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America’s Heritage:
A History of U.S. Immigration
America is a nation of immigrants.
Throughout its history, the United
States of America has been a beacon
of freedom and tolerance for all
people. American society is enriched
by the unique cultural influences
and traditions that immigrants bring
to this land. Without recognizing
the importance of these diverse
perspectives, an integral part of
Courtesy of the INS archives.
America’s heritage is overlooked.
Indeed, during many of the most
prolific moments in America, the
contributions of immigrants altered
the course of our nation’s history.
America’s Heritage: A History of U.S.
Immigration is a comprehensive look
at the history of American immigration and the major laws that establish
U.S. immigration policy.
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Commissioned by Spain
to find a direct sea route
to the Far East, Italian explorer Christopher Columbus embarked on a voyage
that he hoped would lead
him to the exotic lands of
Asia. However, on October
12, 1492, after nearly four
months at sea, two worlds
unknown to each other
met for the first time on
a small island in the Caribbean Sea. Columbus’
arrival in America had a
profound impact on the
world. His explorations
led directly to the opening
of the western hemisphere
to European colonization.
Over a century after Columbus’
arrival, the first permanent European
settlement in America was established
near the Chesapeake Bay in Virginia. In
1607, English colonizers belonging to the
Virginia Company of London erected
Jamestown as a charter from the King
of England. Unfortunately, the settlers
could not adapt to frontier conditions
and support themselves from the land.
Although most of the early inhabitants
perished from disease or starvation, the
colony somehow survived.
The foundation of New
Plymouth Colony was
one of the most significant
events in the early history of the American colonies. In 1620, one of the
sects of Puritans known
as Brownists separated
from the Protestant Church of England,
and after much persecution, decided to
immigrate to the “new world.” The journey aboard the Mayflower was treacherous and grueling. For the pilgrims on the
ship, America’s shores offered freedom of
worship and protection from tyranny. To
ensure that individual rights would not be
violated as they had been in England, the
settlers signed a general agreement called
the Mayflower Compact. This document
created the first legal framework for enacting and enforcing laws for the general
good and benefit of the colony.
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Anti−Immigrant
Fervor in America
The greatest period of immigration to America occurred
from the 1840s to the 1920s. Several historic events such
as the Irish Potato Famine, the German depression and the
Industrial Revolution triggered a wave of mass immigration
that brought an estimated 37 million Europeans to the
United States.
Concerned about the recent increase of immigrants in the
United States, a small political group called the Know Nothing Party emerged in the 1850s. The Know Nothing Party
attempted to use government power to preserve their vision
of a particular kind of “nativist” society. The party sought
to “purify” the nation by restricting immigration and drastically altering citizenship requirements. Not surprisingly, political groups such as this one played a major role in forming
many of the ethnic stereotypes that persist in American culture. By 1861 the party had no representation in Congress,
and soon afterward it disappeared from the political scene.
In the late 19th century American nativists grew increasingly hostile toward Chinese immigrants. Many natives
worried that by allowing Chinese workers to come to the
U.S. they would have to compete for jobs and wealth. Under pressure from various political groups, Congress created the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 that prevented any
further persons from China to enter the U.S. Subsequently,
a series of Contract Labor Laws prohibited immigrants
from coming to the country to work under
contracts made before their arrival.
Irish immigrant farmers, cir. 1847. Courtesy of the Library of Congress.
“Which Color is to Be Tabooed Next?” Illustration in
Harpers Weekly (1882) by Thomas Nast. Courtesy of
the Library of Congress.
“The Mortar of Assimilation.”, Puck (1893). C.J. Taylor.
Courtesy of the Appel Collection.
Immigration Station at Angel Island, cir. 1915. Courtesy of the INS archives.
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Chinese
Exclusion
Act
5
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• Excluded all persons from China
from working in the U.S.
• Not repealed until 1943
Contract Labor
Laws
• Prohibited contracts for
cheap foreign labor
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America’s Gateway
As industrialization in the northeastern
states rapidly increased during the late
1800s, the demand for foreign labor grew
also. People from all parts of the world,
seeking economic opportunities as well
as personal freedoms, arrived by the shipload to fill America’s vacant jobs.
To better protect and regulate immigrant
entry, the U.S. government established
the immigration processing station on
Ellis Island, New York, in 1892. During
a span of nearly six decades, Ellis Island
welcomed 71 percent of all immigrants
to the United States. Consequently,
nearly a quarter of all Americans can
trace their ancestry by way of Ellis Island. By the time it closed in 1954, over
20 million immigrants passed through
its gates. Today, Ellis Island has been
transformed into a national monument
and is the country’s premiere museum
of American immigration history.
Polish immigrant disembarks at Ellis Island, cir. 1910. Courtesy of the Library of Congress.
Immigrants on deck of steamer “Germanic.” Frank Leslie’s illustrated newspaper, 1887.
Courtesy of the Library of Congress.
Immigrant landing station at Ellis Island. (1905)
Courtesy of the INS archives.
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Wartime Rules
During World War I, a marked increase in racism and
isolationism in the United States led to demands for
further restrictions on immigration. The Immigration
Act of 1917 expanded the classes of foreigners excluded
from the United States. It imposed a literacy test and
designated an Asiatic Barred Zone, a geographic region
encompassing much of eastern Asia and the Pacific
islands, from which immigrants would not be admitted
to the United States. In 1921, Congress established the
first quota system for immigrants.
Following World War I, the National Origins Act of
1924 further reduced quotas of immigrants deemed
less desirable. Quotas for countries such as Russia, the
source of most Jewish immigrants, and Italy were cut
back. In 1941, Congress passed an act that refused
visas to foreigners whose presence in the United States
might endanger public safety. These laws, coupled
with the Great Depression of the 1930s and World
War II, prevented many immigrants from coming to
the United States.
As the war ended, however, Congress classified people
escaping from their homelands for political reasons as
refugees. Those who had survived Nazi persecution
in Europe during World War II and people fleeing
communism in Eastern Europe after the war were
also granted entrance. The Displaced Persons Acts
of 1948 and 1950 and the Refugee Relief Act of 1953
authorized the admission of over 500,000 people.
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192
National Origins Act
• Created a quota to control the
amount of immigrants entering
the U.S. following World War I
Foreign born soldiers are sworn in as citizens, 1918. Courtesy of the INS archives.
“Literacy Test,” cir. 1920. Courtesy of the INS archives.
Jewish immigrants arrive in New York harbor, 1943. Courtesy of the Library of
Congress.
Perhaps one of the most tragic
stories of World War II is the
voyage of the St. Louis, a German
transatlantic liner. The St. Louis,
a ship of 937 Jewish refugees,
escaped persecution in Nazi
Germany anxious to find safety
in the United States. When the
liner reached the US, authorities
ordered the ship to return to
Europe where, shortly after, half
of the original refugees died in
concentration camps.
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Post−War Immigration
Immigration policy in the 1950s was greatly influenced
by the “Red Scare”, an anti-communism mentality.
Most of the existing U.S. laws related to immigration
were incorporated into the Immigration and Nationality Act of 1952, otherwise know as the McCarranWalter Act. As a result, the Asiatic Barred Zone, which
had banned most Asian immigrants since 1917, was
abolished. Just as important, people from all nations
of the world were given the opportunity to enter the
United States, though with restrictions.
To remedy domestic labor
shortages caused by
WWII, the United States
established an Emergency
Labor Program in 1942,
commonly known as
the Bracero Program.
“Braceros” were Mexican
manual laborers allowed
to enter the United States to replace American workers
who joined the armed forces. Many Mexicans who
entered the United States under the Bracero Program
remained in the country illegally. To curb illegal immigration from Mexico, the United States in 1954, began
Operation Wetback, a program to find undocumented
workers and return them to Mexico. During the 1950s,
several million Mexicans were deported. But migrants
continued to arrive, often to become low-paid laborers. One-third of Mexican Americans in the 1950s
lived below the poverty line. The Bracero Program
was eliminated in 1964.
Inspection line of “Bracero” workers, 1952. Courtesy of the INS archives.
Mexican migrant workers bid farewell to their families, 1952. Courtesy of the INS archives.
The McCarran-Walter
Immigration and Nationality
Act enacted by the U.S.
Congress in 1952 removed
racial barriers to immigration
and empowered the
Department of Justice
to deport immigrants or
naturalized citizens engaging
in subversive activities.
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McCarran-Walter Act
• Established the basic structure of present
immigration law
• An amendment in 1965 eliminated all
remaining national origin quotas
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Refugees &
Undocumented
Workers
The next major reforms in U.S. immigration policy
occurred with the passage of amendments to the
Immigration and Nationality Act in 1965. National
origin quotas were abolished, and an annual limit of
visas for immigrants from both hemispheres was established. Coincidentally, that same year, thousands
of Cuban refugees began fleeing to the U.S. to escape
Cuba’s oppressive regime.
Raft used by Cuban refugees, 1968 Courtesy of the INS archives.
The Vietnam War created a similar refugee crisis for
America. When U.S. troops withdrew from Vietnam
in 1975, many Vietnamese who had fought with the
Americans sought refuge from political persecution in
the United States. In order to accommodate the large
number of displaced refugees seeking protection, Congress introduced the Refugee Act of 1980 to increase
overall refugee quotas. Because many people began
their journey from Vietnam by boat, Vietnamese refugees were often referred to as “boat people.” Not all of
these refugees settled in the United States.
Vietnamese refugees, often referred to as “boat people,” 1978.
Courtesy of the INS archives.
The Immigration Reform and Control Act of 1986
granted lawful permanent residency to more than 2.7
million undocumented immigrants who had entered
the United States before 1982. After 19 months as permanent residents, the law permitted them to apply for
citizenship. Also included in the act was a provision to
penalize employers for knowingly hiring unauthorized
workers. The law also prohibited discrimination on the
basis of nationality or race.
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198
Refugee Act
6
198
• Increased the number
of refugees admitted
to the U.S.
Immigration
Reform and
Control Act
• Established sanctions against
employers for hiring persons
unauthorized to work in the U.S.
• Granted legal status to longterm undocumented immigrants
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Immigration Reform
In The 1990s
The military assault by the Chinese government on
pro-democracy demonstrators in Tiananmen Square
in Beijing on June 4, 1989 inspired the Chinese Student Protection Act of 1992. The law permitted
Chinese nationals temporarily residing in the United
States who had arrived prior to April 1990 to adjust
to permanent resident status. 26,915 Chinese persons were admitted under this provision.
“Cesen Deportación.” Illustration, 1990. Courtesy of the Center for the Study of Political Graphics.
The story of the Golden Venture is reminiscent of the
voyage of the St. Louis. When a ship carrying 134
Chinese refugees seeking political asylum ran aground
in New York in 1993, the INS placed them in detention. The refugees aboard the Golden Venture came
to America with the hope of living in a country that
supported democracy and religious freedom. Not
until 1997 did the U.S. government order the release
of the remaining refugees, those who had not voluntarily returned to their country of origin.
The Illegal Immigration Reform and Immigrant
Responsibility Act of 1996 imposed strict penalties
against illegal immigration. The law severely limited
the power of immigration judges in making decisions
regarding the deportation of individuals by expanding
the definition of what constituted a deportable offense.
The effects of the 1996 reform are still being felt today
as many individuals discover themselves in deportation proceedings for minor offenses.
Photos courtesy of the Museum of Chinese in the Americas.
While incarcerated, survivors of
the Golden Venture shipwreck
created thousands of intricate
works of art made of paper.
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2
199
6
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Immigration Act
Chinese Student
Protection Act
Illegal Immigration
Reform and Immigrant
Responsibility Act
• Established categories
of employment based
immigration
• Placed an overall cap on the
number of nonimmigrant
workers
• Allowed adjustment of status
of nationals from China
who arrived before 1990
• Imposed strict penalties against
illegal immigration
• Expanded the definition of
deportable offenses
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The Threat of
Proposition 187
The 1990 census reported
more than one in five Californians were born in another
country. In response to concern about the high numbers
of unauthorized immigrants
in California during the recession of the early ’90s, California passed Proposition
187 into law in 1994. The
law sought to prevent and
drive out illegal immigration
by excluding undocumented
immigrants from social services, health care, and public
education. But a victory for
immigrant rights advocates
came in 1998 when a federal
judge ruled Proposition 187
unconstitutional.
Los Angeles mayoral candidates debate Proposition 187. Photo by Shelley Gazin, 1994.
Immigrant entrepreneur. Photo by Charles Gupton, 1999.
“The people of California
find and declare that they have
suffered economic hardship,
personal injury, and damage
caused by the criminal conduct
of illegal aliens in this state. . . .
The people of California declare
their intention to prevent illegal
aliens in the United States
from receiving benefits or
public services in the State of
California.”
—Excerpt from Proposition 187
Immigrant entrepreneur. Photo by Dex images, 2001.
Economic progress for immigrants during
the ’90s echoed the positive development of
the 1998 decision. Immigrant entrepreneurship made significant strides between 1987
and 1997 as the number of Hispanic-owned
businesses increased by 232 percent and
Asian-owned businesses by 180 percent. In
particular, Asian immigrants led the technology revolution in Silicon Valley where
many assumed leadership positions in international companies.
“California is powerless to
enact its own legislative scheme
to regulate immigration. It is
likewise powerless to regulate
alien access to public benefits.
Proposition 187 is not constitutional on its face. We will not
act in a way unbecoming to a
sensible and humane people.”
Mariana R. Pfaelzer,
U.S. District Judge
—Comments from Proposition 187 ruling
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A Promising Future
for America
It is certain that in America the perception of immigrants is changing. Though the contributions of immigrants are often times subtle, the residual effects are
far reaching. In many major cities across the country
the hard work of immigrants creates jobs and revitalizes communities. As such, it is important to recognize that the laws that form immigration policy have
an enormous effect on the prosperity and progress of
our nation.
For over two centuries the impact of immigration on
America has been debated. Yet, history repeatedly illustrates the value of immigrants. Through labor
shortages, economic crisis, and wars,
immigrants have sacrificed much
to see America succeed. It is that
same dedication to freedom
and justice that immigrants
continue to bring to America today. As we remember our past, and look
to the future, let us not
forget that America’s
heritage is a legacy
that belongs to all of
us. We are a nation
of immigrants.
Photos courtesy of the INS archives and the
United States Holocaust Memorial Museum.
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Famous Immigrants
Manny Mota
Lillian Vernon
Bob Hope
Irving Berlin
Dominican Republic
Athlete
Germany
Business Executive
England
Comedian
Russia
Songwriter
Elie Wiesel
Midori
Albert Einstein
Romania
Author
Japan
Musician
Germany
Scientist
Arnold
Schwarzenegger
Austria
Actor /Athlete
Acknowledgements
The American Immigration Law Foundation thanks the
following organizations and individuals for their generous
contributions and expertise on this exhibit:
American Immigration Lawyers Association
Center for the Study of Political Graphics
Ellis Island National Monument
Judy Guireceo, Curator of Exhibits & Media
Immigration and Naturalization Service Archives
Marian Smith, Historian
Library of Congress
Michigan State University Museum
Museum of Chinese in the Americas
United States Holocaust Memorial Museum
Exhibition Creative Direction
Design & Production
SurroundArt
Leslie London
Graphic Designer
Beth Skirkanich
Graphics Coordinator
American Immigration Law Foundation
Tyler M. Schwab, Curator
Andrew J. Prazuch, Executive Director
Margaret H. McCormick
President Board of Directors
Richard R. Rulon
Chairman, Board of Trustees
918 F Street, NW
Washington, D.C.
20004
www.ailf.org