v i d u a l i s d i s a p -
p o i n t e d if t h e i m a g e s do n o t c o r r e s p o n d , a n d a c t s t o a d j u s t o n e i m a g e
or the other.
A c c o r d i n g to Boulding, t h r e e a d j u s t m e n t s c a n be m a d e .
We c a n ctdjust o u r i m a g e of t h e p a s t and s a y t h a t it w a s m i s t a k e n , t h a t w h a t a p p a r e n t l y h a p p e n e d d i d not r e a l l y h a p p e n a n d
t h a t w e h a v e b e e n m i s i n f o r m e d . We c a n a d j u s t o u r p a s t i m a g e
of t h e f u t u r e ; t h a t i s , we c a n s a y t h a t t h e i m a g e of (October)
t h a t w e h a d in [ S e p t e m b e r ] w a s w r o n g . We c a n do t h i s f o r
two r e a s o n s , f o r o u r i m a g e of t h e f u t u r e i s d e r i v e d by i n f e r e n c e
f r o m o u r g e n e r a l v i e w of t h e w o r l d . We c a n t h e r e f o r e s a y , on
t h e one h a n d , t h a t t h e i n f e r e n c e w a s w r o n g and t h a t o u r v i e w
of t h e w o r l d did not r e a l l y i m p l y t h a t [October] s h o u l d h a v e
t u r n e d out t h e w a y we e x p e c t e d ; o r if we c a n n o t d e n y t h e
v a l i d i t y of t h e i n f e r e n c e , t h e n we m u s t r e v i s e o u r g e n e r a l
i m a g e of t h e w o r l d .
T h e t e m p o r a l d i m e n s i o n of
n
t h e image11
i n v o l v e s a n e v e n t in
its p a s t , p r e s e n t , and f u t u r e r o l e s , while the s p a t i a l d i m e n s i o n c h a r a c t e r i z e s a n e v e n t in i t s r e l a t i o n s h i p to o t h e r e v e n t s a c r o s s t h e b o u n d a r i e s of s p a c e .
28
B e c a u s e i n d i v i d u a l s in s o c i a l s i t u a t i o n s h a v e d i f f e r e n t
Kenneth E. Boulding, " T h e L e a r n i n g and R e a l i t y - T e s t i n g
P r o c e s s in t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l S y s t e m , n I m a g e a n d R e a l i t y in W o r l d
P o l i t i c s , e d i t e d by J o h n C. F a r r e l l a n d A s a P . S m i t h (New Y o r k ,
TT5T), p p . 2 - 3 .
45
b a c k g r o u n d s and e x p e r i e n c e s ; t h e y v i e w t h e e v e n t f r o m d i v e r s e s t a n d 29
points, and c o n s e q u e n t l y , f o r m u l a t e d i f f e r e n t i m a g e s .
S p a t i a l i m a g e s c a n be s p r e a d a l o n g a c o n t i n u u m , v i e w e d a t
d i f f e r e n t p o s i t i o n s , and this d i s t a n c e is d i s c r i m i n a t e d as g r e a t e r o r
l e s s e r a t d i f f e r i n g p o i n t s in t i m e .
The following example d e s c r i b e s the
t i m e a n d s p a c e d i m e n s i o n s of B a r r y G o l d w a t e r a n d L y n d o n J o h n s o n s
i m a g e s b e t w e e n t h e 1964 and 1968 p r e s i d e n t i a l e l e c t i o n s .
T h e n a t i o n a l m o o d d u r i n g t h e 1964 c a m p a i g n w a s l i b e r a l , a l t h o u g h
a c o n s e r v a t i v e s w i n g w a s in p r o c e s s .
of t h e
"Great Society"
and
Lyndon Johnson, the s u p p o r t e r
" W a r on P o v e r t y ,
n
was the liberal candi-
date^ w h i l e B a r r y G o l d w a t e r w a s p l a c e d on t h e f a r r i g h t end of t h e
continuum as the u l t r a - c o n s e r v a t i v e .
J o h n s o n p u s h e d t h e i m a g e of a
p e a c e c a n d i d a t e } w h i c h o p p o s e d G o l d w a t e r , t h e m a n who w o u l d s e l l t h e
T e n n e s s e e V a l l e y A u t h o r i t y and d e f o l i a t e f o r e s t s a n d b o m b N o r t h
Vietnam.
A h a n d f u l of u l t r a - c o n s e r v a t i v e v o t e r s in t h e S o u t h e r n S t a t e s
and A r i z o n a identified t h e m s e l v e s with Goldwater and his i m a g e , while
m a n y R e p u b l i c a n s could not.
Goldwater!s far-right image allowed these
R e p u b l i c a n s to a c c e p t J o h n s o n 1 s philosophy.
T h i s g r o u p of s u p p o r t e r s 9
w i t h a m a j o r i t y of l i b e r a l D e m o c r a t s ^ g a v e the P r e s i d e n t a n a s t o u n d i n g
mandate.
W i t h i n f o u r y e a r s t h e i m a g e s of b o t h m e n c h a n g e d d r a s t i c a l l y .
M a n y p r o m i s e s P r e s i d e n t J o h n s o n m a d e in 1964 w e r e n o t k e p t , anci he
f o l l o w e d t h e p l a n of S e n a t o r G o l d w a t e r in s e v e r a l i n s t a n c e s .
With
betrayed confidence,the nation became frustrated, frightened^and
c o n f u s e d ^ a n d s t a r t e d m o v i n g t o w a r d t h e c o n s e r v a t i v e end of t h e c o n t i n u u m .
?9
M c H u g h , p. 28.
46
In 1968 the i m a g e of G o l d w a t e r had c h a n g e d i m m e n s e l y .
He w a s no
l o n g e r viewed a s u l t r a - c o n s e r v a t i v e , but m o r e m i l d l y .
B e c a u s e of t h i s
c h a n g e in t i m e and s p a c e , m a n y m o r e v o t e r s could h a v e i d e n t i f i e d
with him and p l a c e d t h e i r vote f o r him in t h a t y e a r .
T h e i m a g e i s a function, in a s p a t i a l s e n s e , of the p o s i t i o n
o c c u p i e d by an o b s e r v e r in r e l a t i o n s h i p to t h e p o s i t i o n of the o b s e r v e d .
An i n d i v i d u a l t e n d s to s e l e c t i d e a s which he f a v o r s and i g n o r e s i d e a s
he d o e s not f a v o r .
T h u s , the p e r c e p t i o n s an i n d i v i d u a l h a s of a n o t h e r
p e r s o n or s t a t e m e n t a r e a r e f l e c t i o n of his own p o s i t i o n .
Information
t h a t c o n f i r m s h i s i m a g e w i l l be a s s i m i l a t e d ; i n f o r m a t i o n w h i c h c h a l l e n g e s
30
h i s i m a g e will be avoided.
As B e r e l s o n , L a z a r s f e l d , and M c P h e e
point out,
The m o r e i n t e n s e l y one holds a vote p o s i t i o n , t h e m o r e l i k e l y
he is to s e e the p o l i t i c a l e n v i r o n m e n t a s f a v o r a b l e to h i m s e l f ,
a s c o n f o r m i n g to h i m s e l f , a s c o n f o r m i n g t o his own b e l i e f s .
He is l e s s likely to p e r c e i v e u n c o n g e n i a l and c o n t r a d i c t o r y
e v e n t s o»r p o i n t s of view and h e n c e p r e s u m a b l y l e s s l i k e l y to
r e v i s e h i s own o r i g i n a l p o s i t i o n . 31
T h e i m a g e is a c o m p l e x but i n t r i g u i n g c o n c e p t .
Industry,
m i l i t a r y , s c i e n t i f i c , a c a d e m i c , and p o l i t i c a l l e a d e r s a r e l e a r n i n g i t s
n a t u r e and s u b s e q u e n t p r o c e s s e s , and a r e a w a r e of i t s c o n s t r u c t i v e
and d e s t r u c t i v e c a p a b i l i t i e s .
Before investigating these p o s e r s ,
e s p e c i a l l y a s a p p l i c a b l e in the p o l i t i c a l a r e n a , it i s n e c e s s a r y to
30
F o r a d i s c u s s i o n of p e r c e p t i o n and t h e a s s i m i l a t i o n / c o n t r a s t
d i m e n s i o n a s it a p p l i e s to c o m m u n i c a t i o n s e e Don E d w a r d B e c k ,
n
T h e R h e t o r i c of C o n f l i c t and C o m p r o m i s e : A Study in C i v i l W a r
C a u s a t i o n , n u n p u b l i s h e d d o c t o r a l d i s s e r t a t i o n , D e p a r t m e n t of S p e e c h ,
The U n i v e r s i t y of O k l a h o m a , N o r m a n , O k l a h o m a , 1966, pp. 57-61.
31
- B e r n a r d R. B e r e l s o n , P a u l F . L a z a r s f e l d and W i l l i a m N.
M c P h e e , Voting: A Study of Opinion F o r m a t i o n in a P r e s i d e n t i a l
C a m p a i g n (Chicago, 1954), p. 223.
47
a n a l y z e t h e b e h a v i o r of p e o p l e w i t h c e r t a i n i m a g e s , a n d p a r t i c u l a r l y
t h e i r v o t i n g h a b i t s and a t t i t u d e s .
" T h e I m a g e " in P o l i t i c s
D e t e r m i n e r of t h e I n d i v i d u a l V o t i n g B e h a v i o r
O n c e an i n d i v i d u a l a c q u i r e s a n a t t i t u d e , h e s e l e c t i v e l y t r a n s l a t e s
a l l i n f o r m a t i o n he r e c e i v e s and i s a b l e t o e v a l u a t e a c o m m u n i c a t i o n
f r o m s e v e r a l positions along a continuum.
is possible to identify his
"images.
n
M
B y s t u d y i n g h i s b e h a v i o r it
It i s o n l y f r o m b e h a v i o r ,
11
Sherif s u g g e s t s , " t h a t we c a n i n f e r that an individual has an attitude.
In s h o r t , a t t i t u d e s a r e i n f e r r e d f r o m o b j e c t s , p e r s o n s , e v e n t s , a n d
32
i s s u e s over a time span. "
The behavior that usually results f r o m
a n i m a g e i s in t h e f o r m of a c t i o n s and v e r b a l u t t e r a n c e s .
T h e r e i s a r e l a t i o n s h i p b e t w e e n a t t i t u d e s and a n i n d i v i d u a l s
suseptibility through communication.,
The ego-involved p a r t i s a n
a t t a c k s a l l p o s i t i o n s t h a t a r e not h i s o w n ; a n d a n y c o m m u n i c a t i o n f r o m
a n o p p o s i n g p o i n t of v i e w i s r e j e c t e d .
B e c k p o i n t s out t h a t
!!
. . .
communications from heretics or renegades are likewise grouped
with the opposing position and a r e r e j e c t e d with equal v e h e m e n c e
33
and d e t e r m i n a t i o n . "
Sherif p r e d i c t s t h e r e is l e s s s u s c e p t i b i l i t y to change when an
individual is m o r e ego-involved.
He f u r t h e r f e e l s t h a t a p e r s o n e x p o s e d
t o a n e x t r e m e l y d i s c r e p a n t c o m m u n i c a t i o n w i l l n e v e r r e a c t t o it by
32
S h e r i f , S h e r i f a n d N e b e r g a l l , p. 6.
33
Beck* " T h e R h e t o r i c of C o n f l i c t and C o m p r o m i s e , " p. 60.
48
c h a n g i n g h i s a t t i t u d e t o w a r d t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n in o r d e r t o r e d u c e h i s
tension or dissonance.
In f a c t , t h e p e r s o n m a y b e c o m e s t e a d f a s t i n
34
r e l y i n g on h i s o r i g i n a l s t a n d .
Conversely, the l e s s - i n v o l v e d p e r s o n is n o n - c o m m i t t e d to
either position.
H i s r a n g e of a c c e p t a n c e a n d r e j e c t i o n i s s m a l l and
his un-opinionated a r e a quite l a r g e .
He e x a m i n e s t h e m e s s a g e m o r e
s c r u p u l o u s l y and f o r m s i m a g e s b e c a u s e of a t t i t u d e s in r e l a t e d a r e a s .
Since the undecided voter often m a k e s the d i f f e r e n c e between winning
and l o s i n g a n e l e c t i o n , t h e w i s e p o l i t i c a l c a n d i d a t e w i l l a i m h i s p e r s u a s i v e r h e t o r i c at this g r o u p .
Berelson,
L a z e r f e l d , a n d M c P h e e d i s c u s s e d t h e p r o b l e m of t h e
v o t e r c a u g h t in a p o l i t i c a l c r o s s - p r e s s u r e .
If t h e v o t e r f i n d s h i m s e l f h o l d i n g o p i n i o n s c h a m p i o n e d by
o p p o s i n g p a r t i e s , it h a s b e e n t h o u g h t t h a t he c o u l d do one of
two t h i n g s : r e m a i n i n t h i s " i n c o n s i s t e n t " p o s i t i o n o r r e m o v e
t h e " i n c o n s i s t e n c y " by c h a n g i n g o n e o p i n i o n t o f i t t h e o t h e r .
B u t he h a s a n o t h e r o u t : he c a n p e r c e p t u a l l y s e l e c t , out of t h e
s o m e w h a t a m b i g u o u s p r o p a g a n d a of t h e c a m p a i g n , t h o s e
p o l i t i c a l c u e s w h i c h r e m o v e t h e p r o b l e m by d e f i n i n g it a w a y .
He c a n " s e e " t h a t t h e c a n d i d a t e s do not d i s a g r e e on the i s s u e
at hand or that his c a n d i d a t e r e a l l y a g r e e s with him o r t h a t the
o p p o n e n t r e a l l y d i s a g r e e s o r t h a t he c a n n o t t e l l w h e r e h i s
candidate stands. J u s t as the p r o c e s s m a y r e d u c e the v o t e r f s
l e v e l of p s y c h o l o g i c a l t e n s i o n , s o m a y it r e d u c e h i s p o l i t i c a l
i n c o n s i s t e n c y . 35
In t h e p o l i t i c a l a r e n a w e f i n d m a n y p u b l i c i m a g e s .
attitude d e t e r m i n e s his p i c t u r e or
and the i s s u e s .
these images.
The voter's
" i m a g e " of t h e p o l i t i c i a n , t h e p a r t y ,
T h e r e a r e four p r i m a r i l y related a r e a s that house
F i r s t , he h a s a n i m a g e of h i m s e l f .
E v e r y event and
34
M u z a f e r a n d C a r o l y n W. S h e r i f , T h e S o c i a l J u d g m e n t
Involvement A p p r o a c h vs. The Cognitive D i s s o n a n c e A p p r o a c h
( C h i c a g o , 1965), p. x
35
B e r e l s o n , L a z a r s f e l d a n d M c P h e e , p. 232.
49
a c t i o n in his p a s t ,
he p r e s e n t l y is.
r e g a r d l e s s how m i n u t e , h a s c o n t r i b u t e d , to w h a t
H i s v i e w s of l i f e , t h e w o r l d , a n d h i s o w n s u r r o u n d -
i n g s a r e r e s u l t s of h i s a t t i t u d e s , e x p e r i e n c e s ,
his values.
e m o t i o n s , and e s p e c i a l l y
He p i c t u r e s h i m s e l f as an individual who is able to in-
t e r p r e t t h e i n f o r m a t i o n he r e c e i v e s a n d t o d e c i d e w h a t i s r i g h t a n d
wrong.
T h e v o t e r a l s o h a s a n i m a g e of s o c i e t y .
His attitudes d e t e r -
m i n e h i s s t a n d on i s s u e s t h a t w i l l r e f l e c t upon h i m and t h o s e a r o u n d
him.
He not only r e f l e c t s the s o c i e t y in w h i c h he l i v e s , but he f e e l s
he h a s an a c t i v e r o l e in his f a m i l y , school, c h u r c h , job^and o t h e r
organizations.
He d e s i r e s to k e e p his s o c i e t y s a f e f r o m a v e r s i o n to
violence, danger,
and h a r m .
He p r e f e r s a p r e d i c t a b l e e n v i r o n m e n t
to one that is plagued with u n p r e d i c t a b l e e v e n t s .
H i s i m a g e s of t e r m s
s u c h a s c o m m u n i s m o r c a p i t a l i s m a r e r e s u l t s of h i s b a c k g r o u n d a n d
a t t i t u d e s t r u c t u r e a n d w i l l d e t e r m i n e t h e c o u r s e of f u t u r e a c t i o n h e w i l l
take toward such s y s t e m s .
H e a l s o h a s a n i m a g e of t h e p o l i t i c a l s y s t e m .
From early
s c h o o l i n g h e h a s a g e n e r a l k n o w l e d g e of b a s i c g o v e r n m e n t c o n c e p t s
such a s A m e r i c a ' s independence, the two-party s y s t e m , and the
governmentbodi.es (executive,
legislative, and judicial branches).
B e c a u s e his o v e r a l l k n o w l e d g e is l i m i t e d , he f o r m s s y m b o l i c i m a g e s
36
w h i c h b e c o m e i n d e x e s of c o m p l e x r o l e a n d s t r u c t u r e i m a g e s .
These
s y m b o l i c i m a g e s a r e of g r e a t i m p o r t a n c e t o t h e i n d i v i d u a l v o t e r a n d
t h e p u b l i c a t l a r g e , f o r t h e y a r e p i c t u r e s of p o l i t i c a l l i f e , e s p e c i a l l y
of n a t i o n a l a n d i n t e r n a t i o n a l r e l a t i o n s .
o L
Boulding,
The Image,
p . 109.
F o r i n s t a n c e , we tend to think
50
of t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s a s
o r of R u s s i a a s
"Uncle
Sam, "
"a performing bear. "
of E n g l a n d a s
"John Bull, "
T h e r e a r e s e v e r a l i m a g e s of
t h e p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s in t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s .
T h e R e p u b l i c a n P a r t y i s c o n c e i v e d a s a n e l e p h a n t , r a t h e r old,
r a t h e r d i g n i f i e d , a l i t t l e s l o w , n o t p e r h a p s t e r r i b l y b r i g h t , but
w i t h a g r e a t d e a l of w i s d o m , h a r d w o r k i n g , f u l l of i n t e g r i t y ,
r a t h e r c o n s e r v a t i v e , a little isolated f r o m the world around
h i m (and) p a t i e n t . . . . T h e D e m o c r a t i c P a r t y i s t h o u g h t of a s
a d o n k e y , a c t i v e , a g i l e , c l e v e r , a l i t t l e u n s u r e of h i m s e l f , a
bit of an u p s t a r t , q u i c k , s e n s i t i v e , a l i t t l e v u l g a r and c h e e r f u l l y a b s u r d . T h e i m a g e s a r e r e i t e r a t e d by c a r t o o n s a n d h a v e
b e e n of g r e a t i m p o r t a n c e in e s t a b l i s h i n g t h e p o l i t i c a l c l i m a t e .
The symbolic i m a g e is n e c e s s a r y b e c a u s e the h u m a n i m a g i n a t i o n
c a n b e a r l i m i t e d a m o u n t s of c o m p l e x i t y .
When information becomes
i n t o l e r a b l e it i s t r a n s l a t e d i n t o s y m b o l i c i m a g e s .
" T h e i n s t a b i l i t y of
v o t i n g b e h a v i o r i s a r e s u l t of t h e c o m p l e x i t y of t h e d e t a i l e d i m a g e
w h i c h i s s u m m a r i z e d in t h e s y m b o l .
S m a l l c h a n g e s in o u r d e t a i l e d
v a l u a t i o n s m a y m a k e a l l the d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n p r e f e r r i n g one s y m b o l
38
and p r e f e r r i n g another.
Finally, the voter has an image of the politician.
His picture
is created from all the past and present information he has about the
man.
This current image allows him to formulate a future picture that
he considers true.
If his attitudes align with the image, he will accept,
at least partially, the candidate.
be rejected.
If not, the man and his beliefs will
The candidate 1 s personal and ideological images must be
positively projected for greater public acceptance and attitude change.
Technically, this projection is c a r r i e d out today with the help of the
m a s s media.
37
I b i d . , p. 111.
38
I b i d . , p p . 111-112.
51
T h i s s e c t i o n h a s e x a m i n e d s e v e r a l a s p e c t s of i n d i v i d u a l d i v e r s i f i e d a t t i t u d e s and v o t i n g b e h a v i o r .
An i m a g e o r a t t i t u d e b e c o m e s p u b l i c
w h e n it i s s h a r e d by t h e p u b l i c , a n d a s i n d i v i d u a l a t t i t u d e s c a n b e
i n f e r r e d f r o m b e h a v i o r a n d e x a m i n e d by r e s p o n s e t o c o m m u n i c a t i o n s ,
so c a n p u b l i c a t t i t u d e s be i n f e r r e d and i n v e s t i g a t e d .
They a r e indi-
c a t o r s of e l e c t i o n r e s u l t s , t h e r e f o r e , p o l i t i c i a n s w a t c h t h e m c a r e f u l l y
during election campaigns.
The following section d i s c u s s e s d e t e r m i n e r s
of t h i s i n f l u e n t i a l ! p u b l i c v o t i n g b e h a v i o r .
D e t e r m i n e r of P u b l i c V o t i n g B e h a v i o r
In v i e w i n g v o t i n g b e h a v i o r it i s o f t e n c o n v e n i e n t t o d i v i d e p e o p l e
into l i b e r a l and c o n s e r v a t i v e c a t e g o r i e s .
T h i s c a n be m i s l e a d i n g ^ h o w -
e v e r , e s p e c i a l l y f o r t h e u n c o m m i t t e d who do n o t d i v i d e t h e i r o p i n i o n s
i n t o a g r e e m e n t with or o p p o s i t i o n t o t h e i s s u e s .
In r e a l i t y , t h e l i b e r a l -
c o n s e r v a t i v e c l e a v a g e i s in v a r y i n g d e g r e e s and t h e r e a l d i f f e r e n c e
b e t w e e n t h e m m a y l i e i n s h a d e s of g r e y i n s t e a d of b l a c k o r w h i t e .
At
t h e c o n s e r v a t i v e e n d of t h e c o n t i n u u m a r e t h o s e w h o m a y a g r e e , a n d
s u p p o r t all or m o s t m e a s u r e s with a
t h o s e a t t h e o p p o s i t e end a r e u n i t e d
causes.
'Conservative'1
tendency, while
in s u p p o r t of a l l o r m o s t l i b e r a l
B e t w e e n t h e two e x t r e m e s a r e t h e v o t e r s w i t h m i x e d opinions^
w h o s u p p o r t c o n s e r v a t i v e v i e w s on s o m e m e a s u r e s a n d l i b e r a l v i e w s o n
others.
A s it w a s n o t e d in t h e s p a c e d i m e n s i o n of t h e i m a g e , t h e v o t e r ' s
p e r c e p t i o n of t h e c a n d i d a t e s 1 s t a n d s on i s s u e s i s a f f e c t e d by h i s o w n
position.
T h e v o t e r is a b l e to i n c r e a s e t h e c o n s i s t e n c y of h i s own
p o s i t i o n by p e r c e i v i n g h i s c a n d i d a t e * s s t a n d a s s i m i l a r t o h i s own a n d
the opponent's stand as d i s s i m i l a r .
52
For example,
i n t h e 1948 p r e s i d e n t i a l e l e c t i o n , t h e R e p u b l i c a n s
who favored p r i c e control p e r c e i v e d Dewey as favoring p r i c e control
(70 p e r c e n t ) , a n d f e w w h o o p p o s e d p r i c e c o n t r o l p e r c e i v e d D e w e y a s
f a v o r i n g it
(14 p e r c e n t ) .
The Republicans who w e r e against controls
39
p e r c e i v e d T r u m a n as favoring t h e m m o r e than the R e p u b l i c a n s did.
W h e n v o t e r s a r e in d i s a g r e e m e n t w i t h i n t h e i r own p a r t y , t h e
ego-involved Republicans and D e m o c r a t s imagine their candidate's
s t a n d on the i s s u e s in h a r m o n y w i t h t h e i r own s t a n d .
When they dis-
a g r e e with the opposition candidate, the ego-involved a r e quickest to
p e r c e i v e the d i s a g r e e m e n t .
point out,
n
As Berelson,
L a z a r s f e l d and M c P h e e
the stronger the partisanship,
the g r e a t e r the ( m i s ) p e r -
c e p t i o n of a g r e e m e n t w i t h o n e ' s o w n s i d e a n d t h e l e s s t h e
c e p t i o n of a g r e e m e n t w i t h t h e o p p o s i t i o n .
m a k e s for p a r t i s a n s h i p , and the r e v e r s e .
Presumably,
40
M
(mis) per-
misperception
The strongest supporters
of a c a n d i d a t e , t h e o n e s m o s t i n t e r e s t e d i n a n d a c t i v e f o r h i s e l e c t i o n ,
u s u a l l y t a k e t h e l e a s t e q u i v o c a l p o s i t i o n on t h e i r p a r t y i s s u e s .
Those
who favor the p a r t y position g e n e r a l l y support the candidate strongly.
The m o r e intensely
a voter holds an ego-involved position d u r i n g the
c a m p a i g n , the m o r e likely he is to s e e a f a v o r a b l e p o l i t i c a l e n v i r o n m e n t c o n f o r m i n g to h i s own b e l i e f s .
His i m a g e discounts uncongenial
a n d c o n t r a d i c t o r y e v e n t s o r p o i n t s of view, a n d m a k e s l e s s l i k e l y a
r e v i s i o n of h i s o r i g i n a l p o s i t i o n .
This partisan-motivated
perception i n c r e a s e s the differences between the p a r t i e s .
"image11
The highly
m o t i v a t e d R e p u b l i c a n s and D e m o c r a t s a r e f a r t h e r a p a r t in t h e i r i m a g e s
of p o l i t i c a l i s s u e s t h a n t h o s e w h o a r e u n m o t i v a t e d .
39
B e r e l s o n , L a z a r s f e l d and M c P h e e , pp. 215-233.
40
Ibid.
53
A s p r e v i o u s l y m e n t i o n e d , t h e i m a g e r o l e in p o l i t i c s i s v i e w e d
a s a d e t e r m i n e r of i n d i v i d u a l v o t i n g b e h a v i o r a n d a d e t e r m i n e r of
public voting behavior.
In o r d e r t o c l a r i f y p e r c e p t i o n a n d i m a g e r o l e in
voting b e h a v i o r , adequate c o m m u n i c a t i o n e x p o s u r e is necessary^ and is
d i s c u s s e d in t h e f o l l o w i n g s e c t i o n on c r e a t i o n of
n
the image.
M
C r e a t i o n of " T h e I m a g e 1 1
O n l y a s m a l l p a r t of t h e v o t e r ' s i m a g e of t h e w o r l d a t e l e c t i o n
t i m e i s r e a l l y of h i s o w n m a k i n g .
p e r h a p s s h a p e l e s s , but
finite picture.
The o r i g i n a l i m a g e w a s faint and
finally evolved into a s t r o n g e r and m o r e de-
T h i s t r a n s f o r m a t i o n of t h e p u b l i c i m a g e r e s u l t e d f r o m
a l l i n f o r m a t i o n r e c e i v e d by t h e v o t e r .
c r e a t i o n and evolution
Few voters
of
11
the i m a g e .
This section d i s c u s s e s the
M
c a n o b s e r v e , f i r s t ; h a n d , the s e q u e n c e of a c t s t h a t
c o m p r i s e e v e n t h e s m a l l e s t s e g m e n t s of t h e p o l i t i c a l p r o c e s s .
W a l t e r Lippmanrt once said,
f!
As
. . . the w o r l d that we have to d e a l with
p o l i t i c a l l y i s out of r e a c h , out of s i g h t , out of m i n d , it h a s to be
41
e x p l o r e d , r e p o r t e d , and i m a g i n e d .
11
Therefore, man m u s t depend
u p o n and t r u s t a c o m m u n i c a t i o n s y s t e m w h i c h w i l l r e v e a l a n d c l a r i f i e s
f o r h i m p o r t i o n s of t h e p o l i t i c a l s c e n e .
Without a capable n e t w o r k to
e n l a r g e a n d m a g n i f y c a n d i d a t e s a n d t h e i r s p e e c h , it w o u l d be i m p o s s i b l e
f o r p o l i t i c s t o s p a n a n d i n f l u e n c e o u r n a t i o n and w o r l d .
This communi-
cation p r o c e s s also provides rationality for m a s s politics.
A p e o p l e c a n s e n s i b l y d e b a t e t h e i r c o l l e c t i v e a c t i o n s o n l y if t h e y
s h a r e a c o m m o n f u n d of k n o w l e d g e a n d i n f o r m a t i o n . A n d o n l y if
t h e y h a v e s o m e m i n i m u m a p p r e c i a t i o n of how o t h e r s h a v e b e e n
41
L i p p m a n n , p. 29.
54
i n f o r m e d about t h e s t a t e of a f f a i r s c a n c i t i z e n s d e c i d e u p o n
t h e w i s d o m a n d t h e v a l i d i t y of t h e r e a s o n i n g b e h i n d t h e a c t i o n s
of t h e i r l e a d e r s .
Political o r a t o r s have consistently used the m a s s m e d i a f o r
communication processes.
T h e i r r o l e s a s a r t i c u l a t o r s of a c o l l e c t i v e
i d e n t i t y a n d a s c h a m p i o n s of s p e c i f i c i n t e r e s t s a r e c o n d i t i o n e d and
l i m i t e d by t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n s m e d i a a v a i l a b l e t o t h e m .
No p o l i t i c i a n
c a n r i s e a b o v e r e s t r i c t i o n s s e t by s p e c i f i c c o m m u n i c a t i o n n e t w o r k s t o
w h i c h he h a s a c c e s s .
Consequently, they have adopted different m e a n s
of c o m m u n i c a t i n g w i t h e a c h c h a n g e in t e c h n o l o g y .
h a v e c o n t r i b u t e d t o c h a n g e s in t h e
ff
All these changes
p u b l i c i m a g e " of t h e p o l i t i c i a n a n d
43
the political p r o c e s s .
I n v e n t i o n of t h e p r i n t i n g p r e s s c r e a t e d a n e w e n v i r o n m e n t , a n d
m a n c o u l d s u d d e n l y r e a d and t h i n k in i s o l a t i o n .
born,
ff
states Marshall McLuhan,
thought f r o m action,
f,
"Individualism was
a n d it b e c a m e p o s s i b l e t o s e p a r a t e
P o l i t i c a l l y , t h e n e w l y d i s c o v e r e d p r i v a c y of t h e
44
r e a d e r m a d e a p o i n t of v i e w p o s s i b l e .
M
T h e r a d i o e p o c h w a s the n e x t c o m m u n i c a t i o n r e v o l u t i o n , and it
b e c a m e a n a t i o n - b u i l d e r , f o r it c o m m u n i c a t e d the s p i r i t of n a t i o n a l
unity instantaneously.
Radio welded a political p a r t y s y s t e m into a
n a t i o n a l m a c h i n e for F r a n k l i n R o o s e v e l t .
His coalition was c o m p o s e d
of t h e t r a d i t i o n a l D e m o c r a t i c South, f a r m e r s , l a b o r e r s , and e t h n i c
42
L u c i a n W. P y e , e d i t o r , C o m m u n i c a t i o n s a n d P o l i t i c a l
D e v e l o p m e n t ( P r i n c e t o n , 1963), p. 57
^ I b i d . , p. 58.
44
" T h e M e s s a g e of M a r s h a l l M c L u h a n ,
( M a r c h 6, 1967), 55.
11
N e w s w e e k , LXX
55
minorities.
The P r e s i d e n t c o m m u n i c a t e d d i r e c t l y w i t h t h e n a t i o n i n
b y - p a s s i n g a h o s t i l e p r e s s , local n e w s p a p e r s , and often o b s t r u c t i o n i s t
C o n g r e s s a n d by h a v i n g
,f
F i r e s i d e Chats'1
in h o m e s of a v e r a g e v o t e r s .
T h e n e x t c o m m u n i c a t i o n r e v o l u t i o n b e g a n in 1952 w i t h t h e f i r s t
national television campaign.
p l a n n e d a n d c a r r i e d out by
,!
The c o m m u n i c a t i o n t e c h n i q u e s w e r e
M a d i s o n Avenue 1 1
image manipulators
a n d c u t a c r o s s t r a d i t i o n a l p a r t y lines., s t r e s s i n g t h e c a n d i d a t e ' s p e r s o n ality.
T h i s w a s t h e b e g i n n i n g of t h e n e w e l e c t r i c a l m e d i a t r a n s m i s s i o n
that would soon n a t i o n a l i z e c a m p a i g n c o m m u n i c a t i o n s and d e c l a r e the
mass-media-built
n
p u b l i c image11
important.
N a t u r e of C u r r e n t C o m m u n i c a t i o n M e d i a
We s h a p e o u r t o o l s and t h e r e a f t e r t h e y s h a p e u s . S i n c e o u r
t o o l s a r e e x t e n s i o n s of o u r s e n s e s , t h e y s h a p e t h e w a y w e
experience reality.
P o l i t i c a l l i f e in A m e r i c a i s u n d e r g o i n g a f u n d a m e n t a l c h a n g e ,
p r i m a r i l y b e c a u s e of c h a n g e s in t h e m e a n s of c o m m u n i c a t i o n .
Marshall
M c L u h a n , a n i n t e r p r e t e r of h u m a n c o m m u n i c a t i o n , i s p e r h a p s b e s t
known for his books,
Under standing Media
and
The Medium is
the
46
Massage,
in w h i c h he b u i l d s t h r e e m a i n t h e s e s .
The f i r s t states
t h a t t h e m e d i a of c o m m u n i c a t i o n a r e e x t e n s i o n s of t h e h u m a n p e r s o n ality.
J u s t a s t h e t o o l w a s a n e x t e n s i o n of t h e h a n d a n d t h e a u t o m o b i l e
45
J o h n C u l k i n , S. J . , n A H a n d f u l of P o s t u l a t e s , 11 M c L u h a n :
Hot a n d C o o l , e d i t e d by G e r a l d E m a n u e l S t e a r n ( N e w Y o r k , 1967),
p. 52.
46
See M a r s h a l l McLuhan, Under standing Media: The Extensions
of M a n , N e w Y o r k , M c G r a w - H i l l B o o k Co. , 1965. A l s o M c L u h a n a n d
Q u e n t i n F i o r e , T h e M e d i u m i s t h e M a s s a g e , New Y o r k , B a n t a m B o o k s ,
1967.
"
56
a n e x t e n s i o n of t h e f o o t , s o a r e e l e c t r o n i c m e d i a a n e x t e n s i o n of o u r
nervous system.
The second divides m e d i a into
n
hot,f
and
n
cool.
n
T h e hot
m e d i a c o n v e y d i r e c t i n f o r m a t i o n t o an i n d i v i d u a l w i t h h i s p a r t i c i p a t i o n
at a low l e v e l .
T h e p r o c e s s of c o m m u n i c a t i o n w i t h a c o o l m e d i u m
i n v o l v e s e x t e n s i v e p a r t i c i p a t i o n of t h e r e c i p i e n t .
P r i n t and r a d i o a r e
hot m e d i a , f o r the p r i n t e d p a g e and b r o a d c a s t e d s o u n d p r o j e c t p l e n t y
of i n f o r m a t i o n and r e q u i r e l e s s i n v o l v e m e n t of t h e r e c e i v e r .
Television
i s a c o o l , l o w - d e f i n i t i o n m e d i u m t h a t p r o v i d e s a m i n i m u m of i n f o r m a t i o n
a n d r e q u i r e s high p a r t i c i p a t i o n and i n v o l v e m e n t .
Although television
h a s p r o m p t e d t h e c r e a t i o n of m a n y " i m a g e s 1 1 it c a n n o t in i t s e l f
"create" a personality.
T h e i m a g e of the e x i s t i n g p e r s o n a l i t y i s g i v e n
a w i d e r a u d i e n c e o r an e n l a r g e d m e e t i n g p l a c e w h e r e he c a n a p p e a r
b e f o r e the voter.
T h e t h i r d p r i n c i p l e s a y s t h a t t h e m e d i u m is t h e m e s s a g e .
McLuhan
m e a n s t h a t t h e m e d i u m , by i t s e l f , d o e s s o m e t h i n g t o a n i n d i v i d u a l a p a r t
f r o m w h a t the m e s s a g e i s a b l e to do.
Electronic m e d i a have brought
a m a s s i v e c h a n g e to our society, m u c h m o r e i m p o r t a n t t h a n any
m e s s a g e they have t r a n s m i t t e d .
A t one p o i n t in t i m e P a u l R e v e r e h a d
t o r i d e t h r o u g h e v e r y M i d d l e s e x v i l l a g e and t o w n .
T o d a y he w o u l d n o t
h a v e t o r i d e ; he c o u l d s t a n d in f r o n t of a t e l e v i s i o n c a m e r a a n d
s i m u l t a n e o u s l y be in e v e r y v i l l a g e and t o w n .
Today t h e r e is no
s e q u e n c e , n o t a k i n g of t h e n e w s f r o m p l a c e t o p l a c e .
The world is
z o o m i n g by in f r o n t of t h e n a t i o n 1 s e y e s , and t h e p u b l i c i s t h e r e r e a c h ing out, t o u c h i n g it, p a r t i c i p a t i n g , a n d c o n s t a n t l y b u i l d i n g i m a g e s .
57
As McLuhan says,
ff
The V i e t - N a m W a r is the f i r s t world w a r e v e r
fought on A m e r i c a n soil.
T h a n k s to TV, p a r e n t s have seen t h e i r s o n s
47
killed on the s e v e n - o ! c l o c k n e w s . "
the
"Now Generation11
is
that
m i d d l e of e v e n t s i n s t a n t e o u s l y .
One r e a s o n today1 s g e n e r a t i o n is
the electronic m e d i a put
us in the
K n o w i n g t h e n a t u r e of t o d a y 1 s m e d i a
p r o m p t s one to a s k with f e a r , a p p r e h e n s i o n ,
and expectancy,
"What
i s t h e e f f e c t of s u c h p o w e r f u l m e d i a ? "
T h e E f f e c t of M e d i a
M a n i s l i v i n g i n a n e n v i r o n m e n t of a c c e l e r a t e d t e c h n o l o g i c a l
changes,
and he d o e s not r e a l i z e h i s
"involvement"
A s J o h n M . C u l k i n , M c L u h a n ' s peer> w r o t e ,
with the media.
"The environments set
up by d i f f e r e n t m e d i a a r e not j u s t c o n t a i n e r s f o r p e o p l e , t h e y a r e
48
p r o c e s s e s which shape people."
The new E l e c t r i c Age, with its m e d i a p e n e t r a t i o n and wide
geographic distribution and impact#has
provided a new, direct, and
s e n s i t i v e link b e t w e e n the p o l i t i c i a n and the public.
ally u s e s the m a s s m e d i a to e s t a b l i s h a
on TV and radio,
A candidate gener-
"public image"
by a p p e a r i n g
o r by m a k i n g n e w s and b u y i n g a d v e r t i s i n g s p a c e in
newspapers.
N e w s p a p e r s in t h e p a s t h a v e b e e n t h e t r a d i t i o n a l m e d i u m f o r
conveying political opinion,
i n f o r m a t i o n , and i m a g e s to v o t e r s ,
but in
t h e 1960 ! S a n d e s p e c i a l l y t h e 1968 c a m p a i g n , t h e y c o u l d b e t e r m e d
47
M a r s h a l l M c L u h a n , " T h e R e v e r s a l of t h e O v e r h e a t e d I m a g e , "
P l a y b o y , X V ( D e c e m b e r , 1968), p . 134.
48
J o h n M. Culkin, "A S c h o o l m a n ' s Guide to M a r s h a l l M c L u h a n , "
S a t u r d a y R e v i e w , L ( M a r c h 18, 1967), p . 51.
58
s e c o n d a r y b e c a u s e t h e r e a r e image d i f f e r e n c e s between television and
newspaper media.
Where a candidate's television image seems largely
t o be a p p e a r a n c e , d e m e a n o r , a n d s t y l e of p r e s e n t a t i o n , t h e n e w s p a p e r
i m a g e i s c o n v e y e d by d e s c r i p t i o n s of a c a n d i d a t e ' s r e p u t a t i o n a n d h i s
p o s i t i o n on i s s u e s .
C o n s e q u e n t l y , t h e y m u s t b e c r e a t e d in t h e r e a d e r ' s
m i n d f s eye a f t e r c o n s i d e r i n g the p u b l i s h e d d e s c r i p t i o n , w h e r e a s t h e
49
television image is p e r c e i v e d directly.
T h e r e i s a l s o a p r o b l e m in w h o m the i m a g e r e a c h e s .
All political
p a r t y s u p p o r t e r s and non- s u p p o r t e r s a r e exposed to a c a n d i d a t e u n e x p e c t e d l y by t e l e v i s i o n n e w s c a s t s , o r u n a v o i d a b l y by f a c e - t o - f a c e s p o t
a n n o u n c e m e n t s , but t h e n e w s p a p e r image^ w h i c h i s o f t e n b i a s e d , t e n d s t o
r e a c h s e l f - s e g r e g a t e d c o m m u n i t i e s of r e a d e r s w h o h a v e j o u r n a l i s t i c
i d e n t i t i e s w h i c h a t t r a c t t h e m t o t h e e d i t o r i a l v i e w s of o n e p a p e r o v e r
50
another.
With r a d i o ^ w e l l - d e f i n e d sounds s a t i s f y t h e e a r but a l s o r e q u i r e
v i s u a l p i c t u r e s t o be i m a g i n e d ; h o w e v e r , r a d i o s p o t a n n o u n c e m e n t s ,
u s u a l l y i n e x p e n s i v e , r e u s a b l e , a n d e f f e c t i v e w i t h a good s c r i p t a n d
p l e a s i n g v o i c e , a r e o f t e n u s e d , e s p e c i a l l y by s t a t e a n d l o c a l p o l i t i c i a n s .
Television requires different involvement.
In 1962 it w a s e s t i -
m a t e d t h a t n i n e of e v e r y t e n h o m e s in t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s h a d a t e l e v i s i o n
51
set, and the a v e r a g e daily viewing time was five h o u r s .
h a s g r o w n e v e n h i g h e r in s e v e n y e a r s .
This time
T e l e v i s i o n has c o n t r i b u t e d to
i m a g e m a k i n g by i t s a b i l i t y t o c o m m u n i c a t e q u a l i t i e s of t h e p e r s o n it
49
G e n e W y e k o f f , T h e I m a g e C a n d i d a t e s (New Y o r k , 1968), pp. 9 3 - 9 6 .
5
° I b i d . , p. 101.
51
D a n i e l M. O g d e n a n d A r t h u r L. P e t e r s o n ,
P r e s i d e n t {San F r a n c i s c o , 1968), p. 193.
Electing the
59
s h o w s , i n d e p e n d e n t l y of h i s v e r b a l m e s s a g e o r s i t u a t i o n in w h i c h h e i s
pictured.
T h e m i d d l e m a n b e t w e e n t h e v i e w e r and p o l i t i c i a n h a s b e e n
e l i m i n a t e d , a n d t h e v o t e r f e e l s he " g e t s t o know 11 t h e c a n d i d a t e s w h o
c o m e a l i v e in h i s l i v i n g r o o m .
He m e e t s t h e m , r e s p o n d s t o t h e m ,
j u d g e s t h e m in t h e s a m e w a y he j u d g e s p e o p l e in e v e r y d a y s i t u a t i o n s ,
52
and then d r a w s
"images"
about them.
T h e c a p a c i t y of t e l e v i s i o n t o t r a n s m i t a c a n d i d a t e o r i s s u e s i n t o
d i v e r s e regions has helped unify A m e r i c a n politics.
The media cover-
a g e of c i v i l r i g h t s b a t t l e s in t h e S o u t h h e l p e d s y n t h e s i z e t h e n a t i o n a l
c o n s c i e n c e behind C o n g r e s s i o n a l legislation;
however, the opposite
e f f e c t h a s a l s o o c c u r r e d w h e n o n - t h e - s p o t c o v e r a g e of r a c e r i o t s h a s
w o r s e n e d t h e l o c a l s i t u a t i o n and d i s t o r t e d
the national reaction.
53
T e l e v i s i o n , like m a n , has dual a b i l i t i e s to build and d e m o l i s h .
T h e i n f l u e n c e of t e l e v i s i o n a n d the i m p o r t a n c e of i m a g e m a k i n g
h a v e m a d e an i m p a c t on c a m p a i g n c o m m u n i c a t i o n .
they
modified our existing party s t r u c t u r e s .
Some e x p e r t s feel
As H a r v e y W h e e l e r
s t a t e s in t h e N o v e m b e r 2, 1968, S a t u r d a y R e v i e w :
M a s s m e d i a a r e m a k i n g the existing p a r t y s t r u c t u r e
o b s o l e t e and g i v i n g r i s e t o a p o l i t i c a l s y s t e m b a s e d
on p e r s o n a l i t y , " f l y i n g c a d r e s of m e d i a e x p e r t s , " a n d
a m o n g other things, an e l e c t o r a l c o a l i t i o n r e p r e s e n t i n g
n e w c o n s t i t u e n c i e s in A m e r i c a n s o c i e t y . ^
52
P e n n K i m b a l l , B o b b y K e n n e d y a n d t h e New P o l i t i c s
( E n g l e w o o d C l i f f s , 1968), pp. 15-16.
~
53
I b i d . , p. 19.
54
H a r v e y W h e e l e r , " T h e E n d of the T w o P a r t y S y s t e m , "
S a t u r d a y R e v i e w , LI ( N o v e m b e r 2, 1968), p. 19.
60
M c L u h a n s t a t e s a s t r o n g e r c l a i m by s a y i n g ,
s y s t e m h a s f o l d e d l i k e the o r g a n i z a t i o n c h a r t .
a r e useless for election purposes,
too hot.
fl
. . . the p a r t y
P o l i c i e s and i s s u e s
s i n c e t h e y a r e too s p e c i a l i z e d a n d
T h e s h a p i n g of t h e c a n d i d a t e ! s i n t e g r a l i m a g e h a s t a k e n the
55
p l a c e of d i s c u s s i n g c o n f l i c t i n g p o i n t s of v i e w .
M
T h e c o o l m e d i u m of
t e l e v i s i o n d o e s not c a p a c i t a t e a hot e v e n t l i k e the V i e t n a m w a r o r t h e
Chicago D e m o c r a t i c convention.
In t h e hot e v e n t e v e r y t h i n g i s t a k i n g
p l a c e , a n d the v i e w e r of a c o o l m e d i u m i s u n a b l e t o p a r t i c i p a t e .
P e n n K i m b a l l a l s o b e l i e v e s t h e old p a r t y s t r u c t u r e i s b e i n g
r e p l a c e d . In h i s book, B o b b y K e n n e d y a n d T h e New P o l i t i c s , h e w r i t e s :
T h e p a s s i v i t y of t e l e v i s i o n w a t c h e r s a n d t h e i l l u s i o n of
e x p e r i e n c e h a v e v i r t u a l l y e l i m i n a t e d a l l t h e old d e v i c e s f o r
a c t i v a t i n g d i r e c t p o l i t i c a l p a r t i c i p a t i o n by c i t i z e n s . P o l i t i c a l
m e e t i n g s and r a l l i e s a r e h a r d e r and h a r d e r to m o u n t . The
t e l e p h o n e c a n v a s s of v o t i n g l i s t s , o r g a n i z e d by c o m p u t e r s
a c c o r d i n g to neighborhoods, p a r t y affiliations and ethnic
b a c k g r o u n d s , h a s b e e n s u b s t i t u t e d f o r p e r s o n a l c a l l s by
block c a p t a i n s . V o t e r s a r e a s k e d to d i a l a n u m b e r to h e a r
a c a n d i d a t e 1 s c a n n e d a n s w e r s t o t h e i r q u e s t i o n s on i s s u e s .
T h e New P o l i t i c s i s b u i l t m o r e and m o r e a r o u n d t h e c o m m u n i c a t i o n s device and l e s s and l e s s a r o u n d p e r s o n to p e r s o n contact.
57
The "New P o l i t i c s "
. - - T h o s e who b e l i e v e in t h e
,f
New Politics11
f e e l t e l e v i s i o n a n d p o l l i n g e f f e c t s h a v e h a s t e n e d t h e d i s s o l u t i o n of
^ M c L u h a n , n T h e R e v e r s a l , 1 1 p. 134.
^ K i m b a l l , p p . 20-21.
57
T h e r e h a s b e e n c o n s i d e r a b l e d i s a g r e e m e n t o v e r the d e f i n i t i o n
of t h i s t e r m . F o r s o m e t h e New P o l i t i c s m e a n t t h e p o l i t i c s of o r d i n a r y
p e o p l e who w e r e f e d up w i t h the s u p e r f i c i a l and h y p o c r i t i c a l p o l i t i c s of
t h e two m a j o r p a r t i e s . B u t t h i s w a s o n l y a m o o d o r a c a u s e a n d not a
p o l i t i c a l t e c h n i q u e . K i m b a l l a t t e m p t e d a d e f i n i t i o n in h i s b o o k . t f T h e
' N e w P o l i t i c s 1 r e f e r s t o the c o n t e m p o r a r y c o n t e s t f o r p o l i t i c a l p o w e r
c h a r a c t e r i z e d by p r i m a r y r e l i a n c e on p e r s o n a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s in p r e f e r e n c e to p a r t y m a c h i n e r y , e m p h a s i s on c o n s o l i d a t i n g v o t e r s r a t h e r t h a n
on d i v i d i n g t h e m a l o n g t r a d i t i o n a l l i n e s of c l a s s o r r e g i o n , p r o j e c t i o n
of p o l i t i c a l s t y l e a b o v e i s s u e s a n d e x p l a n a t i o n of the f u l l r a n g e o r
m o d e r n t e c h n i q u e s f o r m a s s c o m m u n i c a t i o n . 11 K i m b a l l , pp. 1 - 2 .
61
t r a d i t i o n a l s t r u c t u r e s of A m e r i c a n p o l i t i c s .
F o r the p a s t c e n t u r y a
g r o u p of i n s t i t u t i o n s h a v e b e e n m e d i a t o r s b e t w e e n t h e p o l i t i c i a n a n d v o t e r .
T h e r e s p o n s i b i l i t y of t h e p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n , a n d t h e e t h n i c g r o u p
w a s t o i n t e r p r e t t h e i s s u e s t o s u p p o r t e r s and r a l l y t h e s e p e o p l e t h r o u g h
the campaign.
T o d a y t h e s e m e d i a t o r f u n c t i o n s a r e a c c o m p l i s h e d by
t h e m a s s m e d i a , a n d t h e p o l i t i c i a n g o e s s t r a i g h t to t h e p u b l i c .
T h e a u d i e n c e of t h e e l e c t r o n i c a l m e d i a i s b e g i n n i n g t o r e g a r d
t h e old p o l i t i c a l e s t a b l i s h m e n t w i t h c o n t e m p t a n d r e s p o n d s t o a l m o s t
a n y c a n d i d a t e who s e t s h i m s e l f a g a i n s t t h e p a s t .
As Arthur Schlesinger
J r . , w r o t e in a n a r t i c l e f o r P l a y b o y , J a n u a r y 1969:
The n01d Politics,f is b e c o m i n g a s e l f - p e r p e t u a t i n g myth--a
m y t h k e p t a l i v e by t h e p o l i t i c a l p r o f e s s i o n a l s , w h o h a v e a
v e s t e d i n t e r e s t in i t s p r e s e r v a t i o n , and by n e w s p a p e r m e n ,
w h o s p e n d m o s t of t h e i r t i m e i n t e r v i e w i n g p o l i t i c a l p r o f e s s i o n a l s *
T h e p e o p l e h a v e m e a n w h i l e s t r u c k out on t h e i r own. T h e y
b a s e t h e i r j u d g m e n t s e a c h e v e n i n g on W a l t e r C r o n k i t e and
David Brinkleyand r e g i s t e r t h e i r views each week t h r o u g h
L o u i s H a r r i s and G e o r g e G a l l u p . T h e y r e g a r d t h e old p o l i t i c a l
e s t a b l i s h m e n t w i t h c o n t e m p t and r e s p o n d t o a n y c a n d i d a t e w h o
s e t s h i m s e l f a g a i n s t t h e old f a c e s . T h e a n t i - e s t a b l i s h m e n t
c a n d i d a t e s a p p e a l a b o v e a l l t o the s t u d e n t s , who t h u s f a r h a v e
b e e n t h e only o n e s to d e v e l o p m o d e s of o r g a n i z a t i o n t h a t w i l l
w o r k in t h e e l e c t r o n i c a g e . In s h o r t , t h e old, s l o w - m o t i o n
b r o k e r p o l i t i c s i s now g i v i n g w a y t o t h e p o l i t i c s of i n s t a n t a n e o u s
m a s s participation.
The "New Politics11
h e l p e d t o d e f e a t m a n y of t h e old a n d w o r t h y
p o l i t i c i a n s s u c h a s G o v e r n o r P a t B r o w n of C a l i f o r n i a ,
Senator Paul
D o u g l a s i n I l l i n o i s , S e n a t o r K e n n e t h K e a t i n g of New Y o r k ,
President
L y n d o n B . J o h n s o n , and V i c e - P r e s i d e n t H u b e r t H u m p h r e y .
L a b e l s like
"conservative11
and
"liberal"
have fallen into
q u e s t i o n , a n d p a r t y h e a d s now u r g e both c o n s e r v a t i v e s a n d l i b e r a l s t o
58
Arthur Schesinger Jr. ,
( J a n u a r y , 1969), p. 242.
"The Statesman, "
P l a y b o y , XVI
62
j o i n t h e r a n k s of m o d e r a t i o n .
Both B a r r y Goldwater and N e l s o n
R o c k e f e l l e r h a v e b e e n c r i t i c i z e d by t h e R e p u b l i c a n p a r t y f o r b e i n g t o o
"extreme.
n
T h i s h a s a l s o b e e n t h e c r y of s o m e D e m o c r a t s , l e v e l e d
at b o t h S o u t h e r n s e g r e g a t i o n i s t s a n d N o r t h e r n i n t e g r a t i o n i s t s .
G e n e W y c k o f f s t a t e s in T h e I m a g e C a n d i d a t e s ,
H
As
. . . it i s now c o m m o n
c a m p a i g n p r a c t i c e for candidates to subdue their p a r t y identity so that
v o t e r s w i l l b e l e s s p r o n e to t h i n k in t e r m s of t h e
!
Democratic candidate1
59
or the 'Republican.
1 n
F o r s e v e r a l r e a s o n s t h e i n f l u e n c e of i s s u e s on e l e c t i o n o u t c o m e s
s e e m s t o be d e c l i n i n g .
(1) P o l i t i c a l q u e s t i o n s a r e b e c o m i n g t o o c o m p l e x
f o r r e a d y s t a t e m e n t s , and f o r m e r p h i l o s o p h i e s a n d c l i c h e s
satisfy.
no l o n g e r
The public r e a l i z e s that n e i t h e r government action nor g r e a t
a m o u n t s of m o n e y , u p o n w h i c h p a s t p o l i t i c a l d i a l o g u e s s o a r e d , a r e
sufficient to m e e t m o s t problems that a r i s e .
i s t o s t a y l o o s e a n d g e n e r a l on t h e i s s u e s .
Generally, the best stand
(2)
To stay
"moderate,11
t h e c a n d i d a t e a s s u m e s m i d d l e - o f - t h e - r o a d p o s i t i o n s and a v o i d s t h e
extreme.
T h e i m a g e i s c e n t e r e d a r o u n d p r o j e c t i o n of a n a t t i t u d e t o w a r d
p u b l i c a f f a i r s a n d a n e m p h a s i s on p e r s o n a l c h a r a c t e r and c h a r m , r a t h e r
t h a n on a d e t a i l e d s e t of p l a t f o r m p r o m i s e s a n d e m p h a s i s on s p e c i f i c
60
programs.
P e r r y f e e l s the t r e n d toward p e r s o n a l i z e d politics will h a s t e n as
m a n a g e m e n t and consulting f i r m s expand and as p a r t y politics c o n t r a c t s .
He quotes P e n n s y l v a n i a s t a t e s e n a t o r R o b e r t P . C a s e y a s saying,
"Politics
is changing t r e m e n d o u s l y .
T h e old w a y s no l o n g e r w o r k .
. . . You h a v e t o u s e t h e n e w s o p h i s t i c a t e d t e c h n i q u e s , t h e p o l l i n g , t h e
W y c k o f f , p. 5.
k°Kimball, p#
63
t e l e v i s i o n , the heavy staffing, and the d i r e c t m a i l .
You c a n ' t r e l y any
61
m o r e on p o l i t i c a l o r g a n i z a t i o n s .
They don't w o r k any m o r e .
11
C a m p a i g n s t o d a y a r e big b u s i n e s s , t h a t c o s t a p p r o x i m a t e l y o n e
m i l l i o n d o l l a r s f o r a U . S . s e n a t o r s h i p o r g o v e r n o r s h i p of one of t h e
ten l a r g e s t states.
A businessman
w h o i n v e s t s t h i s a m o u n t in a c o m -
p a n y h a s m a n y c o n s u l t a n t s , and s o t h e p o l i t i c i a n h a s p r o f e s s i o n a l
managers.
The late R o b e r t F. Kennedy m a d e this c l e a r in his l e c t u r e
a t S k i d m o r e C o l l e g e in F e b r u a r y , 1967, w h e n he s t a t e d :
. . . m o r e and m o r e , as our population i n c r e a s e s , as the
p r o b l e m s of o u r s o c i e t y b e c o m e m o r e c o m p l e x , a n d a s t h e
c o s t of p o l i t i c a l c a m p a i g n s c o n t i n u e s t o m o u n t - - i t b e c o m e s
m o r e and m o r e c l e a r t h a t t h e p a c k a g e i s o f t e n m o r e i m p o r t a n t t h a n t h e p r o d u c t ; t h a t t h e p e r c e i v e d " i m a g e " of a c a n d i d a t e i s o f t e n m o r e i m p o r t a n t t h a n w h a t he says*
T h a t i s one r e a s o n - - I b e l i e v e - - w h y p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s
a r e t u r n i n g m o r e and m o r e t o t h e p r e - p a c k a g e d , p r e - s o l d
candidate.
It i s q u i t e e v i d e n t t h a t t h e A m e r i c a n p e o p l e , a t t i t u d e s , a n d
i m a g e s have changed c o n s i d e r a b l y in r e c e n t y e a r s .
The political
organizations that once drew their strength f r o m ethnic blocks have
also been altered.
O n e of t h e l a r g e s t a n d m o s t i m p o r t a n t c h a n g e s
b r o u g h t on by t h e n e w e l e c t r o n i c m e d i a i s t h e r o l e a n d i m a g e d i f f e r e n c e
of t h e p o l i t i c i a n .
To s o m e the p r e s e n t day p o l i t i c a l l e a d e r h a s
c h a r i s m a t i c a u t h o r i t y and u s e s the m e d i a t e c h n i q u e s to win s u p p o r t .
C h a r i s m a . - -Although there w e r e many c h a r i s m a t i c politicians
b e f o r e television, the electronic m e d i a has intensified the p e r s o n a l i t y
i m p a c t on p o l i t i c s .
61
A f e a t u r e of c h a r i s m a t i c a u t h o r i t y i s t h a t it r e m a i n s
Q u o t e d by J a m e s M . P e r r y ,
T e c h n o l o g y of P o l i t i c a l M a n i p u l a t i o n ,
62
Q u o t e d by K i m b a l l , p . 157.
T h e New P o l i t i c s : T h e E x p a n d i n g
(New York^ 1968), p. 42.
64
*
a l i e n , if not h o s t i l e , t o t h e n o r m a l e c o n o m i c p r o c e s s e s .
a s s u m e s a v a r i e t y of f o r m s s u c h a s t h e d e m a g o g u e ,
In p o l i t i c s it
social dictator,
S3
m i l i t a r y hero, and revolutionary,
It i m p l i e s w h o l e - h e a r t e d d e v o t i o n
t o t h e l e a d e r and i s f o u n d e d on e m o t i o n r a t h e r t h a n r a t i o n a l i t y ^ s i n c e t h e
f o r c e of a c t i v i t y r e s t s on u s u a l l y b l i n d , f a n a t i c a l t r u s t and u n r e s t r a i n e d ,
u n c r i t i c a l faith,
C h r i s m a i m p l i e s a b r e a k with l e g a l and t r a d i t i o n a l
continuity, c h a l l e n g e s e s t a b l i s h e d o r d e r and c u s t o m a r y r e s t r a i n t s ,
o v e r t u r n s i n s t i t u t i o n s , and a p p e a l s to n e w c o n c e p t s of h u m a n r e l a t i o n ships.
T h e s e t b o u n d a r i e s a n d n o r m s a r e e s t a b l i s h e d by t h e a u t h o r i t y of
t h e s e l f - a p p o i n t e d l e a d e r a c c o r d i n g t o the d e m a n d s of t h e m i s s i o n .
The
l e a d e r i s p r e p a r e d t o o s t r a c i z e h i s f o l l o w e r s who r e f u s e t o f o l l o w i n
64
w h a t e v e r d i r e c t i o n he a l o n e s p e c i f i e s .
A c h a r i s m a t i c l e a d e r 1 s i n f l u e n c e i s g r e a t e r if he p l a c e s h i m s e l f o u t s i d e any p o l i t i c a l g r o u p i n g .
His following is a d v e n t u r e s o m e
b e c a u s e it c o u r t s f a i l u r e , i s c o n s t a n t l y o b l i g e d to d i s c o v e r n e w i m p e t u s
and m o t i v e s f o r e n t h u s i a s m to c o n f i r m its p o w e r .
T h e o r e t i c a l l y , the
h o r i z o n s f o r the l e a d e r and g r o u p a r e u n l i m i t e d as long a s the f o l l o w e r s
r e m a i n loyal and the g r o u p continues to grow.
As soon as doubt s e t s
in, t h e p o w e r a n d a u t h o r i t y c o l l a p s e , and t h e f o l l o w e r s r e t u r n t o a
65
normal, stable, everyday existence.
63
Max Weber described McharismaH as nThe exceptional
q u a l i t y of a p e r s o n w h o a p p e a r s t o p o s s e s s s u p e r n a t u r a l , s u p e r h u m a n
o r at l e a s t u n a c c u s t o m e d p o w e r s , so t h a t he e m e r g e s as a p r o v i d e n t i a l ,
e x e m p l a r y or e x t r a o r d i n a r y f i g u r e , and for this r e a s o n is able to
g a t h e r d i s c i p l e s o r f o l l o w e r s a r o u n d h i m . 11 J u l i e n F r e u n d , T h e
S o c i o l o g y of M a x W e b e r (New Y o r k , 1968), p . 232.
64
I b i d . , p. . 2 3 3 .
65
ibid.
65
C h a r i s m a c a n b e good o r e v i l , c o n s t r u c t i v e o r d e s t r u c t i v e ,
b e c a u s e it i s g e n e r a t e d not o n l y by t h e p e r s o n a l i t y of t h e l e a d e r , but a l s o
by t h e
i m a g e he r e p r e s e n t s in h i s f o l l o w e r s ' i m a g i n a t i o n s a t a p a r t i c -
u l a r p o i n t in t i m e a n d s p a c e .
t e r i s t i c of s o c i a l c h a n g e .
Political c h a r i s m a , a s noted, is c h a r a c -
T h e l e a d e r u s u a l l y e m e r g e s in a n a t m o s p h e r e
of c r i s i s o r f r u s t r a t i o n , o r d u r i n g a t i m e of u n r e s o l v e d c o n f l i c t o r
threatening disaster.
The following often takes political f o r m just as
a g e n e r a l w e a k e n i n g in t h e p o l i t i c a l f a b r i c o c c u r s , a n d t h e l e a d e r , in t h e
g r o u p ' s i m a g e , a n t i c i p a t e s t h e n e x t s t a g e in n a t i o n a l h i s t o r y . ^
T h e d a n g e r of a p o l i t i c i a n a n d h i s r h e t o r i c a l c h a r i s m a o r
demagogy is apparent.
The followers develop quasi-religious attitudes
f o r m e d by c o n v e r s i o n t h a t d o e s not go d e e p l y i n t o the d i s p o s i t i o n a l
s t r u c t u r e , n o r d o e s it l a s t .
T h e f l a m b o y a n t o r a t o r y a n d t h e d i s p l a y of
a radiating p e r s o n a l i t y i n c o r p o r a t e the m a s s into a g r e a t national effort.
T h e c l a m o r o u s d e m a n d s and e x p e c t a t i o n s w h i c h a r e r a i s e d f a r e x c e e d
t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of f u l f i l l m e n t .
The f o l l o w e r s tend to believe the p e r -
s i s t e n t g r i e v a n c e s a r e t h e d e l i b e r a t e a c t i o n of t h e d e m a g o g u e ' s
oppontents.
F r u s t r a t i o n and c o n f l i c t s r e s u l t a n d m o m e n t a r i l y p r o d u c e
c h a n g e s w h i c h , if c o n t i n u e d , i m p e d e t h e g r o w t h of a p r o g r e s s i v e , m o d e r n
political order. ^
T h e s t r u c t u r e of t h e p o l i t i c a l d i s c o u r s e , s u c h a s t h e l e n g t h of
c o m m u n i c a t i o n , t h e a b s e n c e of d i a l o g u e , and t h e b e l i e f t h e a u d i e n c e i s
on a l o w e r l e v e l t h a n t h e l e a d e r , p r o m o t e s the n e e d f o r e x a g g e r a t i o n
^ K i m b a l l , p. 126.
6*7
E d w a r d Shils, C o m m u n i c a t i o n s and P o l i t i c a l D e v e l o p m e n t ,
e d i t e d by L u c i a n W. P y e ( P r i n c e t o n , 19 63), pjx 64- 6T.
'
66
and cliches.
but c o m m o n .
T h e u s e of
"charismatic t e r m s "
i s n o t only i m p o r t a n t
It w a s n o t e d t h a t t h e p o p u l a c e g i v e s a l e a d e r w i t h
c h a r i s m a t i c a u t h o r i t y p o w e r w h i c h is u n e x p l a i n a b l e t h r o u g h h i s p e r s o n a l
attributes.
A c h a r i s m a t i c t e r m h a s the s a m e i n v e s t e d p o w e r .
e x p l a i n e d by R i c h a r d W e a v e r i n h i s book,
This is
The E t h i c s of R h e t o r i c .
It i s t h e n a t u r e of t h e c h a r i s m a t i c t e r m to h a v e a p o w e r w h i c h
i s not d e r i v e d , but w h i c h i s in s o m e m y s t e r i o u s w a y g i v e n .
. . . Cthe] t e r m i s g i v e n i t s l o a d of i m p u l s i o n w i t h o u t r e f e r e n c e , and it f u n c t i o n s by c o n v e n t i o n . T h e n u m b e r of s u c h
t e r m s i s s m a l l in any one p e r i o d , but t h e y a r e p e r h a p s t h e
m o s t e f f i c a c i o u s t e r m s of a l l . 68
W e a v e r l i s t s s e v e r a l e x a m p l e s of c o n t e m p o r a r y c h a r i s m a t i c
terms.
O n e of t h e p r i n c i p l e w o r d s i s
"freedom.
tf
The g r e a t e s t
s a c r i f i c e s m a n i s c a l l e d u p o n t o m a k e a r e in t h e n a m e of
"freedom,
while the m e a n i n g attached to t h e w o r d is quite o b s c u r e .
The w o r d
M
f o r m e r l y m e a n t a b r e a k i n g l o o s e f r o m a l l a n c h o r a g e s , but it i s e x t e n s i v e l y u s e d by m o d e r n p o l i t i c i a n s and s t a t e s m e n in a n e f f o r t t o h a v e
men assume more responsibility.
W e a v e r c o n t i n u e s by g i v i n g a
second example,
t
T h e r e i s p l e n t y of e v i d e n c e t h a t " d e m o c r a c y " i s b e c o m i n g t h e
s a m e k i n d of t e r m . T h e v a r i e t y of t h i n g s ' it i s u s e d t o s y m b o l i z e i s t o o w e i r d a n d t o o c o n t r s i d i c t o r y f o r one t o f i n d e v e n a
c o r e m e a n i n g in p r e s e n t - d a y u s a g e s . M o r e i m p o r t a n t t h a n
t h i s f o r u s i s t h e f a c t , n o t e d by G e o r g e O r w e l l , t h a t p e o p l e
r e s i s t a n y a t t e m p t t o d e f i n e d e m o c r a c y . 69
D e m a g o g y i s a p p e p t e d p r i m a r i l y a s a f a c t of l i f e t h a t w i l l be
a m p l i f i e d b y w i r e l e s s b r o a d c a s t i n g ; e v e n t o d a y it p u t s t o u s e t h e a v a i l a b i l i t y of t h e m a s s c o m m u n i c a t i o n m e d i a .
68
R i c h a r d M. W e a v e r ,
pp. 2 2 7 - 2 2 8 .
k^Ibid. , pp. 2 2 8 - 2 2 9 .
This is especially t r u e where
T h e E t h i c s of R h e t o r i c
( C h i c a g o , 1965),
67
t h e p o p u l a t i o n i s i l l i t e r a t e , g e o g r a p h i c a l l y s c a t t e r e d , and t h e m e m b e r s
believe they m u s t
"mobilize"
the m e d i a that build
f o r t h e p r o g r e s s of t h e c o u n t r y .
But
up and m a k e s f a m o u s a d e m a g o g and an o r d i n a r y
p o l i t i c i a n , have t h e s a m e p o w e r t o d e s t r o y h i m if it i s u s e d i n c o r r e c t l y .
T o d a y he c a n n o t r e l y on u s i n g the m e d i a a s a h e l p m a t e , h e m u s t m a s t e r
fbem.This i s e s p e c i a l l y t r u e of t e l e v i s i o n .
In t h i s c o o l m e d i u m t h e a u d i -
e n c e i s a n a c t i v e c o n s t i t u e n t of t h e v i e w i n g e x p e r i e n c e , a n d o n l y a c o o l
p o l i t i c i a n is a c c e p t e d .
F o r example, Hitler was a phenomenon during
the r a d i o age, for both the m e d i u m and the m e s s e n g e r w e r e
"hot.
M
E v e r y t h i n g w a s s a i d and d o n e ; n o t h i n g w a s l e f t f o r t h e l i s t e n e r t o f e e l .
H o w e v e r , H i t l e r o v e r t e l e v i s i o n t o d a y w o u l d be a f a i l u r e b e c a u s e a
" h o t " m e s s e n g e r is r e j e c t e d o v e r a
l,f
cool l f
medium.
This explains
t h e s u c c e s s of J o h n K e n n e d y , who h a d a c o m p a t i b l e c o o l n e s s a n d
i n d i f f e r e n c e t o p o w e r , and who a d a p t e d f u l l y t o t e l e v i s i o n .
As McLuhan
said,
Any p o l i t i c a l c a n d i d a t e who d o e s n * t h a v e s u c h c o o l , l o w - d e f i n i t i o n
q u a l i t i e s , w h i c h a l l o w t h e v i e w e r t o f i l l in t h e g a p s w i t h h i s own
p e r s o n a l i d e n t i f i c a t i o n , s i m p l y e l e c t r o c u t e s h i m s e l f on t e l e v i s i o n
- - a s R i c h a r d N i x o n d i d in h i s d i s a s t r o u s d e b a t e s w i t h K e n n e d y
in t h e I960 c a m p a i g n . N i x o n w a s e s s e n t i a l l y h o t ; he p r e s e n t e d
a high d e f i n i t i o n , s h a r p l y - d e f i n e d i m a g e a n d a c t i o n on t h e T V
s c r e e n that contributed to his reputation as a phony--the MTricky
Dicky 1 1 s y n d r o m e t h a t h a s d o g g e d h i s f o o t s t e p s f o r y e a r s . ^
In t h e n e x t c h a p t e r it w i l l be n o t e d t h a t N i x o n f i n a l l y u n d e r s t o o d t h e
m e d i a and changed his image, thus bringing s u c c e s s to his p o l i t i c a l
career.
70
M a r s h a l l McLuhan, ,fA Candid C o n v e r s a t i o n with the High
P r i e s t of P o p c u l t a n d M e t a p h y s i c i a n of M e d i a , 11 P l a y b o y , X V I
( M a r c h , 1969), 61.
68
D i s c u s s i o n on c h a r i s m a h a s p o i n t e d t o t h e l e a d e r s h i p of manypoliticians utilizing the m a s s media.
The m e d i a a r e able to c a u s e an
i n d i v i d u a l ' s d e f e a t if he i s u n a b l e t o m a s t e r t h e m .
Also advantageous
t o t h e p o l i t i c i a n is a w o r k i n g k n o w l e d g e a n d u s e of p s e u d o - e v e n t s ,
u n i q u e m e t h o d s of s p r e a d i n g p o l i t i c a l m e s s a g e s v i a t h e m e d i a .
The
p a r t i c u l a r s of t h e s e e v e n t s a r e d i s c u s s e d b e l o w .
Fseudo-events. - - " F a c t or fantasy, "
i m a g e b e c o m e s the thing.
states Boorstin,
Tf
the
Its v e r y p u r p o s e is to o v e r s h a d o w r e a l i t y .
A m e r i c a n life b e c o m e s a showcase for i m a g e s .
For frozen pseudo-
71
events.
11
P o l i t i c i a n s a r e p r o d u c t s of t h e i r i m a g e s .
B e c a u s e the image
i s a c r e a t i o n of t h e m e s s a g e , t h e y t e n d t o r e m a k e t h e m s e l v e s in t h e
i m a g e o t h e r p e o p l e h a v e of t h e m .
E v e r y politician lives a double life,
o n e t h r o u g h t h e m a s s m e d i a and t h e o t h e r in a p r i v a t e r e a l m .
The two
i m a g e s do n o t a l w a y s c o i n c i d e b e c a u s e a t t i t u d e s on t h e r e c e i v i n g end
vary.
Although television a p p e a r a n c e s , f o r m a l s p e e c h e s , and p r e s s
c o n f e r e n c e s p r o j e c t b r o a d o u t l i n e s of i d e a s , c h a r a c t e r , a n d r e s p o n s i b i l i t y
( e a c h of w h i c h i s v i t a l f o r i m a g e b u i l d i n g ) , t h e s e t t i n g s a r e n e c e s s a r i l y
artificial.
T h e i m a g e s g a i n e d f r o m p r i v a t e c o n f r o n t a t i o n s r e s u l t in
i m p r e s s i o n s t h a t t r a v e l by w o r d of m o u t h , a n d by p o l i t i c a l c o l u m n s
e n d i n g in t h e m i n d s of t h e p u b l i c .
Consequently, the p o l i t i c a l m a n has
f o u n d it a d v a n t a g e o u s t o c r e a t e h i s own e v e n t s o r h a p p e n i n g s .
B o o r s t i n , in h i s book,
Daniel J.
T h e I m a g e : A G u i d e t o F s e u d o - E v e n t s in A m e r i c a ,
d e s c r i b e s how the " p u b l i c i m a g e " i s f o r m e d a n d u s e d t h r o u g h
71
B o o r s t i n , T h e I m a g e , p. 197.
69
,f
pseudo~ events.
H
He d e f i n e s
" p s e u d o - event M a s m e r e l y a f a l s e e v e n t
o r one i n t e n d e d t o b e d e c e i v i n g .
B o o r s t i n b e g i n s w i t h t h e a s s u m p t i o n t h a t A m e r i c a n s a r e l i v i n g in
a w o r l d of u n r e a l i t y ^ o r i l l u s i o n , a n d t h e y o f t e n a c c e p t p s e u d o - e v e n t s in
p l a c e of r e a l e v e n t s , f o r t w o r e a s o n s .
We a r e r u l e d by e x t r a v a g a n t
expectation
(1)
what
w o r l d h o l d s . Of how m u c h n e w s t h e r e i s , how
m a n y h e r o e s t h e r e a r e , how o f t e n m a s t e r p i e c e s a r e m a d e , how
e x o t i c the n e a r b y c a n be, how f a m i l i a r t h e e x o t i c c a n b e c o m e ;
of t h e c l o s e n e s s of p l a c e s a n d t h e f a r n e s s of p l a c e s .
(2) Of o u r p o w e r t o s h a p e t h e w o r l d . Of o u r a b i l i t y t o c r e a t e
events when t h e r e a r e none, to m a k e h e r o e s when they don't
e x i s t , t o be s o m e w h e r e e l s e w h e n we h a v e n ' t l e f t h o m e . Of o u r
a b i l i t y to m a k e a r t f o r m s s u i t o u r c o n v e n i e n c e , t o t r a n s f o r m a
novel into a m o v i e and vice v e r s a , to t u r n a symphony into
m o o d - c o n d i t i o n i n g . To f a b r i c a t e national p u r p o s e s when we
l a c k t h e m , to p u r s u e t h e s e p u r p o s e s a f t e r we have f a b r i c a t e d
t h e m . T o i n v e n t o u r s t a n d a r d s a n d t h e n t o r e s p e c t t h e m a s if
they had been r e v e a l e d or d i s c o v e r e d .
B o u l d i n g and L i p p m a n n b o t h b e l i e v e t h e A m e r i c a n p u b l i c h a s
d e m a n d e d and e x p e c t e d news f r o m the m a s s m e d i a .
T o d a y , b e c a u s e of
t h e o v e r a b u n d a n c e of t h i n g s to l e a r n a n d know ? or^ a s M c L u h a n c a l l s it,
"information overload,
all times.
11
we e x p e c t t o h a v e n e w s a t o u r f i n g e r t i p s a t
This includes the m o s t recent
newspaper.
T h e r a d i o t h e n f i l l s t h e g a p of
"news"
"news"
from the breakfast
since the m o r n i n g
n e w s p a p e r w e n t t o p r e s s , a n d in t h e e v e n i n g w e e x p e c t t o be b r o u g h t
up to t h e h o u r w i t h n a t i o n a l , t h e n s t a t e a n d l o c a l ^ n e w s v i a t e l e v i s i o n
and r a d i o .
O u r m a g a z i n e s and j o u r n a l s m u s t have s o m e
o r d e r to sell.
to
"news11
in
A n d s o r e p o r t e r s , in a l l m e d i a a r e a s h a v e b e e n r e q u i r e d
"make news"
when none was available.
^ I b i d . , pp. 4 - 5 .
70
If he c a n n o t f i n d a s t o r y , t h e n he m u s t m a k e one by t h e q u e s t i o n s
he a s k s of p u b l i c f i g u r e s , by t h e s u r p r i s i n g h u m a n i n t e r e s t he
u n f o l d s f r o m s o m e c o m m o n - p l a c e e v e n t , o r by n t h e n e w s b e h i n d
t h e n e w s . 11 If a l l t h i s f a i l s , t h e n he m u s t g i v e u s a , f t h i n k
p i e c e " - - a n e m b r o i d e r i n g of w e l l - k n o w n f a c t s , o r a s p e c u l a t i o n
about s t a r t l i n g things to c o m e . ^
T h e n e w s i n d i v i d u a l s m a k e , a n d t h e e v e n t s t h e y c r e a t e a r e not
real>for t h e r e is a
made events.
ff
1
' t a n t a l i z i n g d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e n m a n - m a d e a n d God-
B o o r s t i n l i s t s s i x c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s fret a p s e u d o - e v e n t
possesses:
(1)
M
It i s not s p o n t a n e o u s , but c o m e s a b o u t b e c a u s e s o m e o n e
h a s p l a n n e d , p l a n t e d , o r i n c i t e d it.
T y p i c a l l y , it i s n o t a t r a i n w r e c k
'74
o r a n e a r t h q u a k e , but a n i n t e r v i e w .
tf
The d i f f e r e n c e is evident; the
f i r s t two a r e n a t u r a l o r G o d - m a d e p h e n o m e n a .
Typical examples are
the m o d e r n P r e s i d e n t i a l p r e s s c o n f e r e n c e s , n a t i o n a l radio^and TV
p r o g r a m s such as
"Meet the P r e s s 1 '
or
" F a c e the Nation.
M
In e a c h
c a s e t h e p a r t i c i p a n t s a r e s e l e c t e d f o r t h e i r n e w s w o r t h i n e s s and d r a matic interest.
I!
ability.
The events a r e often planned for their d r a m a t i c a l
A t e l e v i s i o n d e b a t e b e t w e e n c a n d i d a t e s c a n be p l a n n e d t o be
m o r e s u s p e n s e f u l ( f o r e x a m p l e , by r e s e r v i n g q u e s t i o n s w h i c h a r e t h e n
popped suddenly) than a c a s u a l encounter or consecutive f o r m a l s p e e c h e s
15
planned s e p a r a t e l y /
(2)
,!
It i s p l a n t e d p r i m a r i l y
(not a l w a y s e x c l u s i v e l y ) f o r t h e
i m m e d i a t e p u r p o s e of b e i n g r e p o r t e d o r r e p r o d u c e d .
Therefore, its
o c c u r r e n c e i s a r r a n g e d f o r t h e c o n v e n i e n c e of t h e r e p o r t i n g o r r e p r o 1&
ducing media. "
7 3
7
The time schedule is a r r a n g e d for the m a s s - m e d i a
I b i d . , pp. 1 - 8 .
^ I b i d . , p. 39.
74
7
I b i d . , p. 11.
^ I b i d . , p. 11.
71
deadlines.
"News r e l e a s e s "
the m o r n i n g
or
"Press conferences"
in o r d e r to be on t h e s t r e e t s in t h e
a r e s c h e d u l e d in
" E v e n i n g S p e c i a l " or on
the H u n t l e y - B r inkle y R e p o r t o r the W a l t e r C r o n k i t e evening news.
Often
the i m a g e m a k e r s a v e s the p r e s s m a t e r i a l until late at night to p r o d u c e
a g r e a t e r i m p a c t the n e x t m o r n i n g .
or triple pseudo- events.
Politicians commonly p r e s e n t duel
They call a p r e s s c o n f e r e n c e to announce a
later p r e s s conference when
"additional news"
a n n o u n c e m e n t s a r e g i v e n out in a d v a n c e
w i l l be d i s t r i b u t e d .
"for future release"
and
w r i t t e n in t h e p a s t t e n s e t o i m p l y t h e e v e n t h a s n o t y e t o c c u r r e d
announcement is made.
Other
when the
" T h e N a t i o n a l P r e s s Club in its W a s h i n g t o n
c l u b r o o m s has a large r a c k which is filled daily with the latest r e l e a s e s ,
so the r e p o r t e r d o e s not even have to visit the o f f i c e s w h i c h give t h e m out. "
(3)
77
" P s e u d o - e v e n t s c a n be r e p e a t e d at will, and t h u s t h e i r i m p r e s 78
s i o n c a n be r e - e n f o r c e d . "
Eisenhower*s favorable public image
gained
i m p o r t a n c e b e c a u s e of J a m e s H a g e r t y , h i s W h i t e H o u s e p r e s s s e c r e t a r y .
Twice a day H a g e r t y held an i n f o r m a l p r e s s c o n f e r e n c e and p r o d u c e d a
s t e a d y f l o w of " n e w s . "
H e w a s a l s o a d e p t a t t i m i n g t h e r e l e a s e of b i g
and f a v o r a b l e s t o r i e s to blanket u n f a v o r a b l e n e w s .
When the P r e s i d e n t
took prolonged vacation t r i p s to Augusta or Gettysberg, Hagerty took along
p r e - p r e p a r e d executive orders,
a p p o i n t m e n t s , and r e p o r t s w h i c h he
79
i s s u e d c a r e f u l l y on a d a y - t o - d a y b a s i s t o
r e m a r k e d on t h i s p r a c t i c e .
77
79
I b i d . , p . 19.
make news.
Douglas Cater
" H a g e r t y h a s m a d e of p u b l i c r e l a t i o n s , a n
78
I b i d . , p . 39.
W a l t e r J o h n s o n , 1600 P e n n s y l v a n i a A v e n u e
( B o s t o n , I 9 6 0 ) , p. 3 2 2 .
72
end in itself r a t h e r than a m e a n s to an end. . . . F o r p r o l o n g e d p e r i o d s ,
he h a s a t t r a c t e d p u b l i c a t t e n t i o n a w a y f r o m c o m p e l l i n g p r o b l e m s of
l e a d e r s h i p w i t h a s u c c e s s i o n of m a k e s h i f t a n d i n c o n s e q u e n t i a l d i v e r s i o n s .
(4)
11 80
" P s e u d o - e v e n t s , being planned for intelligibility, a r e m o r e
81
intelligible and hence m o r e r e a s s u r i n g .
n
M e r e l y the i n f o r m a t i o n r e c e i v e d
f r o m t h e m e d i a g i v e s t h e r e c e i v e r a s e n s e of i n t e l l i g e n c e .
Although the
p u b l i c i s o f t e n i n c a p a b l e of j u d g i n g i n t e l l i g e n t l y t h e m a j o r i s s u e s of a
c a m p a i g n , t h e y a r e a l l o w e d t o a t l e a s t j u d g e t h e e f f e c t i v e n e s s of a T V
performance.
(5)
"Pseudo-events a r e m o r e sociable,
m o r e convenient to witness.
m o r e c o n v e r s a b l e , and
Their o c c u r r e n c e is planned for our con-
82
venience.
M
T h e t h i c k S u n d a y n e w s p a p e r c o m e s on a l a z y m o r n i n g ;
TV e n t e r t a i n m e n t p r o g r a m s a r e s c h e d u l e d to a p p e a r a f t e r the d i n n e r
hour for f u r t h e r enjoyment.
(6)
,f
F i n a l l y , p s e u d o - e v e n t s s p a w n o t h e r p s e u d o - e v e n t s in
geometric progression.
They dominate our consciousness' simply because
83
t h e r e a r e m o r e of t h e m . "
T h e g e n e r a l public has b e c o m e s o a c c u s t o m e d to the w o r l d of
p s e u d o - e v e n t s that a public s p e a k e r ' s d e v i a t i o n f r o m the a d v a n c e t e x t of a
speech can
"make news"
and c r e a t e a d d i t i o n a l p s e u d o - e v e n t s .
President
J o h n s o n ' s f a m o u s l a s t w o r d s on M a r c h .31, 1968, c a u s e d s u c h a s t i r :
s h a l l not s e e k and I w i l l not a c c e p t , t h e n o m i n a t i o n of m y
80
D o u g l a s C a r t e r , T h e F o r t h B r a n c h of G o v e r n m e n t ( B o s t o n ,
1959), pp. 163-164.
81
B o o r s t i n , T h e I m a g e , p. 39.
82
I b i d . , p. 40.
83
Ibid.,
"I
73
party for another t e r m as your P r e s i d e n t . "
F r o m the c l o s i n g w o r d s ,
t o t h e a d - l i b p e r i o d by n e w s c o m m e n t a t o r s , t o t h e d a y s of q u e s t i o n s a n d
a n s w e r s , one p s e u d o - e v e n t c a l l e d f o r a n d r e q u i r e d a n o t h e r .
S u c c e s s f u l p o l i t i c i a n s in t h e p a s t f e w y e a r s h a v e u s e d m a n y
p s e u d o - e v e n t s to c r e a t e a d e s i r e d
" p u b l i c i m a g e . " A t t h e h e i g h t of
t h e C u b a n c r i s i s in 1962 P r e s i d e n t K e n n e d y p l a c e d S e c r e t a r y of
Defense Robert M c N a m a r a before a nationwide television audience for
a p r o g r a m devoted to the R u s s i a n - b u i l t m i s s i l e s i t e s .
designed to c r e a t e m o r e than
"news;"
The p r o g r a m was
it w a s an o f f i c i a l e x p l a n a t i o n ,
a n d i t o f f e r e d a w o r d of r e a s s u r a n c e to a t r o u b l e d n a t i o n .
A l s o i n 1962
s e v e r a l A m e r i c a n n e w s m e n in B e r l i n , t o g a t h e r i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m
r e f u g e e s a b o u t c o n d i t i o n s in E a s t G e r m a n y , m a d e c o n t a c t w i t h y o u n g
m e n who w e r e d i g g i n g a t u n n e l u n d e r t h e d i v i d i n g w a l l .
The n e w s m e n
f i n a n c e d and p h o t o g r a p h e d m a n y a s p e c t s of t h e i r w o r k , i n c l u d i n g t h e
actual digging.
After returning
t o A m e r i c a the t e a m a d d e d a s o u n d
84
t r a c k and p r o d u c e d a v e r y factual " n e w s "
program.
P e r h a p s one of t h e b e s t e x a m p l e s of a
"public i m a g e "
created
f r o m a s e r i e s of p s e u d o - e v e n t s t o o k p l a c e at t h e U n i v e r s i t y of C a l i f o r n i a
in F e b r u a r y , 1964, w h e n P r e s i d e n t J o h n s o n s t a g e d t h e f i r s t e v e n t i n
his long d r i v e to c r e a t e
a n A m e r i c a n " p u b l i c i m a g e " on V i e t n a m .
. . .
[it is] f i r s t a n d f o r e m o s t a c o n t e s t t o b e w o n by t h e g o v e r n m e n t a n d t h e p e o p l e of t h a t c o u n t r y f o r t h e m s e l v e s . . . .
but
t h o s e e n g a g e d i n e x t e r n a l d i r e c t i o n and s u p p l y s h o u l d do w e l l
t o be r e m i n d e d a n d t o r e m e m b e r t h a t t h i s t y p e of a g g r e s s i o n i s
a deeply dangerous game.
84
G e o r g e R. K e r n o d l e , I n v i t a t i o n t o t h e T h e a t r e (New Y o r k ,
1967), p. 590.
85
P h i l i p G e y e l i n , L y n d o n B. J o h n s o n and t h e W o r l d (New Y o r k ,
1966), p. 188.
74
T o i n f o r m u n a w a r e n e w s m e n of the m e a n i n g , he s e n t W h i t e H o u s e
Press Secretary
P i e r r e Salinger
on t h e p h r a s e and i t s m e a n i n g .
around the p r e s s r o o m to e l a b o r a t e
Salinger advised the speech m e a n t the
U n i t e d S t a t e s m i g h t f e e l c o m p e l l e d to e x p a n d t h e w a r t o N o r t h V i e t n a m ^
or even China,to fulfill its c o m m i t m e n t s .
S o m e i n t e r p r e t e d t h e m e s s a g e t o be i n t e n d e d f o r H a n o i , but
J o h n s o n achieved his p u r p o s e .
To an e s t i m a t e d s e v e n t y - f i v e p e r cent
of t h e A m e r i c a n p u b l i c , who w e r e u n a w a r e t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s w a s
m i l i t a r i l y i n v o l v e d in S o u t h e a s t A s i a , t h e p r e s s p u b l i c i t y a c c o m p l i s h e d
the d e s i r e d b a c k l a s h and set the stage for the second p s e u d o - e v e n t .
T h i s w a s a n e w s c o n f e r e n c e by D e a n R u s k , c a l l e d t o p l a y d o w n a n y f e a r
o r s p e c u l a t i o n on t h e p a r t of t h e p u b l i c t h a t t h e U n i t e d S t a t e s m i g h t
86
,!
go N o r t h .
11
Next, the P r e s i d e n t himself announced that the
c o n c l u s i o n w a s a n e x t r e m e m i s i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of h i s t e x t .
F o r t h e n e x t f e w m o n t h s the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n c o n t i n u e d t o p l a y
t h i s g a m e , k e e p i n g t h e i n f o r m a t i o n b e f o r e t h e p u b l i c w i t h the h e l p of
the m a s s media*
F i n a l l y , t h e f a c t s w e r e d r i v e n h o m e , and a p u b l i c
i m a g e began to f o r m u l a t e .
The a l e r t politician employs p s e u d o - e v e n t s to c r e a t e the d e s i r e d
i m a g e by p l a y i n g on t h e a t t i t u d e s of t h e v o t e r .
The
d e s i g n is r e l a t e d
t o t h e v o t e r 1 s v i e w of h i m s e l f , h i s s o c i e t y , t h e p o l i t i c a l a n d p a r t y
s y s t e m , and the politician.
Occasionally, the e v e n t s a r e a i m e d at
s p e c i a l i n d i v i d u a l s o r v a r i o u s g r o u p s , but m o r e o f t e n t o w a r d t h e
general public.
T h e y r e f l e c t c o n d i t i o n s t h a t p r e v a i l e d in t h e p a s t , w i t h
e x p e c t a t i o n s of t h e f u t u r e .
86
Ibid.
75
P s e u d o - e v e n t s a r e o f t e n e m p l o y e d in i m a g e f o r m a t i o n , a n d
contain six c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s .
T h e y a r e not s p o n t a n e o u s ; n o r a r e t h e y
p l a n n e d f o r t h e p u r p o s e of b e i n g r e p o r t e d o r r e p r o d u c e d .
They are
r e p e a t e d a t will,, r e a s s u r i n g , m o r e c o n v e n i e n t t o w i t n e s s , a n d f i n a l l y ,
t h e y a r e c a p a b l e of s p a w n i n g o t h e r p s e u d o - e v e n t s .
T h e p u r p o s e of t h i s c h a p t e r h a s b e e n t o d e v e l o p a t h e o r e t i c a l
v i e w p o i n t of
n
the image"
a n d i t s r o l e in p o l i t i c s .
e n t i r e l y t o t h e i n d i v i d u a l v o t e r and b e c o m e s
shared.
The concept is dependent
The image belongs
"public11
only a f t e r it is
u p o n t h e t o t a l p r o c e s s of p e r c e p t i o n ,
c o g n i t i o n , i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , r e a c t i o n , and a t t i t u d e - a t t i t u d e c h a n g e .
T h e i m a g e t h e o r y w a s d e v e l o p e d by t h r e e m e n .
i n t e r p r e t e d it a s t h e p i c t u r e o r
"stereotype1*
Walter Lippmann
in the p e r c e i v e r ' s m i n d ,
w h i l e K e n n e t h E . B o u l d i n g s e e s it a s an i n d i v i d u a l s s u b j e c t i v e k n o w ledge that governs his behavior.
To Daniel J. B o o r s t i n the i m a g e has
f i v e c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s : it i s s y n t h e t i c , b e l i e v a b l e , p a s s i v e , v i v i d a n d
c o n c r e t e , and s i m p l i f i e d .
B e c a u s e of a t t i t u d e s , t h e i m a g e in t h e p o l i t i c a l s p h e r e i s a
d e t e r m i n e r of i n d i v i d u a l a n d p u b l i c v o t i n g b e h a v i o r .
H o w e v e r , it i s
c o n s t a n t l y c h a n g i n g , a n d i s d e p e n d e n t u p o n t h e d i m e n s i o n s of t i m e a n d
space.
A l t h o u g h it u s e s a l l f o r m s of m a s s m e d i a , it is c r y s t a l l i z e d b y
t h e e l e c t r o n i c m e d i u m of t e l e v i s i o n .
T h e n e w m e d i u m h a s a l t e r e d t h e p o l i t i c a l i m a g e , and i s u s h e r i n g
in t h e " N e w P o l i t i c s , " c h a r a c t e r i z e d by i n s t a n t a n e o u s m a s s p a r t i c i p a t i o n .
The p e r s o n a l i t y i m p a c t is intensified, and the c h a r i s m a t i c l e a d e r is
c o m m o n , a l t h o u g h t h e " c o o l " m e d i u m f i n a l l y d e s t r o y s h i m j u s t a s it
76
helped to c r e a t e him.
P s e u d o o r f a l s e events a r e u s e f u l tools^and a r e
e m p l o y e d in t h e f o r m a t i o n and c o n t i n u a t i o n of t h e i m a g e - m a k i n g p r o c e s s ,
The following c h a p t e r will apply this t h e o r e t i c a l c o n s t r u c t to
t h e i m a g e of G e o r g e W a l l a c e in t h e 1968 p r e s i d e n t i a l c a m p a i g n .
C H A P T E R III
T H E " I M A G E S 1 1 A N D G E O R G E W A L L A C E IN 1968
T h e i m a g e of G e o r g e W a l l a c e , i t s c o n c e p t i o n , f o r m a t i o n , i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , and influence,will be viewed f r o m t h r e e p e r s p e c t i v e s — the
ideological, p e r sonal, and technical d i m e n s i o n s .
Following a brief
s u m m a r y of t h e c a m p a i g n t a c t i c s a n d s e q u e n c e of e v e n t s , t h i s s t u d y , i n
t h e f i r s t p l a c e , w i l l d i s c u s s t h e n a t u r e of W a l l a c e ' s i d e o l o g i c a l p o s i t i o n s a n d t h e e f f e c t of t h e s e p o s i t i o n s o n t h e v o t e r .
Secondly, the p e r -
s o n a l i m a g e of W a l l a c e a n d i t s p l a c e in t i m e w i l l b e e x a m i n e d .
Finally,
a t e c h n i c a l d i s c u s s i o n i l l u s t r a t i n g h i s f a i l u r e in u t i l i z i n g t h e m a s s m e d i a
will conclude the c h a p t e r .
The W a l l a c e o r g a n i z a t i o n h a d a b l u e p r i n t d e s i g n e d for a v i c t o r y
in 1 9 6 8 ,
S e v e r a l p l a n s w e r e s t r u c t u r e d , w h i c h d e t e r m i n e d the p a t t e r n
a n d g r o w t h of h i s p a r t y a n d c a m p a i g n , a n d t h r o u g h o u t t h e e l e c t i o n y e a r
n e w a s s e s s m e n t s w e r e m a d e to d e t e r m i n e if r e v i s e d p l a n s of s t r a t e g y
n e e d e d to be i m p l e m e n t e d .
His c o m m u n i c a t i o n s i m p l a n t e d a p p r o p r i a t e
i m a g e s i n t o t h e m i n d s of h i s f o l l o w e r s , b u t a s t i m e p r o g r e s s e d t h e s e
impressions vacillated considerably.
The Wallace Campaign
T h e d r e a m of b e c o m i n g P r e s i d e n t h a d b e e n i n W a l l a c e ' s m i n d
f o r y e a r s , a n d t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of its b e c o m i n g r e a l i t y w a s a p p a r e n t f o l l o w i n g h i s s t r o n g r u n n i n g in t h e 1964 p r i m a r i e s .
tion a s the " S o u t h e r n l e a d e r . 1 '
This established his posi-
On F e b r u a r y 8, 1 9 6 8 , a t a p r e s s
78
c o n f e r e n c e in W a s h i n g t o n , D . C . , h e f o r m a l l y a n n o u n c e d his c a n d i d a c y
a s t h e n o m i n e e of t h e A m e r i c a n I n d e p e n d e n t P a r t y .
The t h i r d - p a r t y
m o v e m e n t h a d b e g u n i n 1 9 6 6 , a n d b y t h e s u m m e r of 1968 w a s e s t a b l i s h e d
i n a l l f i f t y s t a t e s of t h e U n i o n ,
This e n o r m o u s and virtually impossible
t a s k ( b e c a u s e t h e e l e c t i o n l a w s a n d r e q u i r e m e n t s of e a c h s t a t e d i f f e r e d )
p r o v e d to the n a t i o n t h a t W a l l a c e a n d h i s g r o u p h a d the r e s o u r c e s ,
talent,
s k i l l , a n d e n e r g y t o w i t h s t a n d t h e p r e s s u r e s of a s t r o n g t w o - p a r t y
system.
The plan for his campaign centered around four p r i m a r y points:
(1) p l a c e W a l l a c e a n d h i s p a r t y o n t h e b a l l o t in a l l f i f t y s t a t e s ; (2) c a p t u r e t h e 270 e l e c t o r a l v o t e s n e c e s s a r y f o r e l e c t i o n ; (3) c a p t u r e t h e s i z able
ll
b l a c k l a s h " ' vote f r o m w h i t e s in the N o r t h , e s p e c i a l l y t h o s e a r e a s
t o r n b y r a c i a l v i o l e n c e , a n d (4) c r e a t e c o n s i d e r a b l e s t u m p i n g o u t s i d e t h e
South and a s m u c h n a t i o n - w i d e t e l e v i s i o n e x p o s u r e a s funds would p e r m i t . * By N o v e m b e r 5 a l l but the s e c o n d and t h i r d s t a g e s h a d b e e n
a c c o m p l i s h e d , a n d a f i r m f o u n d a t i o n f o r f u t u r e politicking had b e e n e s t a b lished.
The m o v e m e n t s h r u g g e d off c l a i m s a b o u t t h i r d - p a r t y c a n d i d a t e s
never being elected president,and contended
the
organization would be
b u i l t a c r o s s the c o u n t r y to a t t r a c t d i s s i d e n t s f r o m b o t h D e m o c r a t i c a n d
R e p u b l i c a n r a n k s , a n d would be a p o w e r f u l p o l i t i c a l f o r c e not only in
1968 b u t a l s o in the f u t u r e .
2
In e a r l y 1968 W a l l a c e d i s c u s s e d t h e i s s u e s of the c a m p a i g n w i t h
James Jackson Kilpatrick.
* n A N e w L o o k a t W a l l a c e - - W h a t He M a y D o t o t h e E l e c t i o n ,
U. 8 . N e w s , L X I V ( J a n u a r y 2 9 , 1 9 6 8 ) , 5 6 - 5 7 .
2
i b i d . , p. 57.
tf
*
79
W h a t a r e t h e i s s u e s g o i n g to b e i n 1 9 6 8 ? . . . S c h o o l s ,
t h a t ' l l b e o n e t h i n g . B y t h e f a l l of 1 9 6 8 , t h e p e o p l e of C l e v e l a n d a n d C h i c a g o and G a r y a n d St. L o u i s w i l l b e so g o d - d a m n e d
s i c k a n d t i r e d of F e d e r a l i n t e r f e r e n c e i n t h e i r l o c a l s c h o o l s ,
t h e y ' l l b e r e a d y to vote f o r W a l l a c e b y t h e t h o u s a n d s . The
p e o p l e don't like this t r i f l i n ' with their c h i l d r e n , tellin' ' e m
w h i c h t e a c h e r s t o h a v e to t e a c h i n w h i c h s c h o o l s , a n d b u s s i n g
l i t t l e b o y s a n d g i r l s half a c r o s s a c i t y j u s t to a c h i e v e " t h e p r o p e r
r a c i a l m i x . " . . . I'll give you a n o t h e r big one f o r 1968: l a w
a n d o r d e r . C r i m e in t h e s t r e e t s . T h e peo.ple a r e g o i n g to b e
f e d u p w i t h t h e s i s s y a t t i t u d e of L y n d o n J o h n s o n a n d a l l t h e i n t e l lectual m o r o n s and t h e o r e t i c i a n s he h a s around h i m . T h e y ' r e
f e d up w i t h a S u p r e m e C o u r t t h a t . . . i t ' s a s o r r y , l o u s y , n o account outfit. . . . Housing? Sure, that'll be an i s s u e . . .
a n y t i m e t h e F e d e r a l g o v e r n m e n t l a y s d o w n the l a w f o r p e o p l e
. . . fixing the t e r m s and conditions on which they c a n s e l l t h e i r
own h o m e s . . . » Folks w o n ' t stand f o r it. And t h e r e ' s nothing
a b o u t t h e s a l e of p r i v a t e h o u s i n g i n t h e C o n s t i t u t i o n e i t h e r . . „ .
V i e t n a m ? Y e a h . . . w e l l , I t h i n k w e ' v e g o t to p o u r i t o n . W e ' v e
got to win t h i s w a r . . . 3
T h e e a r l y d r a m a t i c w e e k s of A p r i l a l l o w e d t h e f i r s t h a l f of t h e
c a m p a i g n t o b e f o u g h t on W a l l a c e ' s c h o s e n g r o u n d .
President Johnson's
w i t h d r a w a l , t h e a s s a s s i n a t i o n of D r . K i n g , t h e r i o t s , a n d e v e n t h e f i r s t
f a i n t p r o s p e c t s of n e g o t i a t i o n s i n V i e t n a m i n c r e a s e d h i s a p p e a l t o m i l l i o n s of v o t e r s .
T h e t h e m e of t h e t i m e s b e c a m e h i s t h e m e : l a w a n d
4
order.
In c r i s i s h e f e l t t h a t A m e r i c a n s h a d a t t e m p t e d t o h o l d o n t o
s o m e c o h e s i v e i m a g e of t h e i r l a n d .
H i s p l e d g e , e s p e c i a l l y to the h a r d -
w o r k i n g , t a x - p a y i n g , m i d d l e - c l a s s m a j o r i t y w a s " t o give the a v e r a g e
m a n o n the s t r e e t a c h a n c e t o r e g a i n a v o i c e i n g o v e r n m e n t .
Wallace decided
e a r l y i n t h e c a m p a i g n t o go t o t h e p u b l i c in
o r d e r t o b u i l d a f a v o r a b l e n a t i o n a l i m a g e a n d f o r g e a n e w c o a l i t i o n of
3
Q u o t e d b y T h e o d o r e H. W h i t e , T h e M a k i n g of t h e P r e s i d e n t - 1968 (New Y o r k , 1969), p . 3 4 6 .
~
/ 4
L e w i s C h e s t e r , G o d f r e y H o d g s o n a n d B r u c e P a g e , An A m e r i c a n M e l o d r a m a : T h e P r e s i d e n t i a l C a m p a i g n of 1 9 6 8 ( N e w Y o r k j 1 9 6 9 ) ,
p p . 262 a n d 2&9.
~
5
" A New Look at W a l l a c e , " p. 57.
80
the d i s c o n t e n t e d and disaffected*
S i n c e h e d i d n o t h a v e f u n d s t o m a t c h those of
o t h e r c o n t e n d e r s using m a s s m e d i a , h i s e x p o s u r e to the public w a s via
a p p e a r a n c e s and s p e e c h e s .
He e n j o y e d t h i s t y p e c a m p a i g n i n g b e c a u s e
he was gregarious, and easily i d e n t i f i e d 1 ' with
n
the c o m m o n folks.11
In
f a c e - t o - f a c e e n c o u n t e r s h e c o m m u n i c a t e d s i m p l e s o l u t i o n s to c o n t e m p o r a r y p r o b l e m s , and 'ibIks" r e s p o n d e d e n t h u s i a s t i c a l l y a t the d i s m a y of
his rivals.
His m e s s a g e s c o n v e y e d f a v o r a b l e i m p r e s s i o n s to h i s f o l -
l o w e r Sj w h o w e l c o m e d t h e m .
M i n o r m o d i f i c a t i o n s of t h e i n d i v i d u a l
v o t e r ' s knowledge s t r u c t u r e took p l a c e , and the m e s s a g e s stablized
the d e s i r e d i m a g e .
A l t h o u g h the m o v e m e n t ' s p o p u l a r i t y in A p r i l s h o w e d a H a r r i s
p o l l r a t i n g of 12 p e r c e n t , i t w a s s t i l l r e g a r d e d a s a c o m i c s i d e - s h o w
t h r o u g h o u t t h e s p r i n g of 1 9 6 8 .
The a s s a s s i n a t i o n of R o b e r t K e n n e d y
b r o u g h t a j u m p t o 14 p e r c e n t , a n d b y t h e e n d of t h e v i o l e n t C h i c a g o c o n v e n t i o n W a l l a c e w a s p o l l i n g 18 p e r c e n t .
T h e u p s w i n g c o n t i n u e d t o 21
p e r c e n t i n m i d - S e p t e m b e r , a n d e x p e c t a t i o n s w e r e s e t a t 30 p e r c e n t b y
e l e c t i o n day, if t h e t r e n d c o n t i n u e d .
This would m e a n political disaster,
b e c a u s e no p r e s i d e n t i a l candidate would have an E l e c t o r a l College
.
.f 6
majority.
Wallace w a s elated and delighted in telling his a u d i e n c e s ,
c a n d i d a c y r e m i n d s m e of t h e o l d j o k e t h a t b e g i n s ,
I s a t down to p l a y . . .
1
n
My
'They laughed when
Well, neither M r . Nixon nor M r . H u m p h r e y
7
a r e laughing much a n y m o r e .
f!
By this time he had e s t a b l i s h e d a
6
1/ 1 9 6 8 ,
11
A r c h i b a l d M. C r o s s l e y and Helen M. C r o s s l e y , " P o l l i n g in
P u b l i c O p i n i o n Q u a r t e r l y ( S p r i n g 1969), p p . 1 2 - 1 3 .
7
Fort Worth Star-Tele gram,
O c t o b e r 20,
1968, p. 6 A .
81
d e f i n i t e i m a g e of a s t r o n g t h i r d - p a r t y c o n t e n d e r , a n d f e w p e o p l e ,
especially politicians, w e r e laughing.
In r e f e r r i n g t o t h e h i g h s t a n d i n g i n t h e p o l l s , he b e l i e v e d h e w a s
not only
"telling the people what they wanted to h e a r ,
representing
" t h e m a i n s t r e a m of A m e r i c a n t h o u g h t . "
11
but w a s a l s o
He r e i n f o r c e d
the i m a g e by s a y i n g :
• . . t h e r e a r e m o r e of u s l i t t l e f o l k s w i t h r i g h t i n s t i n c t s a n d
c o m m o n s e n s e . . . t h a n t h e r e a r e of t h e l e f t w i n g t h e o r e t i c i a n s ,
briefcase-totin1 bureaucrats, ivory-tower guideline w r i t e r s ,
b e a r d e d a n a r c h i s t s , s m a r t - a l e c e d i t o r i a l w r i t e r s and pointy- g
headed p r o f e s s o r s who c a n ' t even p a r k t h e i r b i c y c l e s s t r a i g h t .
The optimism was shortlived.
A f t e r the f i r s t w e e k in O c t o b e r , the
m o v e m e n t was declining to defeat.
F a c t o r s contributing to the
d e c l i n e a n d d e f e a t a r e d i s c u s s e d t h r o u g h o u t t h e r e m a i n d e r of t h i s
chapter.
Ideological Dimension
The Issues
B a s i c to all o r g a n i z a t i o n is an ideological foundation which
s e r v e s a s a j u s t i f i c a t i o n f o r s u b s e q u e n t a c t i o n s , a n e x p l a n a t i o n of t h e
results,
and a b a s i s for m a k i n g o r g a n i z a t i o n a l d e c i s i o n s .
Accordingly,
W a l l a c e ' s c a m p a i g n o r g a n i z a t i o n had an ideological s t r u c t u r e .
in e x a m i n i n g t h i s p h i l o s o p h y and s u b s e q u e n t i m a g e s ,
p l a c e d on an i m a g i n a r y p o l i t i c a l c o n t i n u u m .
s t o o d j u s t t o t h e r i g h t of t h e p o l i t i c a l c e n t e r ,
extremist,
s t o o d a good d i s t a n c e f a r t h e r to the r i g h t .
^Ibid.
all c a n d i d a t e s c a n be
Generally, pollsters placed
H u b e r t H u m p h r e y , t h e l i b e r a l , t o t h e l e f t of c e n t e r .
erate,
For ease
Nixon, the m o d and W a l l a c e , t h e
These positions
82
f l u c t u a t e d d u r i n g t h e c a m p a i g n a c c o r d i n g t o t h e p e r c e p t i o n of t h e
i n d i v i d u a l v o t e r at t h e t i m e , h o w e v e r , a f t e r t h e c l o s e of t h e c a m p a i g n
c a n d i d a t e s c o u l d o n c e a g a i n be p l a c e d in t h a t g e n e r a l o r d e r .
During the c a m p a i g n Wallace1 s e n t i r e p l a t f o r m was a r r a n g e d into
v
a compact oration tagged
Civil Rights Act,
n
T h e Speech,
n
which included Vietnam, the
W a t t s r i o t i n g , t h e U. N. , a n d S t o k e l y C a r m i c h a e l .
The
s p e e c h had no continuity o t h e r than W a l l a c e ' s e n t h u s i a s m f o r c o m m u n i c a t i n g it.
T h e s p e e c h did r e v e a l t h e c o n s e r v a t i v e a t t i t u d e s he w a s
s t r e s s i n g a n d f e l l in l i n e w i t h h i s p o s i t i o n on t h e p o l i t i c a l c o n t i n u u m .
H i s b i g g e s t a t t r a c t i o n w a s t h e s t a n d on
M
law a n d o r d e r ,
n
a n d in r e g a r d >
t o t h i s he s t a t e d :
W e ' v e got t o c h a n g e s o m e of t h e d e c i s i o n s of t h e c o u r t s t h a t
h a v e h a n d c u f f e d t h e p o l i c e a n d a l l l a w e n f o r c e m e n t in o u r
c o u n t r y . W e ' v e got t o m a k e it p o s s i b l e t o p u t a c r i m i n a l b e h i n d
the b a r s . I don't m e a n that we m u s t c r e a t e a n a t i o n a l p o l i c e
f o r c e - - I ' m against that. . . .
A s P r e s i d e n t I would stand with the p o l i c e . And when
the s t a t e s called upon the G o v e r n m e n t f o r help, . . . I would
r e s p o n d with s u f f i c i e n t t r o o p s to q u e l l any d o m e s t i c d i s o r d e r
a n d t o m a k e it s a f e t o w a l k t h e s t r e e t s of o u r c i t i e s . 9
In w i d e n i n g t h e g a p b e t w e e n t h e o t h e r t w o c o n t e n d e r s a n d h i m s e l f he s a i d :
W h e n b o t h n a t i o n a l p o l i t i c a l p a r t i e s s a y w e ' v e got t o r e m o v e t h e
c a u s e of r i o t i n g , l o o t i n g , a n d b u r n i n g , t h e y ' r e s a y i n g t h a t t h e s e
a n a r c h i s t s h a v e a c a u s e . T h i s c a u s e i s n o n s e n s e . If p o l i c e r a n
t h i n g s f o r t w o y e a r s w e ' d g e t t h e s e p r o b l e m s s t r a i g h t e n e d out. 10
In c o n t r a s t t o W a l l a c e ' s s t a n d , N i x o n p r o m i s e d t o e s t a b l i s h a
c a b i n e t - l e v e l c o u n c i l t o c o o r d i n a t e F e d e r a l p o l i c y on c r i m e , u s e w i r e tapping, and i n c r e a s e police educational p r o g r a m s .
Humphrey
^ " G e o r g e W a l l a c e T e l l s H i s P l a n s , " U . S . N e w s , LXIV ( J u n e
17, 1968), 59.
^ J a m e s H. M c B a t h a n d W a l t e r R. F i s h e r , " P e r s u a s i o n in
P r e s i d e n t i a l Campaign Communication,
T h e Q u a r t e r l y J o u r n a l of
S p e e c h , LX ( F e b r u a r y , 1969), 21.
83
d e f e n d e d S u p r e m e C o u r t d e c i s i o n s , p r o p o s e d m o r e F e d e r a l aid to c o u r t s ,
and u r g e d l a w e n f o r c e m e n t a g e n t s t o " . . . u s e m i n i m u m f o r c e . . . .
m a k e a r r e s t s r a p i d l y a n d in s u f f i c i e n t n u m b e r t o s t e m t h e t i d e of v i o lence. . . . r a t h e r than shooting.
On V i e t n a m W a l l a c e ' s p o s i t i o n w a s e q u a l l y a s s i m p l e a n d c o n servative.
I [Wallace] f e e l t h a t t h e r e a r e d i p l o m a t i c and p o l i t i c a l c o n s i d e r a t i o n s i n v o l v e d i n S o u t h e a s t A s i a , but I t h i n k t h e o v e r - r i d i n g o n e
i s t h a t of t h e m i l i t a r y . In m y j u d g m e n t t h e r e c a n be a m i l i t a r y
c o n c l u s i o n i n V i e t n a m . . . . If the p e a c e t a l k s f a i l , w e o u g h t t o
l e a n o n t h e J o i n t C h i e f s of S t a f f a n d w i n t h i s w a r m i l i t a r i l y . A n d
w e o u g h t t o t e l l o u r a l l i e s , " y o u ' v e got t o h e l p u s if you u s e o u r
m o n e y a n d o u r n u c l e a r s h i e l d , and if you d o n ' t h e l p u s you w i l l
h a v e t o p a y b a c k wji^t you owe u s , a n d w e ' v e g o i n g t o c u t off
f o r e i g n aid to you.
N i x o n , on t h e o t h e r h a n d , f a v o r e d a b o m b i n g h a l t i n N o r t h V i e t n a m if A m e r i c a n l i v e s w e r e not e n d a n g e r e d , d e - A m e r i c a n i z a t i o n of t h e
w a r , a n d a r o l e in p o s t w a r S a i g o n g o v e r n m e n t f o r " a n y i n d i v i d u a l " w h o
r e j e c t e d t h e u s e of f o r c e .
H u m p h r e y s t a t e d he w o u l d s t o p t h e b o m b i n g
of N o r t h V i e t n a m if H a n o i g a v e o p t i m i s t i c s i g n s .
He a l s o c a l l e d f o r a
g r a d u a l w i t h d r a w a l of A m e r i c a n t r o o p s a n d f r e e e l e c t i o n s i n S o u t h
Vietnam. ^
On s l e e p e r i s s u e s s u c h a s a r m s c o n t r o l , W a l l a c e a d v o c a t e d
waiting
"a while"
on r a t i f i c a t i o n of t h e n o n p r o l i f e r a t i o n t r e a t y but s p e e d -
i n g u p c o n s t r u c t i o n of a n t i - b a l l i s t i c m i s s i l e
(ABM)
installations.
On
^ T h e S u n d a y O k l a h o m a n , N o v e m b e r 3, 1968, S e c . A, p. 29.
v
12
Michael D e F o r r e s t , editor, George Wallace: A Rebel and His
(New Y o r k , 1968), p p . 2 8 - 2 9 .
13
" H o w t h e C a n d i d a t e s D i f f e r on I s s u e s , " N e w s w e e k , L X X I
( N o v e m b e r 4, 1968), 37.
Cause
f
84
this issue Humphrey1 s s e n t i m e n t s w e r e a l m o s t identical, while Nixon
14
urged p r o m p t ratification and limited ABM deployment.
Wallace
o r a t e d l i t t l e on s u c h c o m p l e x a n d d e t a i l e d m a t t e r s a s t a x e s , f i s c a l p o l i c y , f o r e i g n t r a d e , o r e c o n o m i c q u e s t i o n s in g e n e r a l .
Where both Hum-
p h r e y a n d N i x o n h a d a b a t t e r y of e c o n o m i c a d v i s e r s , h e s t o o d a l o n e .
He
f e l t p o l i t i c i a n s in t h e p a s t h a d c o m p l i c a t e d s o l u t i o n s to s i m p l e p r o b l e m s ,
s o h e d e s i r e d to p o r t r a y t h e i m a g e of at m a n w h o h a d " s i m p l e s o l u t i o n s
f o r e v e r y s i t u a t i o n , " a n d t h e s e s e e m e d g u a r a n t e e d to e l i m i n a t e o r m i n i m i z e the p r o b l e m s .
His p o s i t i o n on t a x e s w a s s i m p l e .
They w e r e too high.
Tax
exemptions should be r e v o k e d for n o n - p r o f i t foundations, and tax i n c e n t i v e s f o r i n d u s t r y b u i l d i n g in r u r a l a r e a s s h o u l d be i n v o k e d .
He a l s o
b e l i e v e d the p o v e r t y p r o g r a m h a d put too m u c h e m p h a s i s on i n t e g r a t i o n
a n d s h o u l d b e a b o l i s h e d , w i t h the m o n e y s p e n t i n s t e a d on t r a d e s c h o o l s .
" T h e f r e e e n t e r p r i s e s y s t e m h a d a l l e v i a t e d m o r e p o v e r t y than a l l the
15
federal p r o g r a m s combined.11
T h i s a p p r o a c h to " s i m p l e s o l u t i o n s 1 '
s o o n p r o m p t e d a n u m b e r of v o t e r s t o a c c e p t t h e m a n a n d h i s i d e o l o g i c a l
ima ge.
A l t h o u g h G e o r g e W a l l a c e c a m p a i g n e d u n d e r t h e b a n n e r of a " l a w
a n d o r d e r " c o n s e r v a t i v e , the r e a l i s s u e that c a u s e d his i m a g e and p o p u l a r i t y to s k y r o c k e t w a s " f o r c e d i n t e g r a t i o n . "
cians and c o m m e n t a t o r s by s u r p r i s e .
This caught m o s t politi-
The t h i r d - p a r t y o p e r a t i o n t r a n s -
f e r r e d m a n y of t h e t e c h n i q u e s a n d d e v i c e s of D e e p S o u t h p r o v i n c i a l
14tk.^
Ibid.
^ " W a l l a c e S t i r s T h e m U p , " B u s i n e s s W e e k ( S e p t e m b e r 14,
p. 36.
1968),
85
p o l i t i c s to the n a t i o n a l s c e n e .
T h e f a c t t h a t m i l l i o n s of s o u t h e r n e r s a n d
n o r t h e r n e r s s a w t h e N o r t h a s s t i l l b e i n g t h e e n e m y i n the r a g i n g w a r
b e t w e e n the s t a t e s b e c a m e evident as his p o p u l a r i t y g r e w ,
Wallace
i d e n t i f i e d t h e o r i g i n of h i s m o v e m e n t w h e n h e s a i d t < # T h i s m o v e m e n t
h a d i t s s t a r t in t h e D e e p S o u t h .
I ' d l i k e to a p p e a l t o t h e s o u l of t h e S o u t h
16
s o w e c a n j o i n t o g e t h e r a n d go o u t to t h e r e s t of t h e c o u n t r y a n d w i n , 1 1
T h i s p l a y on
ll
ra,cial fears11 was a c o m m o n a p p e a l u s e d by all skillful
Southern politicians.
A s ^Robert S h e r r i l l s a y s ,
fl
He [Wallace] w a s m o r e
s u c c e s s f u l t h a n o t h e r s i n p r e v i o u s e r a s o n l y b e c a u s e t h e d i s l o c a t i o n of
t h e b l a c k p e o p l e a n d t h e i n a b i l i t y of t h e n a t i o n t o a b s o r b t h e s e u n h a p p y
17
w a n d e r e r s h a d p a n i c k e d so m a n y w h i t e n o n - S o u t h e r n e r s ,
M
W a l l a c e h a d u s e d a l m o s t i d e n t i c a l w o r d s in 1963, a s he t a l k e d to
A l a b a m a a n d w a v e d t h e b a n n e r of s e g r e g a t i o n , b u t i n 1968 h e d i s c o v e r e d
a d i f f e r e n t l a n g u a g e h a d t o b e u s e d to r e a c h t h e n a t i o n .
As C h e s t e r ,
H o d g s o n , a n d P a g e p o i n t e d out in An A m e r i c a n M e l o d r a m a ,
"he had
l e a r n e d t o a d a p t to N o r t h e r n s e n s i b i l i t i e s , o n e of t h e o l d e s t d e v i c e s i n
18
the S o u t h e r n p o l i t i c i a n ' s a r m o r y .
He t a l k e d in c o d e . "
The single
s p e e c h h e h a d t e m p e r e d a n d f o r g e d a f t e r s e v e r a l y e a r s w o r k w a s the
s a m e , b u t the w o r d s " s e g r e g a t i o n , " " N i g g e r , " and " n i g r a " d r o p p e d out
of h i s p u b l i c v o c a b u l a r y .
O n c e d u r i n g the c a m p a i g n h e a d m i t t e d ,
"I
d o n ' t t a l k a b o u t r a c e or s e g r e g a t i o n a n y m o r e . . . . W e ' r e t a l k i n g a b o u t
l a w and o r d e r , a n d l o c a l c o n t r o l of s c h o o l s , n o t t h o s e o t h e r things."**?
In t h e i r p l a c e w e r e a d d e d the w o r d s " N e g r o " ( k n e e - g r o w ) , " b l a c k - p e o p l e ; "
16
Q u o t e d by R o b e r t S h e r r i l l , G o t h i c P o l i t i c s in the D e e p S o u t h
( N e w Y o r k , 1 9 6 8 ) , p. 3 0 3 .
Ibid.
^Ibid., p. 2 7 9 .
^ Q u o t e d b y S h e r r i l l , Ibid. , p . 6 6 2 .
86
and s t a t e m e n t s like the following a p p e a r e d ;
" I h a v e n e v e r in m y l i f e
m a d e a s p e e c h t h a t w o u l d r e f l e c t u p o n a n y o n e r e g a r d l e s s of t h e i r r a c e ,
20
c o l o r , c r e e d o r n a t i o n a l o r i g i n a n d I d o n ' t i n t e n d t o do s o . 1 1
His c a m -
p a i g n m a t e r i a l and e s p e c i a l l y the "biography1' p r e s e n t e d W a l l a c e in a
p r o - N e g r o light, but h i s s t a t e m e n t s i n d i c a t e d a d i f f e r e n t a t t i t u d e . He
p r o m i s e d t o b r i n g a b o u t r e p e a l of a l l l a w s t h a t w e r e b e i n g u s e d t o f o r c e
integration.
T h e s e l a w s i n c l u d e d f o r c e d i n t e g r a t i o n in s c h o o l d i s t r i c t s ,
f o r c e d b u s s i n g of c h i l d r e n , f o r c e d r e s t r i c t i o n o n a h o m e o w n e r i n h i s
c h o i c e of a b u y e r o r r e n t e r f o r h i s p r o p e r t y , a n d o p p o s i t i o n t o i n c r e a s e d
G o v e r n m e n t e f f o r t s to f o r c e n e i g h b o r h o o d i n t e g r a t i o n .
R i c h a r d Nixon
a l s o e x p r e s s e d o p p o s i t i o n t o " f o r c e d i n t e g r a t i o n 1 1 a n d t h e u s e of p u b l i c
f u n d s t o b u s c h i l d r e n f r o m o n n e i g h b o r h o o d to a n o t h e r .
Hubert Hum-
p h r e y , o n t h e o p p o s i t e e n d of t h e c o n t i n u u m , w a s s e e n i n m a n y v o t e r s 1
e y e s a s u n i t e d with the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n .
G e o r g e W a l l a c e f r o m the b e g i n n i n g h a d a s t r o n g b a s e in the South,
e s p e c i a l l y a m o n g t h e u n h a p p y p e o p l e w h o l o n g e d f o r t h e d a y s of w h i t e
supremacy.
His r h e t o r i c w a s a i m e d at this b a s e and coded for a c c e p t -
a n c e b y t h e r e m a i n d e r of t h e n a t i o n .
He s o u g h t t o f o r m a n e w c o a l i t i o n
of t h e d i s c o n t e n t e d a n d d i s a f f e c t e d b u t h i s h o p e s r e q u i r e d a p p r o v a l b y
b l u e - c o l l a r w o r k e r s in t h e n o r t h e r n a n d w e s t e r n u r b a n a r e a s , a n d t h e
white minority groups.
S i n c e h e r e c e i v e d o n l y 13. 5 p e r c e n t of t h e
e l e c t o r a l v o t e a n d 9 * 5 m i l l i o n p o p u l a r v o t e s , it i s e v i d e n t t h a t h i s i m a g e
w a s a c c e p t e d b y a s m a l l a m o u n t of t h e e l e c t o r a t e b u t r e j e c t e d b y t h e
majority.
T h o s e w h o f a v o r e d W a l l a c e f o u n d h i s a t t i t u d e s on t h e a b o v e
^ G e o r g e C. W a l l a c e , " Q u o t e s f r o m Speeches and I n t e r v i e w s , "
T h e W a l l a c e C a m p a i g n , M o n t g o m e r y , A l a b a m a , p . 1.
,
87
i s s u e s in h a r m o n y w i t h t h e i r own.
The following section d e s c r i b e s the
a t t i t u d e s of t h e s e p e o p l e and a l s o t h o s e who r e j e c t e d t h e i m a g e of
George Wallace.
A t t i t u d e s of t h e E l e c t o r a t e t o w a r d W a l l a c e
T h e p u b l i c i m a g e of e a c h c a n d i d a t e f l u c t u a t e d , e s p e c i a l l y t h o s e
of W a l l a c e .
F i r m i d e o l o g i c a l p o l a r i t i e s of l e f t a n d r i g h t did not c r y s t a -
lize except among his m o s t militant s u p p o r t e r s .
Instead, the Vietnam
W a r a n d t h e r a c e i s s u e o v e r l a p p e d and c o m b i n e d w i t h d i f f e r e n t c o n s t i t u e n c i e s
of h i s c a m p a i g n to p r o d u c e a s h a r p r i s e in t h e p o l l s .
The sudden decline
a n d r e s u l t a n t f i g u r e s i n d i c a t e d t h a t the p o s i t i o n s h i f t w a s not p e r m a n e n t .
D e e p S o u t h . - - T h e a p p e a l of t h e A l a b a m i a n w a s s t r o n g e s t i n t h e
D e e p S o u t h , w h e r e he s w e p t a l l e l e c t o r a l v o t e s w i t h t h e e x c e p t i o n of S o u t h
Carolina.
H i s s h o w i n g t h e r e w a s at t h e e x p e n s e of t h e G O P p a r t y , w h i c h
c a r r i e d t h e S o u t h in 19 64 w i t h B a r r y G o l d w a t e r .
In t h a t s e c t i o n of t h e
c o u n t r y a p o l i t i c s of r e s e n t m e n t on t h e r a c e i s s u e w a s o p e r a t i n g .
The
l e s s w e l l - t o - d o w o r k i n g c l a s s a n d l o w e r m i d d l e c l a s s w e r e s t i r r e d by t h e
N e g r o r e v o l u t i o n , i t s l i b e r a l and r a d i c a l w h i t e s u p p o r t e r s .
They
r e s p o n d e d t o W a l l a c e out of r e s p e c t , t r u s t , a n d a m u t u a l c o m m u n i c a t i n g
21
ability.
He s p o k e t o t h e m d i r e c t l y a s o n e of t h e m .
T h r o u g h o u t t h e r e m a i n d e r of t h e c o u n t r y he a l s o d r e w m o d e r a t e
s u p p o r t , h i s a p p e a l b e i n g w e a k e s t in t h e New E n g l a n d a n d F a r W e s t
regions.
In t h e s e a r e a s p r e c i n c t d a t a i n d i c a t e d he d r e w m o s t h e a v i l y
f r o m s e c t i o n s o r d i n a r i l y e x p e c t e d to vote D e m o c r a t i c . T h i s g e n e r a l l y
21
D a v i d R i e s m a n , " A m e r i c a M o v e s t o t h e R i g h t , 11 New Y o r k
T i m e s M a g a z i n e ( O c t o b e r 27, 1968), p. 69.
88
c o n s t i t u t e d a p r o t e s t a n d r e n u n c i a t i o n g r o u p w h o w e r e "out of s y m p a t h y "
w i t h the a d m i n i s t r a t i o n and a l l i t s w o r k s .
T h e v o t e in l a r g e p a r t w a s
u n d e c i d e d but w o u l d p r o b a b l y h a v e g o n e to N i x o n if W a l l a c e h a d n o t b e e n
22 \s
on t h e b a l l o t .
When Wallace w a s polling only five p e r cent, his s t r e n g t h in the
N o r t h w a s a t t r i b u t a b l e to B i r c h i t e s and G o l d w a t e r i t e s .
H o w e v e r , a s it
a p p r o a c h e d 20 p e r c e n t h e w a s d r a w i n g a c r o s s l a s h b e t w e e n t w o k i n d s
of v o t e r s : f i r s t , t h e m i d d l e - c l a s s c o n s e r v a t i v e a n d i n d e p e n d e n t v o t e r s ,
m a n y of w h o m h a d s u p p o r t e d M c C a r t h y ; a n d s e c o n d , t h e w h i t e w o r k i n g class Democrats,
M i d d l e - c l a s s c o n s e r v a t i v e a n d i n d e p e n d e n t . - - T h e p r o p o r t i o n of
i n d e p e n d e n t v o t e r s in t h e e l e c t o r a t e h a d r i s e n r a p i d l y b e t w e e n 1 9 6 4 a n d
1968 to a n a l l - t i m e h i g h .
Generally,
b e t t e r - e d u c a t e d , and m o r e affluent.
a t e d f r o m the r e s t .
they w e r e found a m o n g the young,
They r e p r e s e n t e d a segment alien-
A CBS p r e - e l e c t i o n poll e s t i m a t e d that 43 p e r cent
of the A m e r i c a n e l e c t o r a t e w o u l d h a v e p r e f e r r e d a d i f f e r e n t c h o i c e a m o n g
candidates. ^
Two s i m i l a r p o l l s , one b y L o u i s H a r r i s a n d the o t h e r by G e o r g e
G a l l u p , a l s o m e a s u r e d t h e e x t e n t of p o l i t i c a l d i s a f f e c t i o n .
c a t e d 15 m i l l i o n r e g i s t e r e d A m e r i c a n s
t!
Gallup indi-
sat outH the e l e c t i o n e i t h e r f r o m
l a c k of i n t e r e s t i n p o l i t i c s o r f r o m d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h t h e t h r e e c a n d i d a t e s ,
^ A n g u s C a m p b e l l , "How We V o t e d - - A n d Why,
( N o v e m b e r 25, 1 9 6 8 ) , 5 5 1 .
ft
Nation,
CCVII
23
slide,
n
W a l t e r Dean B u r n h a m , " E l e c t i o n 1968: The A b o r t i v e L a n d T r a n s - A c t i o n , V ( D e c e m b e r , 1968), 2 1 .
89
A m a j o r i t y of 54 p e r c e n t in the l a t e s t p o s t - e l e c t i o n s u r v e y s a i d t h e y
24
h a d s p l i t t h e i r t i c k e t and v o t e d f o r c a n d i d a t e s of d i f f e r e n t p a r t i e s .
M a n y of t h e s e i n d e p e n d e n t v o t e r s ; f e e l i n g a l i e n a t e d f r o m t h e
m a i n s t r e a m of s o c i e t y , a d o p t e d t h e i m a g e of G e o r g e W a l l a c e and h i s
party.
T h e y c o n s i d e r e d h i m a n e s t r a n g e d and p e r s e c u t e d p o l i t i c i a n w h o
would give
M
his l a s t f u l l m e a s u r e of d e v o t i o n 1 '
H. W h i t e b r i n g s t h i s out in h i s book,
,f
The
for A m e r i c a .
Theodore
M a k i n g of the P r e s i d e n t 1968.
T h e r e w a s a l w a y s a g r a n d s e n s e of p e r s e c u t i o n a m o n g t h e W a l l a c e
w o r k e r s , a n e a r l y r e l i g i o u s faith that e v e r y o n e w a s a g a i n s t them but
t h e p e o p l e , a n d t h a t t h e s a v i n g of w h i t e A m e r i c a f r o m t h e p o i n t y - h e a d s
25
was a c a u s e g r e a t e r than politics.
n
F o r m a n y of t h e i n d e p e n d e n t s a d r i f t to G e o r g e W a l l a c e w a s t h e
o n l y m e a n s of r e g i s t e r i n g p r o t e s t a g a i n s t t h e
n
01d Politics.
n
Commenta-
t o r s a n d p o l i t i c i a n s e x p r e s s e d a s t o n i s h m e n t t h a t v o t e r s who s u p p o r t e d
K e n n e d y a n d M c C a r t h y in M a r c h c o u l d s w i t c h t o W a l l a c e in S e p t e m b e r ,
but d u r i n g this p e r i o d , a s A r t h u r S c h l e s i n g e r J r . , w r i t e s ,
n
T h e Wallace
e f f o r t f o r a m o m e n t m o v e d b e y o n d i t s r a c i s t b a s e and b e c a m e a r e s p o s i -
26
t o r y f o r g e n e r a l r e s e n t m e n t and r a n c o r throughout the land.
u
A l a r g e p e r c e n t a g e of t h e v o t e r s w h o a c c e p t e d W a l l a c e ' s i m a g e
w e r e the discontented middle-income whites.
Many w e r e well d r e s s e d ,
w e l l h o u s e d , and r e l a t i v e l y w e l l e d u c a t e d . T h e y w e r e I r i s h , J e w i s h ,
24
" U n j u s t a n d U n e q u a l , 11 T h e N a t i o n , C C V I I ( D e c e m b e r 30,
1968), 708.
W h i t e , p. 347.
26
A r t h u r S c h l e s i n g e r J r . , " T h e 1968 E l e c t i o n : An H i s t o r i c a l
P e r s p e c t i v e , " V i t a l S p e e c h e s , XXXV ( D e c e m b e r 15, 1968), 151.
90
P o l i s h , I t a l i a n , and a f e w N e g r o e s .
anti-Humphrey than pro-Wallace.
1/
M a n y w e r e m o r e a n t i - J o h n s o n and
The net family i n c o m e was under
$6, 000 a y e a r , a m e a g e r a m o u n t t o r u n a h o u s e a n d c a r a n d s u p p o r t a
h u s b a n d , w i f e and t w o o r t h r e e c h i l d r e n . T h e W a l l a c e m a n l i v e d in a
c o m f o r t a b l e home n e a r the c e n t r a l city w h e r e the c r i m e r a t e was high
b e c a u s e W a l l a c e was the f i r s t politician to say
n
y o u r w i f e c a n go t o t h e
27
supermarket
w i t h o u t f e a r of m o l e s t a t i o n w h e n
I'm President*
11
Although o p p o r t u n i s t i c , that p r o m i s e c o m m u n i c a t e d m u c h to the W a l l a c e
man.
He a l s o b e l i e v e d a n o t h e r p r o m i s e :
n
. . . a m a n w h o w o r k s 25 y e a r s
28
t o own h i s own h o u s e ought t o be a b l e t o s e l l it t o w h o e v e r he w a n t s to.
H
A l t h o u g h t h e c i t i z e n w a s p r o b a b l y f o r c i v i l r i g h t s a t o n e t i m e , h e now
f e a r e d N e g r o e s m i g h t m o v e into his n e i g h b o r h o o d and f o r c e him to
s e l l h i s h o u s e ait p a n i c p r i c e s .
He b e l i e v e d W a l l a c e w o u l d s u p p o r t
,f
t h e i n a l i e n a b l e r i g h t of a
p a r e n t t o d e c i d e w h e r e h i s c h i l d r e n s h o u l d go to s c h o o l .
n
This was
i m p o r t a n t b e c a u s e he c o u l d not a f f o r d p r i v a t e s c h o o l s , a n d t h e s c h o o l s
in c e n t r a l c i t i e s w e r e i n f e r i o r .
the "guideline w r i t e r s ,
11
and
He believed the " p s e u d o - i n t e l l e c t u a l s ,
H
T<
the ivory-tower editorialists1* w e r e his
e n e m i e s , t h e o n e s who a d v o c a t e d i n t e g r a t i n g s c h o o l s , o p e n h o u s i n g , a n d
r e s t r i c t i n g the police power.
Appealing to the m i d d l e - c l a s s c o n s e r v a -
t i v e s a n d i n d e p e n d e n t s , W a l l a c e b a c k e d up h i s c l a i m w i t h a t y p i c a l s e l f s e r v i n g e x a m p l e . " T h e r e a r e 535 m e m b e r s of C o n g r e s s a n d a lot of
t h e s e h a v e c h i l d r e n t o o . You know how m a n y s e n d t h e i r k i d s t o t h e
29
p u b l i c s c h o o l s in W a s h i n g t o n ?
Six.
11
27
v
Stewart Alsop,
( O c t o b e r2 8 21, 1968), 116.
Ibid.
n
T h e Wallace Man,
11
29
Newsweek,
Ibid.
LXXII
91
W h i t e w o r k i n g - c l a s s d e m o c r a t s . - - A f e w of t h e s e D e m o c r a t s
w e r e d e m o g r a p h i c a l l y m a r g i n a l D e m o c r a t s , a c c o r d i n g to E d w a r d
Schneier.
They w e r e r e g i s t e r e d with the D e m o c r a t i c p a r t y b u t t h e i r
economic,
sociatl, and e t h n i c c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s c o u l d n o r m a l l y b e a s s o -
ciated with R e p u b l i c a n i s m ,
In t i m e s of d i s c o n t e n t t h e y c o u l d b e e x p e c t e d
to vote R e p u b l i c a n or not at all, but the W a l l a c e c a n d i d a c y allowed t h e m
t o e x p r e s s t h e i r h o s t i l i t y to n a t i o n a l p o l i c i e s w i t h o u t s e v e r i n g t h e i r
30
traditional party ties,
O l i v e r Q u a y l e a n d h i s a s s o c i a t e s , i n c o m p i l i n g a s t u d y of D e m o c r a t i c d e f e c t i o n s to W a l l a c e ,
identified m o r e c l e a r l y the d e f e c t o r s .
The
s t u d y w a s c o n d u c t e d in l a t e J u l y a n d e a r l y A u g u s t a m o n g a c r o s s - s e c t i o n
of v o t e r s in s e v e n m i d - w e s t e r n a n d m i d - A t l a n t i c s t a t e s .
The findings
s u g g e s t e d t h a t W a l l a c e D e m o c r a t s w e r e m o r e l i k e l y to b e f r o m b l u e collar^ and to s o m e d e g r e e , f a r m f a m i l i e s , u n i o n m e m b e r s , m i d d l e - i n c o m e
31
(union w a g e level) w o r k e r s , and white c i t i z e n s .
In t h e e a r l y m o n t h s of t h e c a m p a i g n W a l l a c e s l i c e d a w a y a t t h e
l a b o r v o t e , a n d b y e a r l y S e p t e m b e r h e h a d w h a t a p p e a r e d to b e a s o l i d
g r o u p of u n i o n - m e m b e r v o t e s .
A private poll taken by Walter R e u t h e r ' s
e a s t e r n d i r e c t o r s of t h e U n i t e d A u t o W o r k e r s y i n C o n n e c t i c u t ^ d i s c l o s e d
32
a 30-per cent p r e f e r e n c e for Wallace over all other candidates.
A
p o l l i n t h e U A W N e w J e r s e y p l a n t on A u g u s t 17 g a v e W a l l a c e a l a n d s l i d e w i n of 4 3 0 v o t e s c o m p a r e d to N i x o n * s 9 2 . In W i l l o w S p r i n g s ,
30
E d w a r d S c h n e i e r , " T h e Scar o f W a l l a c e , " The Nation, CCVII
( N o v e m b e r 4, 1968), 4 5 6 .
11
32
C a m p a i g n 1968,
n
Atlantic,
D a i l y O k l a h o m a n , A u g u s t 24,
CCXXII (November,
1968),
1968, e d i t o r i a l p a g e .
14.
92
33
I l l i n o i s , the v o t e w a s 315 f o r W a l l a c e a n d 33 f o r N i x o n .
These polls
i n d i c a t e d t o H u m p h r e y t h a t "Wallace w a s t a k i n g v o t e s n o t o n l y f r o m t h e
R e p u b l i c a n s b u t a l s o f r o m t h e D e m o c r a t s w h o u s u a l l y o b t a i n e d 70 p e r
c e n t of t h e u n i o n v o t e .
A N e w s w e e k p o l l o n O c t o b e r 31 h a d t h e f o l l o w -
ing r e p o r t :
A t t h e m o m e n t , H u m p h r e y a p p e a r s to b e h u r t i n g m o s t i n
t h e l o n g t i m e b a s t i o n of D e m o c r a t i c s t r e n g t h , t h e r a n k a n d f i l e of
l a b o r , w i t h W a l l a c e d o i n g m o s t of t h e d a m a g e . H H H ' s c h a n c e s
h e r e d e p e n d l a r g e l y o n t h e s u c c e s s of l a b o r l e a d e r s , m o s t of
w h o m s u p p o r t h i m , in s m o t h e r i n g the e m o t i o n a l W a l l a c e s u r g e
with t r a d i t i o n a l b r e a d - a n d - b u t t e r a p p e a l s and griding the t h i r d p a r t y v o t e b a c k 8 o r 10 p o i n t s f r o m i t s 24 p e r c e n t l e v e l . ^ 4
S e v e r a l r e a s o n s w e r e l i s t e d b y A u g u s t S c h o l l e , p r e s i d e n t of t h e
Michigan AFC-CIO,
f o r t h e d e f e c t i o n t o W a l l a c e : (1) a r a p i d i n f l u x of
young w o r k e r s who "take all their benefits for g r a n t e d " and r e p l a c e d
v e t e r a n s ; (2) a g e n e r a l " l a c k of l o y a l t y a n d r e s p e c t " e x i s t e d f o r t h o s e
who fought for l a b o r ' s goals in the p a s t (Johnson and H u m p h r e y for examp l e s ) , a n d (3) a g e n e r a l u n r e s t a n d r e b e l l i o n h a d b e e n c a u s e d b y t h e
35
Vietnamese War, increasing taxation, and other factors.
O t h e r a n a l y s t s a r g u e d the s e p a r a t i o n w a s c a u s e d by r a c i s m .
The
white w o r k e r s felt excluded f r o m the t w o - p a r t y system b e c a u s e e x t r a
attention w a s being paid the Negro.
They complained N e g r o e s w e r e
h i r e d " w i t h o u t b e i n g q u a l i f i e d , " to c o m p l y w i t h g o v e r n m e n t r u l e s u n d e r
the civil r i g h t s law,
F e a r s for their jobs and seniority w e r e increased
33
" W o r r y i n g a b o u t W a l l a c e , " T h e N a t i o n , C C V I I ( S e p t e m b e r 2,
1968), 165.
34
" 1 9 6 8 ' s Voting P a t t e r n s , " N e w s w e e k , LXXII ( O c t o b e r 21,
1968), 31.
^ B . J . Widick, "Why They Like W a l l a c e , " The Nation, CCVII
( O c t o b e r 14, 1 9 6 8 ) , 3 5 9 .
93
when ghetto jobless w e r e h i r e d and t r a i n e d for jobs that would elevate
36
them above unionists having several y e a r s seniority.
In e s t a b l i s h i n g a n i m a g e t h a t w o u l d b e a c c e p t a b l e t o t h e s e l a b o r
v o t e r s , W a l l a c e c h a r a c t e r i z e d h i m s e l f a s a l i f e l o n g f r i e n d of t h e w o r k i n g
m a n w i t h a r e c o r d of
n
u n b r o k e n o p p o s i t i o n to a n t i - l a b o r l e g i s l a t i o n .
In s u p p o r t i n g t h i s i m a g e h e p r o m i s e d to
n
(1) p r o h i b i t g o v e r n m e n t i n t e r -
f e r e n c e i n t h e i n t e r n a l a f f a i r s of l a b o r u n i o n s ; (2) s u p p o r t l e g i s l a t i o n t o
provide an equitable m i n i m u m wage and d e s i r a b l e working h o u r s , and
(3) s t o p3 7g o v e r n m e n t a g e n c i e s f r o m a n y c o e r c i v e a c t i o n in s t r i k e s e t t l e m e n tf.s .
F a r m J o u r n a l , N o v e m b e r , 1968, e x p r e s s e d s u s p i c i o n s that
W a l l a c e a l s o h a d a s t r o n g h o l d on f a r m v o t e s .
A s a m p l e of 1 1 3 4 f a r m e r s
t a k e n f r o m c o a s t to c o a s t in S e p t e m b e r f o u n d N i x o n w i t h 5 2 p e r c e n t ,
W a l l a c e 32 p e r c e n t , a n d H u m p h r e y 16 p e r c e n t .
Other s u p p o r t e r s . - - W a l l a c e a i m e d his c o m m u n i c a t i o n at the
s u b j e c t i v e k n o w l e d g e s t r u c t u r e o r " i m a g e " of h i s a u d i e n c e s , f o r h e
p e r c e i v e d t h e y h a d m i x e d i m a g e s of
f u t u r e of f r e e d o m a n d p r o s p e r i t y .
,f
f a c t n a n d " v a l u e " on the c a u s e a n d
B e s i d e s the s u p p o r t in the D e e p
South and the c r o s s l a s h b e t w e e n the m i d d l e - c l a s s
conservative, inde-
pendent v o t e r s , and the white w o r k i n g c l a s s D e m o c r a t s , Wallace had
m i n i m a l s u p p o r t f r o m o t h e r g r o u p s of i n d i v i d u a l s .
36
" W o r r y i n g about the W a l l a c e I m p a c t ,
( A u g u s t 17, 1 9 6 8 ) , p . 9 8 .
^ O k l a h o m a C i t y T i m e s , O c t o b e r 23,
n
Business Week
"
1 9 6 8 , p . 7.
^ Claude W. G i f f o r d , "How F a r m e r s Will V o t e , "
XCII ( N o v e m b e r , 1968), 30.
Farm Journal,
94
Gallup found his s u p p o r t was s t r o n g e r a m o n g v o t e r s b e t w e e n the
a g e s of 21 and 29 t h a n a m o n g o l d e r v o t e r s , s p e c u l a t i n g t h a t t h e young
v o t e r t o o k t h e s e c u r i t y of h i s j o b f o r g r a n t e d .
He h a d n e v e r b e e n i n a
r e c e s s i o n n o r w o r r i e d a b o u t b e i n g l a i d off, b e c a u s e u n e m p l o y m e n t
c o m p e n s a t i o n would suffice.
T h e o l d e r v o t e r , w h o h a d m e m o r i e s of t h e
G r e a t D e p r e s s i o n and t h e r e c e s s i o n of 1958, w a s u n a b l e to c o m p l e t e l y
abandon c l a s s politics.
I s s u e s like m i n i m u m wage, M e d i c a r e , S o c i a l
S e c u r i t y , and r i g h t - t o - w o r k l a w s s t i l l had a d e f i n i t e i m a g e in c i t i z e n s '
cognitive structure.
Schneier concludes:
W a l l a c e o f f e r s a n e w p o l i t i c s , a p o l i t i c s of c o n v i c t i o n , of
l i m i t e d i n t e r f e r e n c e in p e o p l e ' s l i v e s . It is a p o l i t i c s t h a t w i l l
not t r o u b l e p e o p l e w i t h i s s u e s l i k e p o v e r t y , u r b a n r e n e w a l o r
r e n t s u b s i d i e s t h a t a r e i r r e l e v a n t to t h e i r d a y - t o - d a y l i v e s ; a
politics that will keep such troublesome phenomena as n a r c o t i c s ,
c r i m e , p e a c e d e m o n s t r a t i o n s and c o l l e g e p r o t e s t s out of s i g h t . 39
Nation-wide p o l i c e - d e p a r t m e n t support for Wallace was so p r e v a l e n t t h a t t h e New Y o r k T i m e s r e p o r t e d he had c a p t u r e d
n
in t h e s a m e w a y t h e y had r e f e r r e d to " t h e N e g r o vote 1 1 o r
the cop vote,
n
u
the Labor
40
vote.
n
order'1
N e g r o e s a n d l a b o r e r s i d e n t i f i e d w i t h h i s i m a g e of
,!
law and
a n d l i k e d h i s s t a n d a g a i n s t S u p r e m e C o u r t d e c i s i o n s on t h e
h a n d l i n g of a c c u s e d p e r s o n s and t h e i r c o n f e s s i o n s .
They also praised
h i s b e l i e f t h a t p o l i c e c o u l d q u e l l r i o t s if o n l y t h e y w e r e l e f t t o do t h e i r
job without political i n t e r f e r e n c e .
F i n a l Outcome. - - G e o r g e Wallace finished an e x t r a o r d i n a r y c a m p a i g n o n N o v e m b e r 5, a l t h o u g h he w a s a l o s e r .
39
40
He e s t a b l i s h e d a d e f i n i t e
S c h n e i e r , p. 456.
H a r r y Bruce, n T h e Future as F a s c i s m ,
LrXXXIII ( N o v e m b e r , 1968), 19.
M
S a t u r d a y Night,
95
i m a g e d u r i n g t h e c a m p a i g n , a n d a l t h o u g h t h e e l e c t i o n r e t u r n s d o n o t saywhy he was defeated, s e v e r a l facts concerning his ideological image m a y
b e d i s c e r n e d b y e x a m i n i n g s o m e u n u s u a l a s p e c t s of t h e v o t e *
Although his c r u s a d e for
n
l a w and o r d e r 1 1 t u r n e d out to be p r i -
m a r i l y a s e c t i o n a l m o v e m e n t , he m a n a g e d to c a r r y five S o u t h e r n s t a t e s
a n d 45 e l e c t o r a l v o t e s .
His thinly v e i l e d s e g r e g a t i o n a l i s t c r u s a d e did
n o t go o v e r w e l l i n t h e N o r t h , b u t h e d i d m a k e s u r p r i s i n g i n c u r s i o n s
into the union vote a n d ethnic p o p u l a t i o n s which w e r e edgy o v e r b l a c k
r e b e l l i o n and b l a c k c r i m e .
He c a p t u r e d 22 p e r c e n t of t h e I t a l i a n - A m e r i -
c a n s a n d 1 7 , 8 p e r c e n t of t h e S l a v i c - A m e r i c a n s .
w e r e a t the e x p e n s e of H u m p h r e y .
M o s t of t h e s e v o t e s
He a l s o d r e w a s u r p r i s i n g 13 p e r
c e n t of t h e J e w i s h v o t e , p r i n c i p a l l y f r o m N i x o n .
He s h o w e d b e t t e r
a m o n g t h e r e l a t i v e l y a f f l u e n t t h a n a m o n g t h e poor> m a i n l y b e c a u s e H u m p h r e y a s a D e m o c r a t h a d a l r e a d y m a d e e n t i c i n g p r o m i s e s to the p o o r ,
and t h e y h a r d l y f e l t W a l l a c e c o u l d top t h e s e v o t e o f f e r s .
41
As for racial
justice, Samuel Lubell said:
. # . t h e W a l l a c e m o v e m e n t m a y h a v e h a d the u s e f u l e f f e c t of
m a k i n g m a n y v o t e r s t h i n k a b o u t t h e c o n s e q u e n c e s of t h e i r p r e j u d i c e s . W a l l a c e t e m p t e d t h e m f o r a while; but then in the end
d r e w back, and Wallace's a p p e a r a n c e contracted r a t h e r swiftly
to the l o w e r C o n f e d e r a c y .
T h i s c h a n g e in v o t e r a c t i o n d i s p l a y e d v o t e r i m a g e s of v a l u e a n d
t h e i r c h a n g e d u r i n g the c a m p a i g n .
In t h e e a r l y m o n t h s some w e r e o u t -
r a g e d b e c a u s e of v a r i o u s riots^ a n d b l a m e d t h e N e g r o .
As months passed,
d e e p - r o o t e d v o t e r a t t i t u d e s c a u s e d m e s s a g e s f r o m o t h e r c a n d i d a t e s to
^ ^ H T h e A n a t o m y of t h e V o t e ,
1968), 35.
42
n
N e w s w e e k , L X I I ( N o v e m b e r 11,
S c h l e s i n g e r , " T h e 1968 E l e c t i o n , " p . 1 5 1 .
96
be v i e w e d in a d i f f e r e n t l i g h t .
T h e f i r s t i m p u l s e of the W a l l a c e
s u p p o r t e r s w a s to r e j e c t t h e p r e - o f f e r e d i n f o r m a t i o n t h a t N i x o n a n d
Humphrey communicated,as false.
T h e y r e f u s e d to b e l i e v e the p e r s o n a l
i m a g e of the r a c i s t o r s e g r e g a t i o n a l i s t W a l l a c e w h i c h m a n y p o s s e s s e d .
But a s they r e c e i v e d other m e s s a g e s c o n t r a d i c t i n g their i m a g e s f r o m
f r i e n d s a n d the m a s s m e d i a , t h e y b e g a n to h a v e d o u b t s .
Before election
day they had r e v i s e d their i m a g e s completely or decided that although
one c a m p a i g n p r o m i s e m i g h t b e good, o t h e r s w o u l d do s e v e r e d a m a g e .
At this p o i n t they r e a c t e d a c c o r d i n g to t h e i r a t t i t u d e s .
"
LeMay.
O n e s u c h i m a g e c h a n g e w a s e v i d e n t w i t h t h e s e l e c t i o n of C u r t i s
A t t h e t i m e of s e l e c t i o n , W a l l a c e 1 s p o p u l a r i t y w a s a t a n a l l - t i m e
high, b u t soon a f t e r it s h o w e d h e a v y d e f e c t i o n s .
l a i d on t h e i m a g e of L e M a y a s a n u c l e a r b o m b e r .
two a s the " b o m b s y t w i n s . "
P a r t of t h e b l a m e w a s
M a n y r e f e r r e d to the
The m e s s a g e t h a t c o n t r i b u t e d to the o v e r -
t h r o w of W a l l a c e ^ s f i r s t i m a g e w a s g i v e n b y L e M a y i n a n e w s c o n f e r e n c e
upon a c c e p t i n g the n o m i n a t i o n .
He s t a t e d h e " w o u l d u s e a n y w e a p o n w e
h a v e i n t h e a r s e n a l if n e c e s s a r y , ' 1 a l t h o u g h h e
t o u s e n u c l e a r w e a p o n s in V i e t n a m . . .
n
d i d not b e l i e v e we need
If n e c e s s a r y ,
I would use any
43
t h i n g w e c o u l d d r e a m u p to e n d t h e w a r . 1 1
T h i s w a s t h e b i g " t u r n i n g p o i n t " i n t h e d e c l i n e f r o m t h e 21 p e r
cent polling peak, for soon a f t e r m a n y d e s e r t e d the Wallace r a n k s with
s t a t e m e n t s like the following.
n
H e a n d L e M a y w a n t to b l o w e v e r y b o d y
44
up.
T h e v o t e r w h o f e a r e d r i o t s i n t h e s t r e e t s , m a s s t a n t a l i z a t i o n of
t h e p o l i c e , d i s r u p t i o n of e d u c a t i o n a n d c i t i e s i n f l a m e , w a s u n w i l l i n g t o
a c c e p t t h e p o s s i b i l i t y of a n o t h e r f e a r , n a m e l y t h e u s e of n u c l e a r w e a p o n s
43
The O k l a h o m a Daily, O c t o b e r 4, 19^8, p. 4.
44
is
T h e A n a t o m y of t h e V o t e , 11 p . 3 5 .
97
in V i e t n a m .
D e s e r t i o n in W a l l a c e ' s c a m p w a s n o t h i n g m o r e or l e s s
t h a n t h e d e c i s i o n o n t h e p a r t of a n e l e c t o r a t e t o go p a t i e n t l y a n d c a u tiously toward maintaining equilibrium.
In t h e e n d h e r e c e i v e d a m u c h s m a l l e r f a r m ,
town
vote than expected.
rural,
and s m a l l -
T h e e l e c t i o n a l s o r e f l e c t e d a p o l a r i z a t i o n of
D e m o c r a t i c p o w e r i n " l i b e r a l 1 1 a n d l a b o r - u n i o n a r e a s of t h e N o r t h .
The
l a b o r u n i o n s w i n g f r o m W a l l a c e to H u m p h r e y w a s a t t r i b u t a b l e i n p a r t t o
a n t i - W a l l a c e a c t i v i t y b y union l e a d e r s , b u t f i n a l l y the a l i e n a t e d and
a p a t h e t i c D e m o c r a t s d e c i d e d i t w a s b e t t e r to s u p p o r t t h e i r p a r t y * s t i c k e t
t h a n to a b s t a i n o r to t a k e a g a m b l e on W a l l a c e .
These D e m o c r a t s found
t h e i r i m a g e s of W a l l a c e a n d h i s m o v e m e n t s u p p o r t e d b y a t t i t u d e s t h a t
w e r e still a n c h o r e d to the D e m o c r a t i c p a r t y .
T h e y w e r e a f r a i d of t h e
change that Boulding d i s c u s s e d :
W e a r e s o a c c u s t o m e d to c h a n g e in o u r s o c i e t y a n d h a v e i n s t i t u t i o n a l i z e d i t to s o g r e a t a n e x t e n t t h a t w e do n o t r e a l i z e w h a t a r a r e ,
difficult, and u t t e r l y i n c o m p r e h e n s i b l e p h e n o m e n o n it is. Any change
f r o m s e t t l e d w a y s of l i f e i n v o l v e s a f e a r f u l p l u n g e i n t o t h e u n k n o w n .
It w i l l n o t b e u n d e r t a k e n u n l e s s e i t h e r t h e r e i s g r e a t d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n
w i t h t h e e x i s t i n g r o u t i n e o r u n l e s s t h e r e i s s o m e t h i n g in t h e s o c i e t y
w h i c h puts a high p o s i t i v e v a l u e on c h a n g e i t s e l f . ^
T h i s w a s a l s o t r u e f o r t h e m a j o r i t y of i n d e p e n d e n t s ,
styled m a r g i n a l D e m o c r a t s and R e p u b l i c a n s .
the s e l f -
V o i c e s of l e a d e r s w h o m
they r e s p e c t e d and a d m i r e d coaxed them back into the fold.
Senator
K e n n e d y i n v o k e d the n a m e s of h i s l a t e b r o t h e r s a n d c a l l e d f o r r e p u d i a t i o n of W a l l a c e 1 s t h i r d p a r t y " f o r t h e h e a l t h of o u r c o u n t r y a n d o u r f u t u r e
as a nation.
t!
He a d d r e s s e d h i s p l e a t o t h e W a l l a c e s u p p o r t e r s w h o o n c e
supported his late b r o t h e r s .
46
45
Kenneth E. Boulding,
The I m a g e : Knowledge in L i f e and
S o c i e t y (Ann A r b o r , 1956), p p . 9 3 - 9 4 .
46
O k l a h o m a C i t y T i m e s , O c t o b e r 24, 1 9 6 8 , p . 1.
98
B a r r y G o l d w a t e r , who s t o o d in t h e s a m e p o l i t i c a l p o s i t i o n a s
W a l l a c e only f o u r y e a r s e a r l i e r , a l s o j o i n e d h i s R e p u b l i c a n p a r t y i n
u r g i n g r e p u d i a t i o n of W a l l a c e .
said,
In an a r t i c l e f o r N a t i o n a l R e v i e w he
. . s o m e c o n s e r v a t i v e s a r e t h i n k i n g of e x p r e s s i n g t h i s j u d g m e n t
(sick A m e r i c a ] by voting for G e o r g e W a l l a c e .
Don't m a k e the m i s t a k e
of t h i n k i n g t h a t s u c h a v o t e i s going a n y w h e r e but r i g h t down a r a t - h o l e .
As the fighting continues during negotiations, we m i g h t e x p e c t a decline
in p u b l i c a p p r o b a l a s the p u b l i c a g a i n f o c u s e s on t h e r e s u l t s of t h e
f i g h t i n g - - c a s u a l i t i e s , f o r e x a m p l e - - a n d n o t t h e t a c t i c s by w h i c h t h e
43
w a r is being fought at the m o m e n t .
t h a t if
R i c h a r d B r o d y a l s o pointed out
". . . d i s s a t i s f a c t i o n w i t h t h e J o h n s o n a d m i n i s t r a t i o n ' s V i e t n a m
p e r f o r m a n c e g r o w s , w e c a n e x p e c t a s u b s t a n t i a l n u m b e r of D e m o c r a t s
49
t o v o t e c o n t r a r y to t h e i r b a s i c p a r t y l o y a l t y . "
t h e r e s u l t s of p o l l s ,
high,
He i n s i n u a t e d t h a t f r o m
"apparently party identification was still quite
" a n d a c h a n g e in the w a r s i t u a t i o n would b r i n g t h e r e b e l l i o u s
c r a t s b a c k to v o t e f o r H u m p h r e y .
Demo-
Louis H a r r i s indicated that this o c c u r r e d
a s a b o m b i n g h a l t o v e r N o r t h V i e t n a m w a s b e i n g a n n o u n c e d by t h e W h i t e
H o u s e , only f i v e d a y s b e f o r e t h e e l e c t i o n .
impact"
on w o m e n v o t e r s , and
He found t h i s h a d a " s i z a b l e
" t h e b o m b i n g h a l t t o o k a g r e a t d e a l of
t h e s t i n g out of t h e V i e t n a m i s s u e [[for H u m p h r e y . ]
47
B a r r y G o l d w a t e r , " D o n ' t W a s t e a V o t e on W a l l a c e , " N a t i o n a l
R e v i e w , XX ( O c t o b e r 22, 1968), 1060.
48
R i c h a r d A. B r o d y , "How the V i e t n a m W a r M a y A f f e c t t h e
E l e c t i o n , " T r a n s - A c t i o n , V ( O c t o b e r 1968), 23.
49
Ibid. , p. 22.
50
" E l e c t i o n A f t e r m a t h - - T h e f i n a l R e s u l t s , " U. S. N e w s , LXV
( N o v e m b e r 25, 1968), 38.
~ ~
99
A t t i t u d e a l i g n m e n t of s e v e r a l g r o u p s m a d e it i m p o s s i b l e t o a c c e p t
or even c o n s i d e r George Wallace and his A m e r i c a n Independent P a r t y .
T h e young and r a d i c a l m i l i t a n t s h a d a n i m a g e t h a t the i n s t i t u t i o n s in
A m e r i c a w e r e o r g a n i z e d to s h u t t h e m out.
The u l t r a - r a d i c a l s believed
t h a t e x c l u s i o n w a s i n e v i t a b l e in a s y s t e m c o n t r o l l e d , a s t h e y b e l i e v e d , b y
a military-industrial complex.
M a r k R u d d , of t h e C o l u m b i a S t u d e n t s f o r
a D e m o c r a t i c S o c i e t y (SDS), v i e w e d t h e V i e t n a m W a r
" a s an inherent p a r t
51
of t h e p o l i t i c a l - e c o n o m i c s y s t e m t h a t d o m i n a t e s o u r c o u n t r y . "
A s the
p e r c e p t i o n of t h e e s t r a n g e m e n t g r e w m o r e a c u t e , m a n y of t h e i r r a t i o n a l
s t u d e n t s b e g a n t o c o n t e m p l a t e d e s t r o y i n g the e s t a b l i s h m e n t t h r o u g h v i o l e n t
revolution.
This g r o u p would n e v e r have c o n s i d e r e d W a l l a c e , and consequen-
t l y , c o n s t i t u t e d m a n y of t h e d e m o n s t r a t o r s a t t h e c a m p a i g n r a l l i e s .
With
t h e k n o w l e d g e t h e y w e r e h e l p i n g W a l l a c e g a i n v o t e s and in t h e f a c e of
e j e c t i o n by p o l i c e , t h e y c o n t i n u e d t o p r o t e s t .
a l l w h e n he s a i d ,
One d e m o n s t r a t o r spoke
" Y o u h a v e to s h o w t h a t t h e r e a r e p e o p l e a g a i n s t h i m . "
The Negro r a c e constituted another minority group which could
not a c c e p t n o r vote f o r G e o r g e Wallace.
T h e y w e r e f e a r f u l of W a l l a c e
a n d h i s r a c i s t i m a g e , and n e r v o u s a b o u t N i x o n .
Although they w e r e
a p a t h e t i c t h r o u g h o u t the c a m p a i g n , t h e y f l o c k e d to t h e p o l l s i n r e c o r d
n u m b e r s in s o m e a r e a s to g i v e H u m p h r e y a n e a r - 1 0 0 p e r c e n t s h a r e of
53
the black vote.
The t w o - p a r t y s y s t e m the m a j o r i t y knew and t r u s t e d so well had
p r o v e n itself too m a n y t i m e s .
The v o t e r s w e r e unwilling to s a c r i f i c e
51
S c h l e s i n g e r , " T h e 1968 E l e c t i o n , " p. 151.
52
" W a l l a c e and H i s F o l k s , " N e w s w e e k , LXXXII
1968), 18.
53
for
52
" T h e A n a t o m y of t h e V o t e , " p. 35.
( S e p t e m b e r 16,
100
for change and accept a p r e s i d e n t f r o m a m i n o r i t y t h i r d - p a r t y m o v e ment.
that
W a l l a c e d i s c o v e r e d he w a s w r o n g in h i s r e p e a t e d d e c l a r a t i o n
"the rednecks11
o u t n u m b e r e d the o t h e r s .
The election outcome
s h o w e d f e w s u r f a c i n g c u r r e n t s of r e v o l u t i o n a r y s e n t i m e n t d e s p i t e a l l
t h e t a l k by m i l i t a n t s .
T h e c o u n t r y that w a s s u p p o s e d l y t o r n a p a r t in
s p i r i t s u r v i v e d t h e t e s t w h i l e t h e i m a g e of G e o r g e W a l l a c e c a r r i e d h i m
to d e f e a t .
Personal Dimension
G e o r g e W a l l a c e r e a l i z e d at t h e o u t s e t of h i s c a m p a i g n t h a t h e
m u s t c r e a t e a definite p e r s o n a l i m a g e that would adequately blend with
his ideological image.
He w o r k e d h a r d and f a s t to give t h e c o u n t r y
i m p r e s s i o n s he c o n s i d e r e d e s s e n t i a l in a n e l e c t i o n y e a r .
O n e of h i s
m a i n p r o b l e m s , h o w e v e r , w a s o v e r c o m i n g t h e p e r s o n a l i m a g e he h a d
e s t a b l i s h e d in t h e p a s t y e a r s .
He r e a l i z e d t h a t a t i m e of n a t u r a l f r u s t r a -
t i o n c a l l e d f o r an i m a g e of t r u s t , c o m p e t e n c e , h o n o r , a n d p a t r i o t i s m .
T h i s i s t h e t y p e of p e r s o n a l i m a g e he t r i e d t o c o n v e y , o f t e n w i t h o u t
success.
A l t h o u g h h i s t r u e i d e o l o g i c a l f o l l o w e r s h a d t h i s p i c t u r e of
t h e i r c a n d i d a t e , s c o r e s of o t h e r v o t e r s r e c e i v e d a n a l t o g e t h e r d i f f e r e n t
image.
T h i s s e c t i o n d i s c u s s e s the p e r s o n a l i m a g e of t h e c a n d i d a t e , G e o r g e
Wallace, as the e l e c t o r a t e saw him.
It is i m p o r t a n t to r e m e m b e r w h e n v i e w -
i n g t h e p e r s o n a l d i m e n s i o n of t h e i m a g e t h a t t e m p o r a l l y it e n c o m p a s s e s t h e
p a s t i m p r e s s i o n s , the p r e s e n t p i c t u r e , and the imagined f u t u r e i m p r e s s i o n
of t h e i n d i v i d u a l * t h e r e f o r e , a c a n d i d a t e i s c o n c e r n e d not o n l y w i t h h i s
p r e s e n t i m a g e - m a k i n g p r o c e s s , but a l s o w i t h r e c o n s t r u c t i n g p a s t
i m p r e s s i o n s and c r e a t i n g f a v o r a b l e p e r s o n a l i t y p r o j e c t i o n s f o r t h e f u t u r e .
101
T h e e a r l y c a r e e r of G e o r g e W a l l a c e e s t a b l i s h e d a n u n d e s i r a b l e
i m a g e w h i c h he o f t e n t r i e d to e r a s e w i t h s o f t - s p o k e n o v e r t o n e s t h r o u g h out the 1968 c a m p a i g n .
audiences.
D u r i n g t h e s e y e a r s he had two i n t e r e s t e d
T h e f i r s t w a s t h e l o c a l c r o w d , w h i c h c o n s i s t e d of f e l l o w
Alabamians.
T h i s g r o u p s o o n g r e w to e n c o m p a s s the D e e p S o u t h .
Their
i m a g e of G e o r g e W a l l a c e w a s c r e a t e d a n d f e d b y t h e m a s s m e d i a .
second group, a national audience,
The
r e c e i v e d t h e i r f i r s t i m p r e s s i o n of
W a l l a c e t h r o u g h s y m b o l s of t h e m a s s m e d i a a s h e s t o o d i n t h e s c h o o l h o u s e d o o r in 1963.
F o r m a n y i n b o t h the l o c a l a n d n a t i o n a l a u d i e n c e s ,
W a l l a c e b e c a m e a t o p i c of d i n n e r - t a b l e c o n v e r s a t i o n a n d b a r b e r s h o p
gossip.
Ths i m a g e b e c a m e s t a b i l i z e d t h r o u g h t h e y e a r s a s t h e G o v e r n o r
o c c a s i o n a l l y c r e a t e d h e a d l i n e s to k e e p h i s n a m e b e f o r e the p u b l i c .
A s he s e t out on h i s m a r c h to the W h i t e H o u s e in F e b r u a r y * 1968,
h e r e - e s t a b l i s h e d h i s p o s i t i o n in t h e D e e p S o u t h a n d t h e n b e g a n c r e a t i n g
a n e w i m a g e f o r the n a t i o n .
of t h e p e o p l e .
11
His t h i r d - p a r t y m o v e m e n t w a s
He a d d r e s s e d h i s b i d f o r v o t e r s t o
f!
n
a movement"
the l i t t l e fellow11 a n d
e m p h a s i z e d the t h e m e : " C a n a f o r m e r t r u c k d r i v e r who i s m a r r i e d to a
f o r m e r d i m e - s t o r e c l e r k and w h o s e f a t h e r w a s a p l a i n d i r t f a r m e r b e
54
e l e c t e d P r e s i d e n t of the U n i t e d S t a t e s ?
The answer i s - - y e s . n
He s o u g h t t h e s u p p o r t of t h e " l i t t l e f e l l o w ,
H
the a v e r a g e m a n on
the s t r e e t , t h e t e x t i l e a n d s t e e l m i l l e m p l o y e e , t h e b a r b e r a n d b e a u t i c i a n , and the town p o l i c e m a n .
M a n y of t h e s e a c c e p t e d t h e W a l l a c e c h a l -
l e n g e b e c a u s e t h e y i d e n t i f i e d w i t h him,,
He w a s the l i t t l e g u y , t h e
M
small
fry11 in e a c h of t h e m t h a t s t i l l r e b e l l e d a g a i n s t e s t a b l i s h e d l a w s a n d old
politics.
His m o v e m e n t s y m b o l i z e d their d i s t r u s t and c o n c e r n f o r
54
" A New Look at W a l l a c e , " p. 57.
102
A m e r i c a ' s d e c a y i n g s t a n d a r d s , but p r i m a r i l y , J i e w a s t h e i r l e a d e r , a
c h a m p i o n of the o p p r e s s e d w h o w e n t f o r t h in b a t t l e f o r t h e m .
He
a t t a c k e d t h e p o s i t i o n of t h e p o w e r f u l e s t a b l i s h m e n t t h a t h a d a r o u s e d t h e
f e a r s a n d a n x i e t i e s of m a n y .
W h e n t h o s e in p o w e r f o u g h t b a c k he w a s
s u b d u e d f o r a t i m e by t h e i r t a c t i c s a n d s u p e r i o r w e a p o n s , but h i s f a i t h f u l f o l l o w e r s k n e w he w o u l d o n c e a g a i n a t t a c k the f o r t r e s s e s of t h e m i g h t y
a n d in t h e end d e f e a t t h e i r e n e m i e s , w i n n i n g a g r e a t v i c t o r y f o r t h e c o m 55
m o n people, the
" l i t t l e fellow* 11
A s t h e i r g r e a t l e a d e r , W a l l a c e w a s q u i t e c a p a b l e of w a g i n g a
political, social, and m o r a l battle.
t h e t i t l e of
,!
a fighter.
ff
T h o s e who loved and a d m i r e d him hung a f f e c -
t i o n a t e n i c k n a m e s on h i m :
"The little Judge,
fights with f e d e r a l judges and
ringside days.
In h i s e a r l y y o u t h he had a c q u i r e d
fl
f!
a c q u i r e d f r o m his e a r l y
The Barbour Bantam,"
T o t h i s g r o u p he w a s t h e i r
lf
f r o m his e a r l i e r
ideal man, "
and they r e a c t e d
t o h i m w i t h t o t a l i n v o l v e m e n t and i d e n t i f i c a t i o n .
T h o s e w h o had no a f f e c t i o n f o r W a l l a c e t a g g e d h i m d i f f e r e n t l y .
H e s t a r t e d a s a S o u t h e r n r e b e l t o o v e r t h r o w not o n l y t h e t w o - p a r t y
s y s t e m b u t t h e n a t i o n ' s e s t a b l i s h e d f o r m of l a w and o r d e r .
w a s a d j u s t e d in r e l a t i p n t o both p a r t i e s a s
n
Johnson's withdrawal f r o m the campaign.
T h e i m a g e of W a l l a c e o p e n l y
the spoiler,
11
This image
after President
defying a c o u r t o r d e r to i n t e g r a t e a public s c h o o l w a s vivid.
T h e y sa w
h i m a s a d e f e n d e r not of i n d i v i d u a l r i g h t s , but of s t a t e s r i g h t s .
he d e n o u n c e d
n
Big Government, "
When
it w a s not t h e u n l i m i t e d , a r b i t r a r y
p o w e r of t h e s t a t e b e i n g d e n o u n c e d , but t h e c e n t r a l i z a t i o n .
They felt
he d e s i r e d t o p l a c e t h i s s a m e u n l i m i t e d , a r b i t r a r y p o w e r in the h a n d s
of f i f t y s m a l l g o v e r n m e n t s .
55
Ibid.
103
Their image was a m a n whose appeal elicited f e a r and i n s e c u r i t y
from t h e m i n d s of a f r u s t r a t e d , b e w i l d e r e d , a n d a n g e r e d a u d i e n c e #
The
p e o p l e could s e n s e t h a t s o m e t h i n g w a s t e r r i b l y w r o n g in t h e i r c o u n t r y ,
a n d t h e y k n e w s o m e t h i n g s h o u l d be done a b o u t it, but t h e y h a d no i d e a
w h a t to d o .
In h i s i d e n t i t y h e i n t e r j e c t e d a t o n e of v i o l e n c e a n d h a t e .
R o b e r t S h e r r i l l e m p h a s i z e s this by observing:
n
Talking violence, he is
a m a n whom v i o l e n c e f o l l o w s a n d w h o m o t h e r s e x p e c t to b r e e d v i o l e n c e a n d
to p e r i s h v i o l e n t l y . 1 1
56
C h e s t e r , Hodgson, and P a g e a l s o support this
c l a i m : " W a l l a c e t o o k a g o o d d e a l of c a r e t o a v o i d a c t u a l i n c i t e m e n t t o
violence. . . . Nevertheless,
t h e f l a v o r of W a l l a c e T s l a n g u a g e w a s u n m i s -
57
takably violent."
In h i s r a l l i e s h e o f t e n t r a n s f e r r e d h i s p e r s o n a l i m a g e
of h a t e i n t o t h e a u d i e n c e b y u s i n g h e c k l e r s a s s c a p g o a t s .
One s u c h e x a m p l e w a s r e c o r d e d by W a l t e r G o o d m a n at the F o r t
Wayne,
Indiana-, r a l l y .
The d i s s e n t e r w a s a w e l l - b u i l t , c l e a n - s h a v e n
youth who stood his ground with his sign r a i s e d high.
Whenever Wallace
b e g a n t o s p e a k t h e y o u t h c r i e d h e w a s a l i a r , a d i r t y r a c i s t ^ a n d s h o u l d go
b a c k to A l a b a m a .
G o o d m a n in h i s a r t i c l e f o r D i s s e n t , November^ 1968,
e x p l a i n e d the a u d i e n c e r e a c t i o n .
H e r e w a s the e n e m y , a n d d e s p i t e m o l l i f y i n g w o r d s f r o m t h e
c a n d i d a t e , v o i c e s b e g a n y e l l i n g b a c k , 11 Sit d o w n a n d s h u t up! 1 1
A t o n e p o i n t h u n d r e d s of p e o p l e on t h e m a i n f l o o r w e r e o n t h e i r
feet, shaking fists at the lone p r o t e s t o r and s c r e a m i n g "OUT!
OUTi O U T l " F o r those m o m e n t s the h a t r e d w a s e l e c t r i c . There
w e r e s e v e r a l a t t e m p t s to g r a b t h e c a r d b o a r d s i g n f r o m h i s h a n d s ,
a n d a c o u p l e of m e n w i t h b a t t e r y i n t h e i r e y e s w e r e h e l d o f f b y
u n i f o r m e d g u a r d s . F i n a l l y , a f t e r the youth still holding h i s now
r a g g e d c a r d b o a r d a s high a s his a r m s would r e a c h , w a l k e d down
t h e c e n t e r a i s l e a n d t o o k a s e a t c l o s e to t h e p l a t f o r m , W a l l a c e
~*^Sherrill, p . 313.
57
Chester,
H o d g s o n and P a g e , p . 283.
104
h a d t h e p o l i c e e s c o r t h i m o u t of t h e a u d i t o r i u m . H e l e f t p e a c e a b l y to c h e e r s , h o w l s , and c a t c a l l s , and the s p e e c h p r o c e e d e d ,
b u t t h e m e m o r y of t h i s p r o t e s t i n g s t u d e n t a n d h i s k i n d h u n g o v e r
t h e r e s t of t h e e v e n i n g l i k e a n u n e x o r c i s a b l e s p i r i t a t a r e v i v a l
m e e t i n g . . . . His h a t e d i m a g e r a n t h r o u g h W a l l a c e ' s s p e e c h ,
n o t o n l y in t h e f o r m o f t h e u n w a s h e d d e m o n s t r a t o r s . . . b u t i n
t h e f o r m of t h e b u r e a u c r a t s . . . [and] t h e g u i d e l i n e w r i t e r s w i t h
pointy heads.
T h e o d o r e W h i t e a l s o s e n s e d t h e i m p r e s s i o n of h a t e in W a l l a c e T s
image.
" T h e W a l l a c e c a m p a i g n , a s it d e v e l o p e d , m a d e d e c e n t p e o p l e
a s h a m e d t o s t a n d w i t h G e o r g e W a l l a c e ; i t d e g r a d e d t h e i r s e n s e of t h e m 59
s e l v e s a s A m e r i c a n s b e c a u s e it g a v e t h e m no o t h e r c a u s e but h a t e . 1 '
H a r r y B r u c e , in h i s a r t i c l e for S a t u r d a y N i g h t , N o v e m b e r , 1968,
d r e w an a n a l o g y b e t w e e n H i t l e r and W a l l a c e o v e r the h a t e a s p e c t ,
. . itTs i n t e r e s t i n g that, d u r i n g t e r r i b l y t r o u b l e d t i m e s , b o t h m e n
u s e d e f f e c t i v e o r a t o r y t o g i v e p e o p l e t a r g e t s of h a t e .
e x p l o i t e d the s h a m e f e l t o v e r a l o s t w a r ,
Hitler also
t h e l o v e of a g l o r i o u s a n d m y s -
t i c a l n a t i o n a l p a s t , a n d t h e p r o m i s e of r e s u r r e c t e d n a t i o n a l s t r e n g t h .
M i l l i o n s of A m e r i c a n s a r e a s h a m e d o r c o n f u s e d o v e r
Vietnam,
yearning
f o r t h e i m a g i n e d s i m p l e v i r t u e s of a g l o r i o u s a n d m y s t i c a l n a t i o n a l p a s t ,
e a g e r t o h e a r i n t h e d e m a n d f o r l a w a n d o r d e r the p r o m i s e of r e s u r r e c t e d
national strength.
A m a j o r i t y of t h o s e u n i n f l u e n c e d b y W a l l a c e r e g a r d e d t h e m a n a s
being s u p p o r t e d by the " r i g h t - w i n g " m o v e m e n t .
H i s s u p p o r t of B a r r y
G o l d w a t e r in 1 9 6 4 , a n d h i s a i d f r o m t h e K u K l u x K l a n w h i l e r u n n i n g a n d
s e r v i n g a s G o v e r n o r , a d d e d to t h i s i m a g e .
W a l l a c e u n d o u b t e d l y had the
v 58
W a l t e r G o o d m a n , " G e o r g e W a l l a c e on the Stump,*1
XV ( N o v e m b e r - D e c e m b e r , 1968), 4 8 9 .
59
W h i t e , p. 350.
^Bruce,
p. 20.
Dissent,
105
f o l l o w i n g of m a n y r i g h t - w i n g e r s d u r i n g 1968.
R o b e r t Shelton, the Klan
I m p e r i a l W i z a r d and h i g h c z a r s t a t e d , " W e m a d e h i m G o v e r n o r a n d w e
^J
must make him P r e s i d e n t .
n
J . B , S t o n e r , the l e a d e r of the a n t i -
Semitic, anti-Negro National States Rights P a r t y , also endorsed Wallace.
" O u r s l o g a n i s the s a m e a s in 1964,
6 2S
Chance f o r the White V o t e . "
G o v e r n o r G e o r g e C. W a l l a c e - - L a s t
Other right-wing movements also
r e p o r t e d l y f o l l o w e d in h i s f o o t s t e p s .
A m o n g t h e s e w e r e the W h i t e C i t i -
z e n s Council, John B i r c h Society, L i b e r t y Lobby, Law E n f o r c e m e n t
G r o u p , A m e r i c a n s f o r the P r e s e r v a t i o n of t h e W h i t e R a c e , M i n u t e m e n ,
A m e r i c a n N a z i P a r t y , C h r i s t i a n C r u s a d e , a n d We the P e o p l e .
Of a l l
63
t h e s e g r o u p s W a l l a c e r e p u d i a t e d o n l y the A m e r i c a n N a z i P a r t y .
M a n y w h o f e a r e d W a l l a c e ' s a f f i l i a t i o n w i t h the " r i g h t - w i n g " w e r e
r e m i n d e d of the p h e n o m e n o n of J o s e p h M c C a r t h y a n d h i s " C o m m u n i s t
conspiracy."
An a r t i c l e in A t l a n t i c , N o v e m b e r , 1968, d i s c u s s e s the
comparison.
W a l l a c e , f o r a l l t h a t h e i s , a c h a u v i n i s t i c " r i g h t i s t , " d o e s not
hawk w a r l o u d l y - - J o e M c C a r t h y d i d n ' t e i t h e r . Both w e r e
s h r e w d in d i s a s s o c i a t i n g t h e u n p o p u l a r i t y of w a r f r o m t h e i r r a n t i n g s , a n d b o t h a r r i v e d on a w a r - w e a r y s c e n e . T h e y p u r s u e d a
l i n e of l i t t l e r e s i s t a n c e : the c o n j u r i n g up of c o n s p i r a c y .
T h r o u g h o u t the c a m p a i g n m a n y d e b a t e d if W a l l a c e w a s " l i b e r a l "
o r " c o n s e r v a t i v e . " W h i l e h i s r h e t o r i c resounded w i t h f i s c a l c o n s e r v a t i s m ,
his p a s t r e c o r d a n d i m a g e g a v e a d i f f e r e n t l i g h t to h i s p e r s o n .
During
h i s p e r i o d in the A l a b a m a l e g i s l a t u r e h e w a s o n e of the m o s t l i b e r a l
Q u o t e d b y S h e r r i l l , p . 352.
^Ibid.
V 63
.
J a m e s S i l v e r , " A n E x - M i s s i s s i p p i a n ' s R e f l e c t i o n s on W a l l a c e , "
T h e N e w R e p u b l i c , C L I X ( O c t o b e r 19, 1968), 18.
64
" C a m p a i g n 1968, " p . 14.
106
members.
R e p r e s e n t a t i v e P a u l Findley (Republican), f r o m Illinois,
c h a r g e d W a l l a c e with, b e i n g a f i s c a l l i b e r a l i n a H o u s e s p e e c h o n O c t o b e r 3, 1 9 6 8 .
He q u o t e d t h e
Congre ssional Quarterly
during Wallace's four-year term,
r e p o r t i n g that
1963-1967, the state s p e n t m o r e m o n e y
than under any preceding Governor.
The Q u a r t e r l y quoted a m e m b e r
of c o n g r e s s a s s a y i n g : " H e ' s a f i s c a l l i b e r a l if I e v e r s a w o n e . . . . H e
65
d o e s n ' t t u r n d o w n a n i c k e l of f e d e r a l m a t c h i n g f u n d s o n a n y t h i n g . 1 1
When one e x a m i n e s W a l l a c e ' s ideological stance he finds the p o s i tion i n v o l v e d s p e n d i n g m o r e m o n e y and not l e s s .
Oklahoma City Times,
O c t o b e r 25,
An e d i t o r i a l in the
1968, i n d i c a t e d h i s p l a n i n c l u d e d a n
i n c r e a s e i n S o c i a l S e c u r i t y b e n e f i t s a t o n c e a n d e x p a n s i o n of M e d i c a r e
dramatically.
over WPA.11
He w o u l d a l s o
n
p u s h for full e m p l o y m e n t with a w a r m e d -
The e d i t o r i a l c o n c l u d e d : " S o m e v o t e r s a p p a r e n t l y l i s t e n to
W a l l a c e ' s r a c i a l stand and i n t e r p r e t that a s c o n s e r v a t i s m , but h i s
p r o g r a m s - - p a s t , p r e s e n t and f u t u r e — b e a r m a r k e d r e s e m b l a n c e to the
New,
Fair and other D e a l s . "
In m a n y w a y s W a l l a c e ' s p e r s o n a l i m a g e w a s a m b i g u o u s .
He
o r a t e d to a u d i e n c e s on i s s u e s w i t h o u t t h e p u b l i c k n o w i n g w h e r e h e s t o o d .
In t h e c a m p a i g n e v e r y t h i n g w a s s i m p l i f i e d ; i n
11
The S p e e c h " things w e r e
a l w a y s r e d u c e d to s i m p l e t e r m s , b u t t h i s w a s only an o v e r s h a d o w i n g
i m a g e that c o v e r e d up w h a t w a s r e a l l y t h e r e - - r a c i s m .
c o n t e n d e d he w a s n o t r a c i s t ,
Although Wallace
few politicians took as s t r o n g a stand
a g a i n s t the c i v i l r i g h t s m o v e m e n t , and he t o o k f e w s t e p s to c h a n g e w h a t
65
P a u l F i n d l e y , q u o t e d , 11 T h e L i f e of G e o r g e W a l l a c e , " U . S .
N e w s , L X V ( O c t o b e r 28, 1 9 6 8 ) , 4 6 .
~ ~~
L L
O k l a h o m a C i t y T i m e s , O c t o b e r 25,
1968, p . 42.
107
67
he a d m i t t e d w a s a w i d e l y h e l d v i e w t h a t he w a s r a c i s t .
One v e r y c o n -
servative magazine supporting Wallace admitted he was a segregationist.
Wallace1 s stand h a s been r e m a r k a b l y consistent throughout the
y e a r s in w h i c h he h a s been n a t i o n a l l y in the public e y e . He is
g e n e r a l l y labeled, by his foes, a s a "racist11 and " s e g r e g a t i o n i s t .
He i s n o t a " r a c i s t , " b u t h e i s a " s e g r e g a t i o n i s t . " W a l l a c e p l a y s
d o w n h i s s e g r e g a t i o n i s t v i e w s o u t s i d e of t h e S o u t h , k n o w i n g t h a t
h e i s going to w i n p o i n t s t h a t w a y .
White did not d i s t i n g u i s h b e t w e e n the t e r m s " r a c i s t " and " s e g r e gationist," but b i t t e r l y defined Wallace as the f o r m e r .
George Wallace was an unabashed r a c i s t . . . . was and is a
r a c i s t . He b e l i e v e d , a n d b e l i e v e s n o w , t h a t b l a c k p e o p l e a r e
b i o l o g i c a l l y a n d g e n e t i c a l l y a n i n f e r i o r s p e c i e s of t h e h u m a n
r a c e . He b e l i e v e s t h a t s e g r e g a t i o n b e s t p r e s e r v e s t h e v a l u e s
of b o t h b l a c k a n d w h i t e r a c e s . . . . F o r h i m , N e g r o e s h a v e a
p a r t i c u l a r w a y of l i f e w i t h w h i c h w h i t e s s h o u l d not i n t e r f e r e ; n o r
s h o u l d w h i t e s p e r m i t N e g r o e s t o i n t e r f e r e w i t h t h e i r w a y s of
l i f e . . . . "You m u s t be c a r e f u l , " said a S o u t h e r n r e p o r t e r ,
" t o m a k e c l e a r t h a t W a l l a c e i s n ! t a h a t e r . He d o e s n T t h a t e
N e g r o e s . He's a segregationist, not a l y n c h e r , "k"
T h i s " r a c i s t i m a g e " u n d o u b t e d l y c o s t W a l l a c e m a n y v o t e s in the
end.
B u t W K t e c a l l s a t t e n t i o n to t h e 4 . 1 m i l l i o n s u p p o r t e r s of W a l l a c e ,
" D e s p i t e a l l t h e i n f l u e n c e s of t h e m e d i a , a l l t h e p r e s s u r e of t h e i r l a b o r
l e a d e r s , a l l t h e b l u n d e r s a n d i n c o m p e t e n c e of t h e W a l l a c e c a m p a i g n ,
70
they had voted r a c i s t .
n
S h e r r i l l g i v e s a n i n t e r e s t i n g p i c t u r e of t h e f o l l o w e r s w h o d i d
a d o p t the " r a c i s t " i m a g e , " H i s p o p u l a r i t y b e c a m e i n c r e a s i n g l y t u m u l tuous, m o r e open, adulatory, a l m o s t religious.
Mohammed,
L i k e t h e f o l l o w e r s of
t h o s e who * Stand up f o r A l a b a m a 1 b e l i e v e that a n y o n e who
^ " W a l l a c e S t i r s T h e m Up, " p . 36.
68
S u s a n L. M. Huck, " M r . W a l l a c e — A H a r d Look a t the C a n d i d a t e , " A m e r i c a n Opinion, XI ( S e p t e m b e r , 1968), 38.
^White,
p. 345.
^ I b i d . , p. 369.
108
f a l l s in b a t t l e a g a i n s t t h e
T
p o i n t e d h e a d s a n d s o c i a l e n g i n e e r s of W a s h 71
i n g t o n T w i l l go s t r a i g h t t o a s e g r e g a t e d p a r a d i s e .
n
T h e m a j o r i t y of t h o s e t h a t f i n a l l y votejd f o r W a l l a c e d i d s o , in
p a r t , b e c a u s e of h i s s t a n d o n " r a c e , "
T r u e , W a l l a c e did b e l i e v e in
s e g r e g a t i o n , b u t m a n y a l s o h a d o n e f i n a l i m a g e of t h e m a n .
72
They saw
him as a segregationist second, a demagogue first.
Of a l l t h e p r e s i d e n t i a l c a n d i d a t e s , i n t h e f a l l of 1 9 6 8 o n l y W a l lace could be called c h a r i s m a t i c .
t h e v e i l of a d e m a g o g u e .
He o f t e n p r e s e n t e d t h i s i m a g e u n d e r
His c a m p a i g n in e v e r y w a y f i t s the d e s c r i p t i o n
of a c h a r i s m a t i c l e a d e r p r e s e n t e d i n C h a p t e r I I .
C o n s i d e r the c a m p a i g n ,
w h i c h w a s p e r h a p s t h e m o s t a m a t e u r i s h l y o r g a n i z e d d r i v e of a n y s e r i o u s
c a n d i d a t e t h a t h a d b e e n m o u n t e d in m o d e r n A m e r i c a n h i s t o r y .
Many
cities had no Wallace h e a d q u a r t e r s while o t h e r s had s e v e r a l , and all
w e r e c o m p e t i n g f o r funds and a t t e n t i o n .
N o r h a d a n y of t h e m e m b e r s o f
73
h i s staff h a d p r e v i o u s e x p e r i e n c e in n a t i o n a l p o l i t i c s .
W a l l a c e u n t r a d i t i o n a l l y d e f i e d the t w o - p a r t y s y s t e m , r a i s i n g the
s p e c t e r t h a t no one would be e l e c t e d P r e s i d e n t .
best described him as
f,
Many who knew him
a c o n s u m m a t e d e m a g o g u e who tells the p e o p l e
e x a c t l y w h a t he b e l i e v e s m o s t of t h e m w a n t to h e a r and d o e s n o t h e s i t a t e
t o r e v e r 7s4e h i s p o s i t i o n o n a n y q u e s t i o n if h e t h i n k s i t w i l l m e a n m o r e
v o t e s . i" .
^ S h e r r i l l , p . 306.72
73
C h e s t e r , Hodgson and P a g e , p. 269.
" W a l l a c e ' s A r m y : T h e C o a l i t i o n of F r u s t r a t i o n , M T i m e , X C I I
( O c t o b e r 18, 1 9 6 8 ) , 15.
~~
74
O k l a h o m a C i t y T i m e s , O c t o b e r 29, 1 9 6 8 , p . 2 4 .
109
W a l l a c e m a d e e x c e l l e n t u s e of c h a r i s m a t i c t e r m s .
s p e e c h e s h e e m p h a s i z e d the w o r d " f r e e d o m .
If
In m a n y
This had been a k e y t e r m
f o r t h e C i v i l R i g h t s M o v e m e n t , b u t W a l l a c e e m p l o y e d t h e w o r d in a d i f ferent light.
He i m p l i e d t h a t c i t i z e n s m u s t b e f r e e to u s e t h e i r own
p r o p e r t y a s they saw fit.
75
Other c h a r i s m a t i c t e r m s d e s c r i b e d by
L a w r e n c e W. R o s e n f i e l d a s " g o d - t e r m s " w e r e " s t a t e s ' r i g h t s , " " l o c a l
76
government,
TT
"good people, " and "law and o r d e r . "
H i s c h a r i s m a e v o l v e d a s a r e s u l t of s o c i a l and i d e o l o g i c a l c i r cumstances.
These i n c l u d e d the d a i l y t e n s i o n s of r a c i a l c o n f l i c t a n d
the t h r e a t of a t o m i c h o l o c a u s t .
T h e f r u s t r a t i n g V i e t n a m W a r and t h e
w e a k e n i n g a n c h o r s of the p o l i t i c a l s y s t e m a l s o w e r e i n f l u e n t i a l ; h o w e v e r ,
h e w a s u l t i m a t e l y d e s t r o y e d b y i n e f f e c t i v e u s e of the m e d i a w h i c h l e l p e d
to c r e a t e h i s i m a g e .
T o w a r d the e n d , h i s p e r s o n a l a n d i d e o l o g i c a l i m a g e s
diminished a s his publicity i n c r e a s e d .
G e o r g e W a l l a c e p r e s e n t e d b o t h a n i d e o l o g i c a l and p e r s o n a l i m a g e
to the e l e c t o r a t e in the 1968 p r e s i d e n t i a l c a m p a i g n .
These images were
a c c e p t e d b y o v e r a m i l l i o n A m e r i c a n v o t e r s and r e j e c t e d b y t h e r e s t .
A m o n g the p e r s o n a l i m a g e s p r o j e c t e d w e r e " s u p p o r t e r of t h e l i t t l e f e l low,
l!
"hate monger, " "right winger, " "liberal, " "conservative, " "racist, "
" segregationalist,
n
and finally, " c h a r i s m a t i c d e m a g o g u e . "
T h e p u b l i c h a s a " p u b l i c i m a g e " of e a c h p r e s i d e n t i a l c a n d i d a t e ,
which influences their vote.
This " i m a g e " r e a l l y b e c o m e s m o r e i m p o r -
t a n t t h a n the a c t u a l p e r s o n a l i t y of the c a n d i d a t e b e c a u s e i t c o n t i n u e s
75
J . J . M a k a y , " G e o r g e C. W a l l a c e : S o u t h e r n S p o k e s m a n w i t h a
N o r t h e r n A u d i e n c e , " C e n t r a l States-^Speech J o u r n a l ( F a l l 1968), p . 2 0 6 .
76
L a w r e n c e W. R o s e n f i e l d , " G e o r g e W a l l a c e P l a y s R o s e m a r y ' s
B a b y , " T h e Q u a r t e r l y J o u r n a l of S p e e c h , L V ( F e b r u a r y , 1969}# 37.
110
i n f l u e n c i n g the p e o p l e w h e n t h e c a n d i d a t e i s b o d i l y a b s e n t f r o m t h e i r
midst.
If t h e p u b l i c c a n a c c e p t t h e i m a g e , t h e y b u y i t , e n j o y i t , a n d
identify with it.
Wallace.
S e v e r a l m i l l i o n p u r c h a s e d t h e p u b l i c i m a g e of G e o r g e
M a n y o t h e r s p e r h a p s w o u l d h a v e a c c e p t e d i t if i t h a d b e e n p r e -
sented m o r e convincingly#
T h i s is d i s c u s s e d in the n e x t s e c t i o n , w h i c h
d e a l s p r i m a r i l y w i t h t h e t e c h n i c a l a s p e c t s of t h e 1968 c a m p a i g n .
Technical Dimension
T h e p r e s i d e n t i a l c a m p a i g n of 1 9 6 8 w a s d o m i n a t e d b y t h e n e w
e l e c t r o n i c media,,
V a r i o u s studies have indicated that the Nixon c a m -
p a i g n w a s o r g a n i z e d in a m a n n e r w h i c h u t i l i z e d t h e m e d i a f u l l y , u n l i k e
t h e c a m p a i g n s of H u m p h r e y a n d e s p e c i a l l y W a l l a c e , w h i c h w e r e p o o r l y
organized.
T h i s s e c t i o n e x a m i n e s t h e t e c h n i c a l a s p e c t of t h e i m a g e -
b u i l d i n g p r o c e s s v i a t h e m e d i a i n t h e c a m p a i g n of G e o r g e W a l l a c e a n d
o f f e r s s u g g e s t i o n s h o w t h i s d i m e n s i o n c o n t r i b u t e d to h i s l o s s .
References
a n d c o m p a r i s o n s a r e m a d e t o Nixon* s c a m p a i g n s i n c e i t d e m o n s t r a t e d t h e
t h e o r y p o s t u l a t e d in C h a p t e r II.
A C a m p a i g n of F s e u d o - E v e n t s
A l l p o l i t i c i a n s u s e p s e u d o - e v e n t s to t h e i r a d v a n t a g e i n m o d e r a t e
n u m b e r s , but Wallace employed considerably large n u m b e r s .
obvious was the c a m p a i g n r a l l y and its r e p e t i t i o u s p a t t e r n .
The m o s t
Every aspect
o f the e v e n t w a s d e s i g n e d to s t i m u l a t e a p a t r i o t i c m o o d i n t h e a u d i e n c e .
C o u n t r y b a n d m u s i c r e l a x e d t h e c r o w d a n d g a v e the " W a l l a c e G i r l s * 1
(who w e r e d i s c r e e t l y c o m b e d , l i g h t l y l i p s t i c k e d , and w i t h h e m l i n e s j u s t
a b o v e t h e k n e e s ) t i m e to p a s s the p l a s t i c c o n t r i b u t i o n b u c k e t s and
" p l e d g e of s u p p o r t ' 1 f u n d - r a i s e r p a m p h l e t s .
Outside the m e e t i n g hall
Ill
other w o r k e r s sold Wallace hats, buttons,
tags, posters, and banners.
ties, bumper stickers, car
L i t e r a t u r e included The W a l l a c e Story, a
biography by W a l l a c e ^ campaign m a n a g e r ,
Bill Jones, and
n
The Wal-
lace Record Newspaper1' which included excerpts from his speeches,
f a v o r a b l e p o l l s , a n d p i c t u r e s of p a s t r a l l i e s .
B e f o r e W a l l a c e s p o k e , the n a t i o n a l a n t h e m w a s s u n g , i n v o c a t i o n
p r o n o u n c e d , the L o r d T s P r a y e r r e c i t e d , and
reverently vocalized.
n
God Bless America11
T h i s e m o t i o n a l l y h i g h p o i n t in t h e r a l l y o f t e n p r o -
duced p a t r i o t i c t e a r s , and helped in c i r c u l a t i n g the i m a g e W a l l a c e p o r 77
t r a y e d of
tf
The Patriotic A m e r i c a n , "
V T h e s p e e c h , a l m o s t a r e p e t i t i o n of t h e o n e w h i c h w o n h i m t h e
G o v e r n o r s h i p of A l a b a m a , w a s a l s o a p s e u d o - e v e n t .
t o o k a w a y f r o m i t a c c o r d i n g to t h e a u d i e n c e r e s p o n s e .
He a d d e d to and
As Jules Loh
s a i d , " T h e e v o c a t i v e l i n e i s c a r e f u l l y h o n e d a n d m a d e a p a r t of t h e
script.
The a u d i e n c e r e s p o n s e then b e c o m e s p r e d i c t a b l e , a s though
78
o r c h e s t r a t e d w i t h a f l o u r i s h of a r h e t o r i c a l b a t o n . 1 1
E a r l y in t h e c a m p a i g n h i s s p e e c h m a d e a n i n c i d e n t a l r e f e r e n c e
to t a x - e x e m p t f o u n d a t i o n s .
The r e s p o n s e w a s m i l d l y f a v o r a b l e , so he
s t a r t e d n a m i n g the f o u n d a t i o n s - - R o c k e f e l l e r , C a r n e g i e , and F o r d .
the a p p l a u s e i n c r e a s e d he d e c i d e d to tax t h o s e foundations, so
u
When
. . . maybe
they would quit r e c o m m e n d i n g s o - c a l l e d w e l f a r e s c h e m e s that we t a x 79
p a y e r s h a v e to p a y f o r .
n
With the a p p l a u s e e v e n b e t t e r , he d e l i v e r e d
his final attack, ". . . those multibillion dollar tax-exempt foundations
w i t h t h e i r b i g i d e a s a b o u t p a y i n g p e o p l e n o t to w o r k a n d n o t t o b u r n
77
F o r t W o r t h S t a r - T e l e g r a m , O c t o b e r 20, 1 9 6 8 , S e c . A , p . 7,
78
79
7
Ibid.
Ibid,
112
80
down the c o u n t r y . "
This time the applause b e c a m e deafening, and
the c r o w d r o s e to i t s f e e t .
In t h e s a m e f a s h i o n h i s p r o m i s e t o s t a t i o n
t r o o p s in W a s h i n g t o n "five f e e t a p a r t with t h r e e - f o o t b a y o n e t s " b e c a m e
81
"three feet a p a r t with five-foot b a y o n e t s . "
This p r o c e s s a l s o w o r k e d in r e v e r s e .
declared,
To e a r l y a u d i e n c e s he
" . . „ if I b e c o m e p r e s i d e n t a n d s o m e a n a r c h i s t l i e s d o w n i n
f r o n t of m y a u t o m o b i l e . . .
82
d o w n in f r o n t o f . "
i t ' s g o i n g to b e t h e l a s t a u t o m o b i l e h e l i e s
When his image began tarnishing with a c c u s a t i o n s
of a d v o c a t i n g s t r e e t v i o l e n c e , he d e f e n s i v e l y c l a i m e d he h a d b e e n m i s q u o t e d , a n d a l t e r e d t h e l i n e t o r e a d , " . . . i t T s g o i n g to b e t h e l a s t
83
a u t o m o b i l e h e w i l l e v e r w a n t to l i e d o w n i n f r o n t o f . 1 1
M a n y i m a g e s of p o l i t i c i a n s , e s p e c i a l l y t h o s e t h a t b e c o m e c e l e b r i t i e s , a r e d i f f e r e n t i a t e d m a i n l y b y t r i v i a of p e r s o n a l i t y .
This was
e s p e c i a l l y t r u e of W a l l a c e ' s v o c a b u l a r y a n d s o u t h e r n d r a w l .
t o r y w a s f u l l of h u m o r o u s m i s p r o n u n c i a t i o n s ,
His o r a -
colloquialisms, and color-
f u l c o i n a g e s of w o r d s w h i c h h a d t h e e f f e c t of r i d i c u l i n g " t h o s e o v e r e d u c a t e d i v o r y - t o w e r folks who look down t h e i r n o s e s at you and m e a n d
84
call us r e d n e c k s , p e c k e r w o o d s , p e a p i c k e r s and c r a c k e r s . "
A n o t h e r r a l l y f a c t o r w h i c h W a l l a c e a d e p t l y u s e d to h i s o w n
" i m a g e making11 advantage was the h e c k l e r s .
They appeared at amost
e v e r y m e e t i n g and a d d e d v a r i e t y to the o t h e r w i s e c a n n e d a n d m u n d a n e
speech.
D u r i n g the s p e e c h they r a i s e d p l a c a r d s w h i c h r e a d
RACIST
GO H O M E , W A L L A C E IS R O S E M A R Y ' S B A B Y , S H O U L D A M A D M A N
Ibid.
Ibid.
QO
Q "2
C h e s t e r , Hodgson, and P a g e , p. 283.
Ibid.
84
F o r t W o r t h S t a r - T e l e g r a m , O c t o b e r 20, 1 9 6 8 , S e c . A , p . 7 .
113
HAVE A-BOMBS, or KILL FOR P E A C E .
When the demonstrations
s e e m e d t o b e g e t t i n g o u t of h a n d W a l l a c e c a l l e d f o r p o l i c e a c t i o n .
This
g a v e h i m o p p o r t u n i t y to d e m o n s t r a t e to h i s a u d i e n c e the m e t h o d he
85
w o u l d u s e i n h a n d l i n g t h e " l a w a n d o r d e r " p r o b l e m if e l e c t e d p r e s i d e n t .
T h e e v e n t w a s a l s o u s e d t o s t a b i l i z e t h e m o o d f o r t h e r e m a i n d e r of t h e
s p e e c h , a s i t w a s f o u n d in t h e l a s t s e c t i o n u n d e r h i s i m a g e of h a t e .
T h e i m a g e of a p o l i t i c i a n i s a c t u a l l y a p s e u d o - e v e n t i n i t s e l f a n d
spawns o t h e r p s e u d o - e v e n t s .
E v e r y p r e s s a n n o u n c e m e n t or a d v e r t i s e -
m e n t r e l e a s e d l e a d s to a n o t h e r e v e n t , w h e t h e r it b e a r a l l y ,
television appearance.
speech, or
W a l l a c e u t i l i z e d t h r e e of t h e s e m e t h o d s
extensively.
The f i r s t event was an o r d i n a r y p r e s s c o n f e r e n c e which r e s u l t e d
in a n e w s p a p e r a r t i c l e .
A n e x a m p l e of t h i s i s t a k e n f r o m t h e D a l l a s
M o r n i n g N e w s , a n d r e f e r r e d to a n u p c o m i n g f u n d - r a i s i n g d i n n e r i n t h a t
city.
The a n n o u n c e m e n t a l s o m e n t i o n e d t h a t W a l l a c e " m a y r e v e a l t h e
n a m e of h i s v i c e - p r e s i d e n t i a l r u n n i n g m a t e d u r i n g [that v i s i t J
"
T h e s e c o n d t y p e w a s a n e w s p a p e r a d v e r t i s e m e n t in t h e f o r m of
a p u b l i c o p i n i o n p o l l that s h o w e d W a l l a c e w i n n i n g b y a " l a n d s l i d e . "
These
w e r e l a b e l e d a s " p o l l s y o u h a v e n ' t b e e n t o l d a b o u t , " and i m p l i e d that
W a l l a c e w a s a c t u a l l y w i n n i n g a c r o s s A m e r i c a , a n d that t h e e s t a b l i s h e d p o l l s
were incorrect.
H o w e v e r , c l o s e e x a m i n a t i o n r e v e a l e d that the p o l l s w e r e
i n a d e q u a t e l y s a m p l e d a n d t a k e n in s m a l l r u r a l c i t i e s , w i t h p r i v a t e n e w s p a p e r r e p o r t e r s c o n d u c t i n g the s u r v e y s .
M a n y of t h e s e w e r e u n d o u b t e d l y
c o n s e r v a t i v e p a p e r s s u c h a s n e w s p a p e r s f r o m R u s k County, T e x a s , { E a s t
85
86
Goodman, p. 489.
D a l l a s M o r n i n g N e w s , S e p t e m b e r 12,
1968, p.
1.
114
T e x a s ) and the Daytona B e a c h ,
F l o r i d a , a r e a , w h e r e " W a l l a c e w i n s 65
87
p e r c e n t of t h e v o t e , 1 1
T h e t h i r d t y p e a n n o u n c e m e n t w a s m e r e l y a n e w s p a p e r l i s t i n g of
W a l l a c e b r o a d c a s t i n g t i m e s a n d c h a n n e l s on t e l e v i s i o n .
88
announcements also asked for contributions.
M o s t of t h e s e
A l l p o l i t i c i a n s t o d a y m a k e u s e of p s e u d o - e v e n t s in t h e i r i m a g e building p r o c e s s .
G e o r g e W a l l a c e in the 1968 p r e s i d e n t i a l e l e c t i o n c a m -
paign w a s v e r y a d e p t at this and gained c o n s i d e r a b l e recognition and
s t a t u s b e c a u s e of t h e e v e n t s .
H i s c o n s t a n t q u a r r e l s w i t h the p r e s s a n d
p o l l s t e r s could be c a t e g o r i z e d a s p s e u d o - e v e n t s ; h o w e v e r , the events a r e
b e i n g d i s c u s s e d s e p a r a t e l y in t h i s s e c t i o n .
His attitude about the p r e s s
as f r i e n d and f o e a n d its i m p o r t a n c e in c r e a t i n g and d e s t r o y i n g h i s p u b l i c
i m a g e w i l l b e v i e w e d in t h e f o l l o w i n g s e c t i o n .
G e o r g e W a l l a c e and the P r e s s
P r e s s as a friend and foe. - -Wallace had m a n y a r g u m e n t s with
t h e p r e s s d u r i n g t h e 1968 c a m p a i g n a n d on o c c a s i o n s c a l l e d t h e m e n e m i e s .
As all other political candidates, he had his few, friendly p a p e r s .
f a c t i s i n d i c a t i v e of h i s l a r g e p o p u l a r i t y i n t h e S o u t h .
This
Lord Windlesham
in C o m m u n i c a t i o n and P o l i t i c a l P o w e r , n o t e d , t h a t d u r i n g the M a y 1963,
B i r m i n g h a m , Alabama, r a c e riots, the B i r m i n g h a m News kept all m e n t i o n of t h e i n c i d e n t s off t h e f r o n t p a g e .
Ironically, reports issued from
B i r m i n g h a m m a d e t h e f r o n t p a g e s of p a p e r s t h r o u g h o u t t h e w o r l d .
W i n d l e s h a m d i s c u s s e s t h i s p r o b l e m a n d i t s i m p o r t a n c e in v i e w i n g t h e
South's conservative attitude by saying:
87
D a l l a s M o r n i n g N e w s , N o v e m b e r 4, 1968, S e c . A . p , 12.
88 D a i l y O k l a h o m a n , O c t o b e r 24, 1 9 6 8 , p . 34,
115
T h e r e a l b l o c k a g e h a s b e e n n o t in p r e v e n t i n g s p e c i f i c i n f o r m a t i o n f r o m b e i n g p r i n t e d , b u t in p r e v e n t i n g t h e e m e r g e n c e of anya l t e r n a t i v e o p i n i o n on r a c i a l m a t t e r s c a p a b l e of c o m m a n d i n g
r e s p e c t . The t r a d i t i o n a l v i e w h a s b e e n r e f l e c t e d in the t r a d i t i o n a l p r e s s . The l i b e r a l v i e w h a s h a d n o c o m p e t i t i v e p r e s s to
b e r e f l e c t e d i n . The r e s u l t of t h i s l a c k of c o m m e r c i a l l y c o m p e t i t i v e s i t u a t i o n h a s b e e n the l a c k of a s i t u a t i o n in w h i c h i d e a s
c a n c o m p e t e . E v e n if t h e r e w e r e a s i z a b l e n u m b e r of p e o p l e i n
a t o w n h o l d i n g l i b e r a l o p i n i o n s i n c l i n i n g t o w a r d s i n t e g r a t i o n , if
t h e r e w a s no c o m m u n i c a t i o n s m e d i u m to b r i n g t h e m t o g e t h e r
t h e y w o u l d n o t k n o w i t . ^9
A d d i t i o n a l i n f o r m a t i o n p r o v e s W a l l a c e did h a v e s u p p o r t f r o m t h e
S o u t h ' s p r e s s , e s p e c i a l l y the p r e s s of A l a b a m a .
The B i r m i n g h a m N e w s
a g a i n d i s t o r t e d the f a c t s on J u n e 12, 1963, t h e d a y f o l l o w i n g W a l l a c e ' s
"school-house door stand. "
The p a p e r h e a d l i n e d i t s r e p o r t " K e n n e d y
N e g l e c t s Lrocal ."Laws," and f o l l o w e d t h i s up w i t h a n o t h e r a r t i c l e on p a g e
90
o n e , " P r e s i d e n t L e c t u r e s N a t i o n on ' R i g h t s ' . "
This a c t i o n b y the
l o c a l p r e s s a l s o a f f e c t e d the t e l e v i s i o n m e d i u m .
Of t h e two t e l e v i s i o n
s t a t i o n s in A l a b a m a , one g a v e up i t s a f f i l i a t i o n w i t h C B S a f t e r the c o u r t
a c t i o n s , a n d t h e o t h e r , an N B C a f f i l i a t e , w a s o w n e d b y the B i r m i n g h a m
News. 9*
A l a b a m a a l s o f o r c e d b o t h t h e New Y o r k T i m e s and C B S N e w s
out of the s t a t e f o r a p e r i o d of o v e r one y e a r , a n d d u r i n g t h a t t i m e
n e i t h e r s e r v i c e could obtain f i r s t - h a n d i n f o r m a t i o n .
P r e s s a s an e n e m y . - - G r a n t e d , t h e f o r m e r G o v e r n o r h a d c o n s e r v a t i v e f o l l o w e r s i n the p r e s s , b u t he a l s o h a d e n e m i e s , a n d t h e s e o f t e n
g a v e h i m r e a s o n f o r c o m p l a i n t to the p u b l i c .
e v e n t s , he t u r n e d t h i s a c t i o n into v o t e s .
But like h i s o t h e r p s e u d o -
In the e a r l y s t a g e s of t h e c a m -
p a i g n m a n y n e w s p a p e r s , e s p e c i a l l y t h o s e in the N o r t h , p l a y e d down t h e i r
89
L o r d Windlesham, Communication and P o l i t i c a l P o w e r
( L o n d o n , 1966), p . 2 0 5 .
90
I b i d . , p . 209.
91
I b i d . , p . 210.
116
c o v e r a g e of W a l l a c e , a s a d e l i b e r a t e p o l i c y .
This "silent t r e a t m e n t " by
t h e n e w s p a p e r m e d i a h a d to c e a s e b e c a u s e t h e d e c i s i v e p o l l s r o s e f r o m
n i n e p e r c e n t in A p r i l t o 21 p e r c e n t i n S e p t e m b e r .
He c o u l d n o l o n g e r
92
)/ be ignored.
The p r e s s suddenly began to o v e r c o m p e n s a t e for its p r e v i o u s
l a c k of i n t e r e s t * a n d c o v e r e d a l l of W a l l a c e ' s r a l l i e s .
This over publicity
c a u s e d a r e v e r s e e f f e c t , b e c a u s e h i s i m a g e w a s c o m i n g t h r o u g h too c l e a r .
He w a s b e c o m i n g a " n e w s p i e c e " or a " n o v e l t y " t h a t m a d e good copy.
Newspapermen and television interviewers everywhere were seeking
h i m out t o s e e w h o c o u l d r e l a y to t h e p u b l i c h i s m o s t r e c k l e s s u t t e r a n c e s .
W a l l a c e s o o n h a d the f e e l i n g he p e a k e d too s o o n , f o r it s e e m e d t h a t i n c r e a s e d
p u b l i c i t y r e s u l t e d i n a d e c l i n e of h i s i m a g e .
This new m e d i a r e a c t i o n
p r e c i p i t a t e d a r a d i c a l r e f o r m a t i o n of h i s p e r s o n a l , p o l i t i c a l i m a g e ,
his b e h a v i o r c h a n g e d a c c o r d i n g l y .
However,
and
i t w a s too l a t e ; h i s p o p u -
l a r i t y in the p o l l s had s t a r t e d d i m i n i s h i n g a l r e a d y .
S e v e r a l f a c t o r s c o n t r i b u t e d to t h i s .
F i r s t , a s it w a s n o t e d e a r l i e r
in t h e " I d e o l o g i c a l D i m e n s i o n " s e c t i o n of t h i s c h a p t e r , a n e n d - o f - c a m p a i g n d r i v e by H u m p h r e y and his f o r c e s m a d e a c o n s i d e r a b l e i m p a c t
upon the v o t e r s .
S e c o n d l y , W a l l a c e a t t e m p t e d to c h a n g e h i s s t r a t e g y
w h i c h r e s u l t e d in a l o s s of v o t e s .
L a s t , b u t not l e a s t , he did not
m a k e p r o p e r u s e of t h e m a s s m e d i a d u r i n g t h e e l e c t i o n w h i c h p r e v e n t e d
h i s i m a g e f r o m c r y s t a l l i z i n g in t h e m i n d s of t h e e l e c t o r a t e .
92
^
A r c h i b a l d and Helen C r o s s l e y , pp. 12-13.
117
W a l l a c e ' s R o l e in t h e " N e w P o l i t i c s "
A n e w f a c e in t h e m i d d l e of a _ c a m p a i g n . - - G e n e W y c k o f f s t a t e d
*n
I m a g e Candidates, "Upon o c c a s i o n . . .
a candidate can be so
s t r i k i n g l y c h a r a c t e r i z e d b y o t h e r m e d i a p r i o r to h i s e x p o s u r e on t e l e v i s i o n t h a t p e r s o n a b l e a p p e a r a n c e a n d d e m e a n o r a d d e d up to n a u g h t .
^
T h i s w a s e s p e c i a l l y c h a r a c t e r i s t i c of G e o r g e W a l l a c e ' s a p p e a r a n c e on
t e l e v i s i o n a f t e r h i s p o p u l a r i t y s t a r t e d to f a l l .
T h r o u g h the " h o t " m e d i u m
of the n e w s p a p e r h e c o m m u n i c a t e d b e a u t i f u l l y , b u t a s a " h o t " o r a t o r
over a "cool" television m e d i u m he f a i l e d .
c h a r a c t e r of t h e m a n o n t e l e v i s i o n .
R o s e n f i e l d d e s c r i b e s the
"He s t a r t l e d a public u n a c c u s t o m e d
to s t u m p - o r a t o r y ferocity, even as his a n t i - a g g r e s s o r stance diminished
his p e r s u a s i v e p o t e n t i a l .
F o r a n a t i o n c o n d i t i o n e d to t h e b a n a l r a t i o n a l i t y
of t e l e v i s i o n n e w s i n t e r v i e w s , the W a l l a c e a c t w a s a l m o s t s e n s u o u s . " ^
He f o r g o t t h a t t h e s p o k e n w o r d w a s m o r e e m o t i o n a l t h a n t h e w r i t t e n
w o r d b e c a u s e i t c a r r i e d n o t only m e a n i n g , b u t t h e e m o t i o n a l c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s of t h e s p e a k e r .
Wallace p r o j e c t e d a negative type e m o t i o n .
As
W h i t e s t a t e d , " T h e m e d i a , t r y i n g to d o c u m e n t the W a l l a c e c a m p a i g n in
w o r d s a n d p i c t u r e s , b e g a n to s p r e a d t h e i m a g e of a m a n n o t m a s t e r i n g
QS
d i s o r d e r in the n a t i o n , b u t p r o v o k i n g i t w h e r e he w e n t . "
This was
e v i d e n c e d by r e s u l t a n t h e a d l i n e s , " C l a s h e s M a r W a l l a c e R a l l y in
D e t r o i t , " " F i g h t s B r e a k Out a s H e c k l e r s D i s r u p t W a l l a c e R a l l y in
T e x a s , " a n d " T e n n e s s e e Mob B e a t s B o y Who S a s s e d W a l l a c e .
V 93
G e n e W y c k o f f , The I m a g e C a n d i d a t e s (New Y o r k , 1968), p . 150.
]
94
Q
Rosenfield, p. 41.
White, p. 364.
96,
Ibid.
118
T h e s e l e c t i o n of L e M a y a d d e d t o t h e " h o t n e s s 1 1 of h i s c a m p a i g n .
Even LeMayTs first p r e s s conference as a vice-presidential running
mate stimulated fear.
As one r e p o r t e r r e m a r k e d : "No s c e n e w a s m o r e
t e l l i n g of t h e f e a r of L e M a y t h a n t h a t w h i c h t o o k p l a c e O c t o b e r 3 i n
Pittsburgh.
L e M a y - - j u s t i n t r o d u c e d by W a l l a c e - - f a c e d the p r e s s and
t a l k e d a b o u t t h e u s e of n u c l e a r w e a p o n s a s W i l l a c e t u g g e d n e r v o u s l y a t
97
t h e g e n e r a l ' s s l e e v e i n a n o b v i o u s e f f o r t to f t o n e d o w n 1 t h e r e m a r k s . 1 1
T h e " p r o p e r " i m a g e of a p r e s i d e n t i a l c a n d i d a t e e v o k e s e m o t i o n
f r o m his electorate and ultimately e n d o r s e s him.
D e f i n i n g the w o r d
" p r o p e r " is a politician's tedious but n e c e s s a r y g a m e .
At this t a s k
W a l l a c e failed b e c a u s e s u p p o r t e r s r e - e v a l u a t e d his i m a g e and o r g a n i z a tion a n d found it w a n t i n g . White a g a i n p o i n t s out w h a t r e s u l t e d :
A s m e d i a m a d e c l e a r the cold W a l l a c e m e s s a g e , s t r i p p i n g
" f o l k s i n e s s " f r o m h i m , t h o s e w h o c o u l d n o t a c c e p t the l a b e l
" r a c i s t " for t h e m s e l v e s g r e w - - a n d v o t e r s who thought W a l l a c e
a " r a c i s t " r o s e f r o m 40 to 5 1 to 5 9 t o 67 p e r c e n t ; i n h a r m o n y ,
t h o s e w h o t h o u g h t of h i m a s a n " e x t r e m i s t " r o s e f r o m 5 1 t o 5 6
t o 62 to 6 9 . C o n v e r s e l y , f r o m h i s S e p t e m b e r h i g h , W a l l a c e
b e g a n to d r o p ~ ~ f r o m 21 t o 18 to 16 t o 1 3 . ^ 8
T h e p u b l i c c o n t i n u e d h e a r i n g the " h o t " o r a t o r y of W a l l a c e w h o
a c c u s e d t h e n a t i o n a l p r e s s of t r e a t i n g h i m u n k i n d l y b e c a u s e i t s m e m b e r s
were "liberal left-wingers."
After his speech at Madison Square G a r -
d e n , h e c r i t i c i z e d t h e n e w s m e d i a a n d s a i d : " (j:he m e d i a ] w o u l d r a t h e r
t a l k a b o u t the p o l i c e a n d the f e w p i c k e t s b u t t h e y d o n ' t i n t e n d t o l e t
99
people know what y o u ' r e saying. "
He a l s o l a m b a s t e d t h e p o l l s
d e c l a r i n g t h e m " l i a r s . . . t r y i n g to r i g the e l e c t i o n and i n t e r f e r e with
97
98
O k l a h o m a C i t y T i m e s , N o v e m b e r 7,
1968, e d i t o r i a l p a g e .
W h i t e , p. 364.
99
Oklahoma City T i m e s ,
O c t o b e r 25,
1968, p . 8.
119
t h e v o t e r s r i g h t s to c a s t t h e i r v o t e i n a c c o r d a n c e w i t h t h e i r t r u e t h o u g h t s
or c o n v i c t i o n s . 1 1 ^ ^
the polls
t!
He a s s u r e d h i s s u p p o r t e r s w o u l d e l e c t h i m b e c a u s e
have b e e n w r o n g b e f o r e and a r e w r o n g again*
M
"Wallace c h a n g e d i m a g e s in t h e m i d d l e of a p o l i t i c a l g a m e w h i c h
•7
honors constancy and predictability.
He f a i l e d to g a i n t h e p u b l i c ' s t r u s t
i n t h i s a r e a , b u t h e a l s o r e f u s e d to a c k n o w l e d g e n e w f a c e t s of t h e p o l i t ical game.
His f a i l u r e to u n d e r s t a n d and m a n i p u l a t e the c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s
a n d t o o l s of t h e " N e w P o l i t i c s 1 1 a n d i t s e l e c t r o n i c m e d i a m a d e h i s d e f e a t
inevitable.
T h i s f i n a l s e c t i o n e x a m i n e s t h e g a m e r u l e s of t h e " N e w
P o l i t i c s " and how Wallace p a r t i c i p a t e d and lost.
W h a t to do w i t h the " N e w P o l i t i c s " . — C e r t a i n i n t e r e s t i n g a s p e c t s
of t h e " N e w P o l i t i c s 1 1 w e r e d e m o n s t r a t e d i n t h e 1968 r a c e .
In White 1 s
d i s c u s s i o n of t h e m e d i a , h e u n c o v e r s a n i m p o r t a n t f a c t a b o u t G e o r g e
Wallace's campaign.
G e o r g e W a l l a c e n e v e r u n d e r s t o o d the n a t i o n a l p r e s s o r
n a t i o n a l t e l e v i s i o n ; w i s e r c o u n s e l than the c o u n t r y b o y s who
attend h i m m i g h t have p o l i s h e d or p r e s e n t e d him b e t t e r ; w i s e r
p l a n n i n g m i g h t h a v e m a d e h i s l a s t s i x w e e k s ' e f f o r t l e s s of a
c i r c u s . Constructive thought m i g h t have given him just a touch
of t h a t d i g n i t y w h i c h e v e r y A m e r i c a n , n o m a t t e r h o w p r i m i t i v e ,
s e e k s in a P r e s i d e n t . * ^
T h e u s e of a m a t e u r m a n a g e m e n t a n d i t s e f f e c t s o n t h e c a m p a i g n
were certain.
W a l l a c e ' s p r o f e s s i o n a l c a d r e w a s l i m i t e d to l o n g - t i m e
personal aides whose loyalty was reliable.
As popularity g r e w it b e c a m e
a p p a r e n t t h e g r o u p w a s t o o s m a l l to r u n a n a t i o n a l p r e s i d e n t i a l c a m p a i g n .
But W a l l a c e , w h o s e e m e d to d i s t r u s t s t r a n g e r s , r e f u s e d t o r e c r u i t n e w
^ D a l l a s M o r n i n g N e w s , O c t o b e r 29,
^ ^ W h i t e , p. 366.
1968, p .
1.
120
people.
He o p e r a t e d t h e m e d i a w i t h o u t t h e g u i d a n c e of c o m m u n i c a t i o n
specialists1 expertise.
adequately trained men,
W y c k o f f p o i n t e d o u t t h e i m p o r t a n c e of h a v i n g
" W h e n an i m a g e s p e c i a l i s t w o r k s with a top
m a n , he m u s t w o r k d i r e c t l y with that m a n . . . The s p e c i a l i s t is, a f t e r
102
all, p u t t i n g w o r d s into the c a n d i d a t e ' s m o u t h that m u s t s o u n d n a t u r a l . "
Nixon and H u m p h r e y both u s e d t h i s technique and had public r e l a t i o n
f i r m s handle their image making p r o c e s s .
Wallace worked alone and
his m e d i a s p o k e s m e n w e r e not as qualified a s Nixon and H u m p h r e y ^
experts.
W y c k o f f a l s o s t r e s s e d t h e i m p o r t a n c e of t h e m a t e r i a l u s e d o n
television:
!1
. . . something about image m a t e r i a l that I have n e v e r f o r -
gotten, n a m e l y , that you cannot m i x it with u n s t a g e d d i r e c t - t o - c a m e r a
m a t e r i a l on t h e s a m e p r o g r a m w i t h o u t m a k i n g t h e d i r e c t - t o - c a m e r a
103
s p e a k e r s s e e m m o r e d u l l and p e d e s t r i a n t h a n t h e y m i g h t b e . "
two l e a d i n g c a n d i d a t e s did not f o l l o w t h i s p a t t e r n b u t W a l l a c e d i d .
The
His
c o m m e r c i a l s and p r o g r a m s m i x e d f i l m e d s h o t s f r o m h i s r a l l i e s and the
candidate's direct-to-camera conversations.
Consequently, he looked
r a t h e r u n p o l i s h e d i n s o m e of the h o m e l y f i v e - m i n u t e f i l m s .
At t i m e s
h e a p p a r e n t l y s e e m e d d r e a d f u l l y t i r e d a n d s i c k of the s o u n d of h i s o w n
voice.
N i x o n ' s c a m p a i g n i n 1968 w a s a p h e n o m e n o n of t h e " N e w P o l i t i c s 1 1
c o m p a r e d t o t h a t of G e o r g e W a l l a c e .
T h e A m e r i c a n P a r t y in e f f e c t
r e p r e s e n t e d a n a t t e m p t to u t i l i z e t h e o l d s t y l e c a m p a i g n ( 1 9 0 0 C e n t u r y
o r e a r l y 2 0 t h C e n t u r y ) d u r i n g t h e l a t t e r p a r t of t h e 2 0 t h C e n t u r y .
Wal-
l a c e t r a v e l e d the c o u n t r y s i d e " s t u m p i n g " and t r y i n g to v i s i t e v e r y s t a t e ;
102
103
Wyckoff, p. 39.
Ibid., pp. 28-29.
121
Nixon c a r e f u l l y booked a campaign that would not fatigue him but would
p r o v i d e m a x i m u m u s e of t e l e v i s i o n a n d a w i d e l a t i t u d e t o h i s s t a f f .
He
104
c o v e r e d o n l y 31 of the 50 s t a t e s .
White Wallace traveled alone with his u n p r o f e s s i o n a l A l a b a m a
f r i e n d s , N i x o n t u r n e d to m e d i a s p e c i a l i s t s .
His " p a r t n e r s b e c a m e stu-
d e n t s of m e d i a p o l i t i c s e s p e c i a l l y a t t u n e d t o t h e i m p a c t of t e l e v i s i o n u p o n
contemporary attitudes.
T h e y d i s c a r d e d p o l i t i c a l f a s h i o n s of a q u i t t e r
105
p a s t , and t h e y built their c a s e upon c u e s p r o v i d e d by Nixon h i m s e l f . 1 1
Nixon j a m m e d p r i m e time with television a n n o u n c e m e n t s and
a l w a y s p r e s e n t e d t h e s e in a cool, r e lazed, a n d c o n v e r s a t i o n a l t o n e .
W a l l a c e , on the o t h e r h a n d , w a s " h o t " a n d l a m b a s t e d a l l s e g m e n t s of
society.
An a r t i c l e in the Daily O k l a h o m a n , a p t l y d e s c r i b e s the s c e n e :
In a t i m e w h e n t h e p u b l i c i s d e m a n d i n g " c o o l n e s s 1 " f r o m i t s
p o l i t i c i a n s , o l d f a s h i o n e d "hot 1 1 p o l i t i c i a n s l i k e [ W a l l a c e ] a n d
H u m p h r e y — n o i s y , f a s t - t a l k i n g , f e r v e n t ~ ~ f a i l u t t e r l y to m a k e
c o n t a c t w i t h the p u b l i c . . . . A c c o r d i n g to M c L u h a n e s q u e
p o l i t i c s w h a t i s s a i d i s n o t n e a r l y s o i m p o r t a n t a s h o w it i s s a i d .
In h i s b o o k , Six C r i s e s , N i x o n d e s c r i b e s h i s c o n v i c t i o n s r e g a r d i n g
t h e m e d i u m of t e l e v i s i o n .
I b e l i e v e that I spent too m u c h t i m e in the l a s t c a m p a i g n
o n s u b s t a n c e a n d t o o l i t t l e t i m e on a p p e a r a n c e ; I p a i d t o o m u c h a t t e n t i o n to w h a t I w a s g o i n g to s a y a n d t o o l i t t l e t o h o w I w o u l d l o o k .
Again, what m u s t be r e c o g n i z e d is that television has i n c r e a s i n g l y
b e c o m e the m e d i u m t h r o u g h w h i c h t h e g r e a t m a j o r i t y of t h e v o t e r s
g e t t h e i r n e w s a n d d e v e l o p t h e i r i m p r e s s i o n s of t h e c a n d i d a t e s .
T h e r e a r e , of c o u r s e , m i l l i o n s of p e o p l e w h o s t i l l r e l y p r i m a r i l y
on n e w s p a p e r s a n d m a g a z i n e s i n m a r k i n g u p t h e i r m i n d s o n h o w
t h e y w i l l v o t e . But the f a c t r e m a i n s , one b a d c a m e r a a n g l e on
t e l e v i s i o n c a n h a v e f a r m o r e e f f e c t on t h e e l e c t i o n o u t c o m e t h a n
^ ^ ^ " T h e R e a l D i c k N i x o n S t a n d s Up,
( N o v e m b e r 4, 1968), p . 28.
105
10 6
11
N e w s w e e k , X/XXII
O k l a h o m a C i t y T i m e s , N o v e m b e r 7, 1 9 6 8 , E d i t o r i a l p a g e .
D a i l y O k l a h o m a n , N o v e m b e r 8, 1 9 6 8 , p . 8 .
122
a m a j o r m i s t a k e in w r i t i n g a s p e e c h w h i c h i s t h e n p i c k e d up a n d
c r i t i c i z e d by c o l u m n i s t s and e d i t o r i a l w r i t e r s . I do n o t m e a n t o
s u g g e s t t h a t w h a t a c a n d i d a t e s a y s i s n o t i m p o r t a n t ; in a p r e s i d e n t i a l e l e c t i o n , i n p a r t i c u l a r , it s h o u l d b e a l l - i m p o r t a n t . W h a t
I do m e a n to s a y i s t h a t w h e r e v o t e s a r e c o n c e r n e d , a p a r a p h r a s e
of w h a t M r . K h r u s h c h e v c l a i m s is a n " a n c i e n t R u s s i a n p r o v e r b "
c o u l d not be m o r e c o n t r o l l i n g : " o n e TY p i c t u r e i s w o r t h t e n
thousand w o r d s . "107
T h e c u l m i n a t i n g e v e n t s f o r t h e c a m p a i g n t o o k p l a c e on e l e c t i o n
e v e w h e n a l l t h r e e c a n d i d a t e s t o o k t h e i r f i n a l p l e a to t h e n a t i o n a l a u d i e n c e .
N i x o n a n d H u m p h r e y p r e s e n t e d two of the " c o o l e s t " p o l i t i c a l p r o g r a m s
the n a t i o n h a d s e e n .
They w e r e simultaneous, two-hour telethons that
r e a c h e d an e s t i m a t e d 48 m i l l i o n A m e r i c a n s .
Neither man made speeches
nor p r o m i s e s , but p r e s e n t e d a " t a l k - s e s s i o n . "
the v o c a b u l a r y r e s t r a i n e d .
less.
The m o o d w a s r e l a x i n g and
The f i n a l a t t a c k s u p o n t h e i r f o e s w e r e c o l o r -
T h e y w e r e b o t h s i n c e r e and f r i e n d l y a n d a r t i c u l a t e d a c o m m o n
touch.
Wallace also presented a final appeal.
I n s t e a d of l i s t e n i n g to,
h e a r i n g a b o u t , a n d r e f l e c t i n g u p o n the v i e w s of the v o t e r s o n m a j o r
p u b l i c i s s u e s , he m a d e t h e m i s t a k e of t h i n k i n g he h a d t o e d u c a t e a n d
r e i n f o r m the a u d i e n c e .
T h e 30 m i n u t e p r o g r a m c o n s i s t e d of i n t r o d u c -
t i o n s to h i s f a m i l y and t h a t of G e n e r a l L e M a y , s c e n e s f r o m c a m p a i g n
r a l l i e s , and a final s e g m e n t that r o a m e d o v e r the following t o p i c s :
(1)
We m u s t w i n d up t h e w a r a n d b r i n g o u r s o l d i e r s h o m e . (2) N i x o n and
H u m p h r e y f a i l e d to s o l v e o u r i l l s w h i l e t h e y h e l d the o f f i c e of v i c e - p r e s i dent.
polls.
(3) W a l l a c e c a n w i n a s e v i d e n c e d b y a s s o r t e d r a d i o a n d n e w s p a p e r
(4)
The p o l l s t e r s w a n t E s t a b l i s h m e n t c a n d i d a t e s to w i n .
(5) S m e a r s
on C u r t i s L e M a y a r e r e s e n t e d .
1 07
R i c h a r d M . N i x o n , Six C r i s e s (New Y o r k , 1968), p . 4 5 7 .
" ^ ^ P a i d P o l i t i c a l b r o a d c a s t , N B C , O c t o b e r 27, 1968,
R o s e n f i e l d , p . 39.
123
W a l l a c e i n t h e e n d w a s m u c h t o o f r a n k on t h e i s s u e s a s h e c a m e
o v e r a "cool11 m e d i u m w i t h a
!!
hotn m e s s a g e .
t h e m o s t e f f e c t i v e p o l i t i c i a n on t e l e v i s i o n w a s
The final r e s u l t s showed
n
c o o l n and r e l a x e d .
f o u n d s o m e of h i s s u p p o r t e r s t i r e d of h e a r i n g h i m
tl
t e l l it l i k e it i s ,
He
n
the m a j o r i t y could not a c c e p t h i s i d e o l o g i c a l a n d p e r s o n a l i m a g e s .
d i d n o t u s e t h e m e d i a s e n s i b l y b u t p r o j e c t e d a " h o t " i m a g e of
fear.
f!
n
and
He
hate and
The v o t e r s w e r e looking for a m a n whose i m a g e conveyed p r o -
gressiveness,
responsibility, and t r u s t w o r t h i n e s s .
e l e c t o r a t e w a s convinced that he w a s
11
trigger-happy,
By e l e c t i o n day the
M n
a nigger-hater,
11
v e r y b a c k w a r d , and f a r too c o n s e r v a t i v e and i r r e s p o n s i b l e .
A n i r o n i c e v e n t t o o k p l a c e o n t h e n i g h t of N o v e m b e r 5, 1 9 6 8 ,
G e o r g e W a l l a c e , w h o h a d t r a v e l e d t h e l e n g t h a n d b r e a d t h of A m e r i c a
to p r o j e c t t h e i m a g e of a t r u e P r e s i d e n t i a l c a n d i d a t e ,
himself.
up.
stood virtually by
Of a n e x p e c t e d 5 0 , 000 e l e c t i o n n i g h t r a l l i e r s , o n l y 5, 0 0 0 s h o w e d
His p o l i t i c a l i m a g e could not h a v e b e e n b l e a k e r , and a n e w s p a p e r -
m a n r e p l i e d , "He s e e m s so a l l a l o n e .
11
C H A P T E R IV
CONCLUSION
T h e p r i m a r y p u r p o s e of this s t u d y w a s to a n a l y z e and d e t e r m i n e
t h e e f f e c t of G e o r g e C . W a l l a c e 1 s i m a g e in t h e 1 9 6 8 p r e s i d e n t i a l c a m paign and election.
This purpose n e c e s s i t a t e d a two-fold approach.
F i r s t , a t h e o r e t i c a l c o n s t r u c t w a s d e v e l o p e d to a n s w e r t h r e e q u e s t i o n s
a b o u t the i m a g e and u l t i m a t e l y , how this i m a g e s e r v e d a s a tool in the
1968 e l e c t i o n s .
"image?11
(2)
T h e s e q u e s t i o n s i n c l u d e d : (1) W h a t i s t h e n a t u r e of t h e
W h a t i s t h e r o l e of t h e " i m a g e " in p o l i t i c s ?
is the " i m a g e " c r e a t e d ?
a n d (3) H o w
T h e s e c o n d p o r t i o n of t h e a p p r o a c h w a s a n
a p p l i c a t i o n of t h e t h e o r e t i c a l c o n s t r u c t t o t h e i d e o l o g i c a l , p e r s o n a l ,
a n d t e c h n i c a l d i m e n s i o n s of G e o r g e W a l l a c e 1 s i m a g e .
The " i m a g e " a s defined by this a u t h o r is the p e r s o n a l ,
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n of m a n ' s r e a l a n d i m a g i n e d w o r l d .
subjective
The " i m a g e " c o n s t r u c t
d e v e l o p e d in t h i s s t u d y w a s d r a w n f r o m t h e o r i e s of W a l t e r L i p p m a n n ,
Kenneth E. Boulding, and Daniel J. B o r r s t i n .
Even though they defined
the i m a g e d i f f e r e n t l y , a l l t h r e e a p p r o a c h e s a r e r e l a t e d b e c a u s e t h e y
i n v o l v e p r o c e s s e s of p e r c e p t i o n ,
and attitude-attitude change.
cognition, interpretation, reaction,
The t h e o r i e s a r e e s p e c i a l l y c o m p l i m e n t a r y
of o n e a n o t h e r w h e n v i e w i n g p u b l i c i m a g e s i n a n e l e c t i o n .
Boulding felt
a n i m a g e w a s a p r o d u c t of a l l p a s t e x p e r i e n c e a n d s u b j e c t i v e k n o w l e d g e .
B e i n g m u l t i - d i m e n s i o n a l it w a s s u b j e c t to c h a n g e and v a r i o u s i n t e r p r e tations.
L i p p m a n n v i e w e d t h e i m a g e a s a n o v e r s i m p l i f i e d p i c t u r e of t h e
w o r l d a s m a n e x p e c t s i t t o b e i n r e l a t i o n to h i s p r e d i s p o s i t i o n s .
1
125
Boorstin approached the image differently with an ethical connotation.
He theorized that the image was an ethical ideal toward which man
should seek to attain.
In Chapter I various m e a n s w e r e d i s c u s s e d
whereby such images could be a l t e r e d to fit political goals.
The " i m a g e " of a political candidate belongs to the individual
p e r c e i v e r and is t r a n s f o r m e d into a public image when s h a r e d by the
public.
This public image is the main concern of all politicians in an
election.
They a r e not only concerned with its conception, formation,
i n t e r p r e t a t i o n , and influence, but also with those elements which change
it.
E s p e c i a l l y influential a r e the dimensions of time and space.
The
f o r m e r r e g u l a t e s i m a g e s by events in the p a s t , p r e s e n t , and future so
the meaning of a given image is a l t e r e d by t i m e .
In addition, spacial
i m a g e s a r e a function of the perceived distance between a p e r s o n ' s p o s i tion and that of the position or p e r s o n he was reacting to.
Examples of
this concept were cited in Chapter I and s e r v e to i l l u s t r a t e how i m a g e s
of candidates a r e r e l a t e d to time and space.
Those v o t e r s who a r e not ego-involved with i s s u e s or have not
yet f o r m e d a f i r m political image of a candidate are susceptible to
politicians and r h e t o r i c i a n s who strive to c r e a t e favorable images of the
contesting candidates or p a r t i e s .
In this age of e l e c t r o n i c s and techno-
logical advancement, the mass, "hot" and "cool, " media including r a d i o ,
national television, printed page, p s e u d o - e v e n t s , and countless other
media, a r e extensions of our nervous system and s e r v e a s the main
implements for public image creation.
Older m e a n s of communication
such a s political meetings, r a l l i e s , telephone canvassing, and local
newspaper propaganda a r e still employed, but the image is f a r t h e r
126
r e a c h i n g , longer lasting, and m o r e effective when m o d e r n m a s s m e d i a
are utilized,
M a r s h a l l M c L u h a n h a s b e e n u n o f f i c i a l l y t a g g e d a s t h e f a t h e r of
m a s s m e d i a a n d i n s i s t s t h a t e f f e c t i v e n e s s of c o m m u n i c a t i o n i s c o n t i n g e n t
u p o n t h e b a s i c u n d e r s t a n d i n g of i t s m e d i a .
In t h i s r e g a r d , h e p r o p o s e s
t h r e e m a i n t h e s e s in h i s U n d e r s t a n d i n g M e d i a a n d The M e d i u m is the
Massage.
First,
t h e m e d i a of c o m m u n i c a t i o n a r e e x t e n s i o n s of t h e
h u m a n p e r s o n a l i t y and e x e r t c o m p a r a b l e i n f l u e n c e .
c a n b e d i v i d e d i n t o "hot 1 1 a n d " c o o l .
11
Secondly, m e d i a
The hot m e d i a c o n v e y d i r e c t i n f o r -
m a t i o n to a n i n d i v i d u a l w i t h h i s p a r t i c i p a t i o n a t a low l e v e l .
Communica-
t i o n w i t h a " c o o l " m e d i a i n v o l v e s e x t e n s i v e p a r t i c i p a t i o n of t h e r e c i p i e n t .
Consequently, a candidate who communicates a vehement political m e s sage over a
t!
cooltf t e l e v i s i o n is c o m m i t t i n g p o l i t i c a l s u i c i d e b e c a u s e the
m e d i u m cannot contain the m e s s a g e .
L i k e w i s e , it i s u n a d v i s a b l e to p r o j e c t
a cool m e s s a g e over a "hot" medium such a s radio.
T h i s l e a d s to t h e
t h i r d p r i n c i p l e w h i c h s a y s t h e m e d i u m is the m e s s a g e , o r the m e d i u m ,
b y i t s e l f , d o e s s o m e t h i n g to an i n d i v i d u a l a p a r t f r o m w h a t the m e s s a g e
i s a b l e to do.
T h e a d v e n t of m a s s m e d i a h a s u s h e r e d a n o t h e r d i m e n s i o n i n t h e
political a r e n a called "The New P o l i t i c s . "
So s t r o n g i s t h e i n f l u e n c e of
the n e w m e d i a t h a t p o l i t i c a l a u d i e n c e s e v e n r e s e n t r e m n a n t s of the o l d
political establishment.
A c c o m p a n y i n g the new s y s t e m and changing
a t t i t u d e s i s t h e c r e a t i o n of s t r o n g e r c h a r i s m a p o l i t i c i a n s .
They imply
a b r e a k with legal and traditional continuity, challenge e s t a b l i s h e d o r d e r
and c u s t o m a r y r e s t r a i n t s , o v e r t u r n i n s t i t u t i o n s , and a p p e a l to n e w c o n c e p t s of h u m a n r e l a t i o n s h i p s .
A charismatic leader1 s influence is
127
g r e a t e r outside a p o l i t i c a l grouping and u s u a l l y e m e r g e s in an a t m o s p h e r e of c r i s i s o r f r u s t r a t i o n .
His c h a r i s m a t i c j a r g o n and demagogy-
r h e t o r i c h e i g h t e n the a u d i e n c e 1 s e m o t i o n a l i n v o l v e m e n t and s o m e t i m e s
create quasi-religious attitudes.
F r o m a l l i n d i c a t i o n s i n C h a p t e r I, i t
can be i n f e r r e d that Wallace p o s s e s s e d such c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s and c r e a t e d
s i m i l a r m a s s - a u d i e n c e p a r t i c i p a t i o n d u r i n g t h e 1968 p r e s i d e n t i a l c a m paign.
S i n c e p o l i t i c i a n s a r e p r o d u c t s of t h e i r i m a g e s a n d t h e i m a g e i s
a c r e a t i o n of t h e m e s s a g e , t h e y t e n d t o r e m a k e t h e m s e l v e s i n t h e i m a g e
o t h e r s h a v e of t h e m .
In t h i s r e s p e c t , t h e " N e w P o l i t i c s , T h a s f u r n i s h e d
a n o t h e r t o o l i n the p s e u d o - e v e n t o r f a l s e e v e n t i n t e n d e d to b e d e c e i v i n g .
In a n e f f o r t to m a k e n e w s of a c a n d i d a t e f o r a d e m a n d i n g p u b l i c , r e p o r t e r s
often c r e a t e n e w s when none is a v a i l a b l e .
The a l e r t politician employs
p s e u d o - e v e n t s t o c r e a t e t h e d e s i r e d i m a g e b y p l a y i n g o n t h e a t t i t u d e s of
the v o t e r a b o u t h i m s e l f ,
society, the political p a r t y s y s t e m , and the
politician.
T h e y e a r 1968 r e c o r d e d i n s u r m o u n t a b l e p o l i t i c a l c o n f l i c t .
Presi-
d e n t J o h n s o n h a d b e e n u n a b l e to r e s o l v e t h e p r o b l e m s , a n d t h e r e w a s a
g e n e r a l t e n d e n c y f o r t h e p u b l i c to m o v e r i g h t i n r e a c t i o n t o h i s l i b e r a l
politics.
The D e m o c r a t s and Republicans w e r e e x t r e m e l y divided yet
s o m e w h a t u n i t e d in r e a c t i o n to t h e p r e s e n t A d m i n i s t r a t i o n ' s p o l i t i c s
and p r a c t i c e s .
This left a p r i m e spot for W a l l a c e w h e r e i n he e m e r g e d
b e t w e e n the two p a r t i e s and b e g a n p l a y i n g both e n d s a g a i n s t one a n o t h e r
on the p o l i t i c a l c o n t i n u u m saying t h e r e w a s no a c t u a l d i f f e r e n c e b e t w e e n
the two p a r t i e s .
He h u r r i e d l y s e i z e d u p o n t h e o p p o r t u n i t y a n d o f f e r e d
the public a t h i r d choice,
The A m e r i c a n I n d e p e n d e n t P a r t y .
128
The political climate was tense, and Wallace r e a l i z e d he
needed to p r o j e c t a definite and favorable ideological and p e r s o n a l
image in o r d e r to form a new coalition of the discontented and d i s a f fected c i t i z e n s .
His ideological image would contain justification and
explanation of his political actions and a b a s i s for making d e c i s i o n s .
This image served as a nucleus for the campaign i s s u e s such a s law
and o r d e r , Vietnam, c r i m e , states* rights, a r m s control, and forced
integration w e r e the m o s t influential.
The states* rights and c r i m e
i s s u e s contributed m o s t to the p e r s o n a l i m a g e .
Wallace a s s u m e d a
C o n s e r v a t i v e 1 1 stance on all i s s u e s , t h e r e f o r e , it forced Humphrey and
Nixon to move to the right of their n a t u r a l positions on the political
spectrum in o r d e r to comply with voter attitudes reacting against
Johnson T s l i b e r a l i s m .
As a r e s u l t , the entire voting populace leaned
m o r e heavily toward the right than would have o c c u r r e d if Wallace had
not been in the r a c e .
Attitudes of l a r g e segments of the e l e c t o r a t e w e r e f i r m on the
r a c i a l i s s u e s and W a l l a c e ' s supporters, augmented by the s o - c a l l e d white
backlash, included Northern r i g h t - w i n g e r s , m i d d l e - c l a s s c o n s e r v a t i v e s
and independents, and white b l u e - c o l l a r working D e m o c r a t s .
These seg-
ments r e p r e s e n t e d 21 p e r cent of a popularity poll which, if allowed to
continue, may have put the E l e c t o r a l College in a deadlock allowing no
candidate to receive a m a j o r i t y vote--depending on their distribution in
the s t a t e s .
This i s s u e of f o r c e d - i n t e g r a t i o n caused his positive image
to s o a r , especially in his appeal to the
TT
soul of the South. 11
Ideologically speaking, Wallace* s popularity as r e f l e c t e d in the
national polls, peaked then fell to 13. 5 per cent in the final r e s u l t s .
129
He d i d c a r r y f i v e S o u t h e r n s t a t e s a n d s o m e m i n o r i t y g r o u p s s c a t t e r e d
t h r o u g h o u t the n a t i o n .
T h e b u l k of h i s e a r l i e r p o p u l a r i t y , h o w e v e r ,
c a m e f r o m m a r g i n a l D e m o c r a t s w h o i n t h e e n d r e t u r n e d to t h e i r p a r t y
or s u p p o r t e d Nixon b e c a u s e they w e r e not f i r m l y c o m m i t t e d to W a l l a c e ,
h i s p a r t y , and his positions.
I n s t e a d of v o t i n g f o r a n u l t r a - c o n s e r v a t i v e
they s e t t l e d for a m o r e m o d e r a t e c o n s e r v a t i v e , Nixon, or voted the
party-ticket and supported Humphrey.
T h e d e v e l o p m e n t of W a l l a c e ' s p e r s o n a l i m a g e w a s s o m e w h a t
r e l a t e d to h i s i d e o l o g i c a l image.
He d r e w h i s g r e a t e s t s u p p o r t f r o m
the S o u t h w h i c h c o u l d i d e n t i f y w i t h b o t h h i s b e l i e f s a n d h i s p e r s o n a l
style.
T h e n a t i o n w a s a w a r e of t h e G o v e r n o r b e c a u s e of h i s " s c h o o l
h o u s e d o o r " s t a n d a n d b e g a n f o r m i n g a p e r s o n a l i m a g e of t h e m a n .
At
f i r s t h i s p r e s e n c e w a s i g n o r e d in p o l i t i c a l c i r c l e s , but w h e n he e s t a b l i s h e d t h e A m e r i c a n I n d e p e n d e n t P a r t y in 50 s t a t e s a n d g a i n e d s u p p o r t
i n the p o l l s , p o l i t i c a l c o n t e n d e r s b e g a n t o w o r r y .
d e d to h i s i d e o l o g i c a l a n d p e r s o n a l i m a g e s ,
Although m a n y respon-
the u p s w i n g in s u p p o r t w a s
s h o r t l i v e d b e c a u s e the p e o p l e w e r e not f i r m l y c o n v i n c e d that he w a s the
m a n f o r the j o b .
In m a n y w a y s W a l l a c e ' s i m a g e c o r r e s p o n d e d to t h e t h e o r i e s
p u r p o r t e d b y L i p p m a n n a n d B o u l d i n g in t h e t h e o r e t i c a l c o n s t r u c t of
C h a p t e r 1.
L i p p m a n n s t a t e d the i m a g e i n a p e r s o n ' s m i n d w a s s t e r e o -
t y p e d a n d o v e r s i m p l i f i e d to f i n d i d e n t i t y i n h i s w o r l d .
v o t e r s to h a v e t h i s i m p l e i m a g e .
Wallace allowed
He r e p e a t e d l y r e f e r r e d t o t h e " s i m p l e
s o l u t i o n s " of b u r e a u c r a t i c p r o b l e m s i n h i s d e m a g o g y r h e t o r i c .
He
a l l o w e d t h e v o t e r to b l a m e W a s h i n g t o n f o r a n y c o m p l i c a t i o n of g o v e r n mental matters.
B o u l d i n g s u g g e s t e d t h e i m a g e w a s a p r o d u c t of a l l p a s t
130
e x p e r i e n c e and knowledge.
To the e l e c t o r a t e W a l l a c e T s p a s t r e p r e s e n t e d
a l o n e " f i g h t e r 1 1 w h o s t o o d f o r w h a t he b e l i e v e d w i t h n o c o m p r o m i s e ,
B o o r s t i n t h e o r i z e d t h a t m a n p o s s e s s an i m a g e w h i c h is a n e t h i c a l i d e a l
t h a t w a s not y e t a t t a i n e d .
In a t t a i n i n g t h i s i d e a l , m a n m a y m a n i p u l a t e
the i n t e r v e n i n g i m a g e s a n d c o n t r o l h i s e n v i r o n m e n t and p e r c e p t i o n .
W a l l a c e a c c o m p l i s h e d t h e f i r s t p o r t i o n of t h i s i m a g e — b u i l d i n g p r o c e s s
b y o f f e r i n g t h e A m e r i c a n p e o p l e a U t o p i a n u n i o n f r e e of w a r s , p o v e r t y ,
and riots where law and o r d e r would p r e v a i l .
r e s p o n d e d f a v o r a b l y to t h e s e g o a l s .
M a n y of t h e v o t e r s
W a l l a c e f a i l e d to c o n t r o l , h o w e v e r ,
h i s i n t e r v e n i n g i m a g e s v i a t h e u s e of t h e p r o p e r m a s s m e d i a .
As a
r e s u l t , the i d e o l o g i c a l or d r e a m i m a g e c o l l a p s e d , and with it the p e r sonal image fell.
He w a s no l o n g e r a n o b l e f i g h t e r b u t a m e n a c i n g r e b e l
who p r o m o t e d e m o t i o n a l contagion and d e m a g o g y p o l i c i e s .
G e o r g e C . W a l l a c e w a s t h e " w r o n g m a n 1 1 s a y i n g t h e " w r o n g thing 1 1
i n the " w r o n g w a y . "
He f a i l e d t o u n d e r s t a n d m o d e r n m e d i a , a n d i t
d e s t r o y e d h i m w h e n it c o u l d h a v e b e e n a p o l i t i c a l t o o l .
His television
rhetoric represented a "hot" evangelistic m e s s a g e over a "cool"
medium.
The p r e s s a l s o c a u s e d a d e c l i n e in h i s i d e o l o g i c a l a n d p e r -
s o n a l i m a g e s b e c a u s e he fed t h e m " h o t " i s s u e s too soon, too f a s t w h i c h
e v e n t u a l l y t i r e d t h e p u b l i c of h i s c a m p a i g n .
He a l s o c h o s e to i g n o r e t h e
" N e w P o l i t i c s , " a n d f a i l e d to s e c u r e e x p e r t s to a d v i s e h i m of p r o p e r
approaches.
covering him,
Of c o u r s e , h e w a s n e w s , a n d the m e d i a e v e n t u a l l y b e g a n
but his i m a g e w a s a negative one.
d i s o r d e r i n s t e a d of m a s t e r i n g i t .
Now he w a s p r o v o k i n g
Nixon h i m s e l f c a r e f u l l y d o c u m e n t e d
the c h a n g e in h i s o w n p e r s o n a l i m a g e w h e n h e e m p l o y e d t h e " N e w
Politics. "
It p h y s i c a l l y t r a n s f e r r e d h i m t o t h e W h i t e H o u s e ,
E v e n down
131
t o t h e l a s t t e l e c a s t , W a l l a c e p r e a c h e d to the v o t e r s ; h e n e v e r s e e m e d
to l i s t e n .
As a r e s u l t , he w a s t r a n s p o r t e d b a c k f r o m the n a t i o n a l
p u b l i c e y e to the South w i t h a b r o k e n d r e a m , a t a r n i s h e d i m a g e , a n d a
mangled A m e r i c a n Independent P a r t y .
He r e t u r n e d a s h e c a m e - - a l o n e .
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The Daily Oklahoman,
N o v e m b e r 8, 1968.
Dallas Morning News,
S e p t e m b e r 12, 1968.
140
Dallas Morning News,
O c t o b e r 29, 1968.
Dallas Morning News,
N o v e m b e r 4, 1968.
Dallas Times Herald,
N o v e m b e r 3, 1968.
Foi'th Worth S t a r - T e l e g r a m ,
Los Angeles Times,
New Y o r k T i m e s ,
O c t o b e r 20, 1968.
J u l y 18, 1968.
A u g u s t 6, 1964.
O k l a h o m a C i t y T i m e s,
O c t o b e r 23, 1968.
Oklahoma City Times,
O c t o b e r 24, 1968.
O k l a h o m a C i t y T i m e s,
O c t o b e r 25, 1968.
Oklahoma City T i m e s ,
O c t o b e r 29, 1968.
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N o v e m b e r 5, 1968.
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