Mobilizing Women, Anticipating Abolition: The Struggle against Indian Removal in the 1830s
Author(s): Mary Hershberger
Source: The Journal of American History, Vol. 86, No. 1 (Jun., 1999), pp. 15-40
Published by: Organization of American Historians
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/2567405 .
Accessed: 26/04/2014 12:44
Your use of the JSTOR archive indicates your acceptance of the Terms & Conditions of Use, available at .
http://www.jstor.org/page/info/about/policies/terms.jsp
.
JSTOR is a not-for-profit service that helps scholars, researchers, and students discover, use, and build upon a wide range of
content in a trusted digital archive. We use information technology and tools to increase productivity and facilitate new forms
of scholarship. For more information about JSTOR, please contact [email protected].
.
Organization of American Historians is collaborating with JSTOR to digitize, preserve and extend access to
The Journal of American History.
http://www.jstor.org
This content downloaded from 161.6.94.245 on Sat, 26 Apr 2014 12:44:35 PM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
MobilizingWomen,Anticipating
Abolition: The Struggleagainst
Indian Removalin the 1830s
MaryHershberger
AndrewJackson's
requestto Congressin December 1829 forfederalmoniesto
removeSoutheastIndiansbeyondtheMississippiRivergenerated
themostintense
publicoppositionthattheUnitedStateshadwitnessed.
In sixshortmonths,removal
opponentslaunchedmassivepetitiondrivesthat called on Congressto defeat
removaland to uphold Indian rightsto property.
To block removal,Catharine
Beecherand LydiaSigourney
organizedthefirst
nationalwomen'spetitioncampaign
and floodedCongresswithantiremoval
petitions,
makinga bold claimforwomen's
placein nationalpoliticaldiscourse.
The experience
of opposingremovalprompted
somereformers
theirpositionon abolitionand to rejectAfrican
to rethink
colonizationin favorof immediatism.
The strength
of antiremoval
forcesstunnedMartinVan Burenwho,writingof
theeventsovertwenty
yearslater,portrayed
thegovernment's
sideas besiegedfrom
all quarters
and statedflatly
that"a morepersevering
oppositionto a publicmeasure
had scarcelyeverbeen made."ThoughJackson's
former
vicepresident
consistently
of
defendedremoval,he believedthattheissueof Indianremoval"unlikehistories
manygreatquestionswhichagitatethepublicmindin theirdaywillin all probabilityendure... as longas thegovernment
and willin timeoccupytheminds
itself,
and feelingsof our people."It was an issue,Van Burenconcluded,in whichthe
nationwas responsible
"totheopinionof thegreatfamilyof nations,as it involves
thecoursewe havepursuedand shallpursuetowardsa peoplecomparatively
weak."1
AndrewJackson
had placedIndianremovalat thetop of hisadministration's
priorities.ThoughJackson
himselfwrotecomparatively
littleaboutlegislative
goals,Marteacheshistoryat CapitalUniversity.
MaryHershberger
I wouldliketo thankMichaelLes Benedict,RandolphRoth,Leila Rupp,Daniel W. Howe, JohnA. Andrew
III, David Paul Nord,and David Thelenfortheirhelpfulcommentson thispaper.I wouldalso liketo expressmy
appreciation
to SusanArmeny,
thearticleand to Peter
LynnPohl,and ScottStephanfortheirskillin copyediting
Kraemer
forhelpwiththeillustrations.
I JohnC. Fitzpatrick,
ed.,AnnualReportof theAmericanHistorical
Association
fortheYear,1918, vol. II: The
Autobiography
ofMartinVanBuren(Washington,
1920), 275 -76, 288-96.
The Journal
ofAmerican
History
June1999
This content downloaded from 161.6.94.245 on Sat, 26 Apr 2014 12:44:35 PM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
15
16
History
TheJournal
ofAmerican
June1999
tinVanBuren,whoservedasJackson's
ofstate,vicepresident,
andconfidant,
secretary
importance
wroteof theIndianRemovalAct that"no othersubjectwas of greater
upon this
thanthis.. . . GeneralJacksonstakedthesuccessof his administration
Van Burenwrote,the presimeasure."Fromthe beginningof his administration,
dent'spolicygoalswereplainlyprioritized
and Indianremovalheadedthelegislative
of thewhitepopulation
agenda:"First,theremovalof theIndiansfromthevicinity
and theirsettlement
beyondtheMississippi.Second,to put a stopto theabusesof
improvements....Third,to opposeas
theFederalgovernment
in regardto internal
NationalBank."Whentheremoval
welltheexisting
re-incorporation
of theexisting
bill was introducedinto Congress,one representative
notedthatit "camerecom"2
of theexecutive.
mendedto us as thepeculiarfavorite
to movetheSoutheastIndiansacrossthe
President
Jackson's
proposedlegislation
Mississippiwas not new.The heartof Indianland policyhad alwaysbeennothing
lessthanmassiveIndianland cessionsto whitemarkets,
and treaties
weretheprewasprecipiadministration
ferred
weaponsof transfer.
The removalcrisisofJackson's
and
tatedby the GeorgiaCompact of 1802 betweenthe nationalgovernment
to whichno Indiangroupwas party),whichprovidedthat
Georgia(an agreement
Georgiawould relinquishall claimsto westernlands in returnforWashington's
assumingthecostsof movingIndiansoffland thatGeorgiaclaimed"assoon as the
samecan be peaceablyobtainedon reasonable
terms."Between1802 and 1819,federaltreaties
withthesouthernIndianstransferred
20 millionacresof land to white
thantheMissouri
settlers,
a greater
expansionof theterritory
open to slaveholding
Compromisehad provided.By 1819 only5 millionacresof land wereleftto the
to cede anymoreland,Georgiaofficials
calledon
Cherokee,and whentheyrefused
thefederalgovernment
For yearsthe
to removethe Indiansby force,if necessary.
electionbrought,
forthefirst
federal
resisted
thosedemands,butJackson's
government
whowholeheartedly
favored
suchremoval.3
time,an executive
tworationales
forIndianremoval:one, thathavingan
President
Jacksonoffered
withinthebordersof anystatewas an intoleraindependent
Indiannationresiding
ble situation,
and two,thatfortheirownsurvival,
Indianshad to move
southeastern
acrosstheMississippiawayfromwhiteencroachment.
Jacksonand otherremoval
insistedthatshouldthesouthern
Indiansremaineastof theMississippi,
proponents
theywould shortlybecome "extinct"as whitessteadilyinvadedtheirland and
Indianlifeand culture.MovingtheIndianswest,Jacksonargued,would
destroyed
Register,
June19, 1830, pp. 308-9. Andrew
2Abid.,275-76; "Maysvilleand LexingtonRoads,"Niles'Weekly
indicatedhis removalpriorities.
He namedardentproponents
of removalto
Jackson's
firstfederalappointments
of war(succeededbyLewisCass) and the
it out:JohnEatonas secretary
government
positionscrucialin carrying
general.
GeorgianJohnM. Berrienas attorney
inEarlyAmerica(Chicago,1982); AnnieAbel,
3See DorothyV. Jones,License
forEmpire:Colonialism
byTreaty
in IndianConsolHistorical
Association,
1907, vol. I: TheHistory
AnnualReportoftheAmerican
ofEventsResulting
Papersof
1908), 241 -45; ClarenceEdwinCarter,ed., The Territorial
idationWestoftheMississippi
(Washington,
and Slav1934-1975), V, 142-46; LeonardRichards,"The Jacksonians
theUnitedStates(28 vols.,Washington,
ed. Lewis Perryand Michael Fellman(Baton Rouge, 1979), 115-16. Jackson
ery,"in Antislavery
Reconsidered,
in
of domainto anyterritory
sayingthatIndianshad no rights
calledthetreaty
systemwiththeIndians"farcical,"
Years:TheIndian Tradeand
theUnitedStates.See FrancisPaul Prucha,AmericanIndianPolicyin theFormative
IntercourseActs,
1790-1834 (Cambridge,Mass., 1962), 233-35.
This content downloaded from 161.6.94.245 on Sat, 26 Apr 2014 12:44:35 PM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
TheStruggle
against
IndianRemoval
17
solvebothof thosedifficulties
and preserve
theIndians.Criticspointedout thatthe
removalsolutionconveniently
increasedvastand valuableacreageforwhitesettlers
and thatland transfer
was the real goal, humanitarian
concernsto halt Indian
"extinction"
notwithstanding.4
AndrewJackson's
pursuitof Indian removaltook by surprisemanyAmericans
who had believedthatunderpresidents
JamesMonroeandJohnQuincyAdamsthe
federalgovernment's
Indianpolicywas becomingmore,ratherthanless,beneficent.
The dismayarousedby President
Jackson's
positionwas followedby shockat the
movedto reapthebenefits
ofhiselection.Indian
speedwithwhichGeorgialegislators
removalby force,if necessary,
simultaneously
dispossessedIndiansand increased
As such,itinvolved
thepoliticalissuesof
demandforslavelaborin theseizedterritory.
withIndians,relations
withAfrithedaythatroiledAmerican
politicsmost:relations
growth
of thesystem
of slavelabor.ThatAmericans,states'rights,
and thepotential
can reformorganizations,
originallyformedto improvethe Americancharacter
moralpersuasion,organizeda powerfulchallengeto Jackson's
throughvoluntary
As a proposedfederalaction,Indianremoval
removalgoalswas not coincidental.
symbolized
to thema rupturein the nationalfabric,a portentous
triumphof the
of
that
a
value
on everymarketvalues aggressive
acquisitiveness placed monetary
forcommercial
thingand encouragedhumanexploitation
gain."How longshallit
be thata Christian
of profit
and
people. . . shallstandbalancingtheconsiderations
losson a nationalquestionofjusticeand benevolence?"
askedtheyoungtheological
studentGeorgeCheeverin responseto AndrewJackson's
removalbill.Benevolence
of universal
a willinvolveda searchforthegeneralgood,forprinciples
application,
ingnessto sacrifice
forthe benefitof thosein need. Indian removalappearedto
Cheeverthe directopposite-an unrestrained
forindividualgain at the
striving
If Indianremovalwas a striking
expenseof thelessfortunate.
exampleof commercial injustice,equallyso was its consequence-millionsof additionalacresforan
intensified
slavelaborsystemthatcarriedthosemarketvaluesto theirdestructive
the 1820s and intothefollowing
thatthroughout
end. It is not surprising
decade,
in thenation's
issuesof Indianpolicyand Indianremovalreceivedmoreattention
thandid issuesof tariffs
and theBankof theUnitedStates.5
periodicals
Andrew
Jackson
and theSubjugation
4On Jackson's
and Children:
Indianpolicy,see MichaelPaul Rogin,Fathers
Era (Lincoln,
of theAmericanIndian (New York,1975); Ronald Satz,AmericanIndian Policyin theJacksonian
Indian(New York,1966); RichardDrinoftheAmerican
TheLostBirthright
1975); Dale Van Every,Disinherited:
(Minneapolis,1980); RobertV. Remini,
and Empire-Building
ofIndian-Hating
non,FacingWest:TheMetaphysics
IndianRemoval,
and Slavery(BatonRouge,1988); and Francis
Jackson:
EssaysonDemocracy,
TheLegacyofAndrew
Indians(Lincoln,1984).
Paul Prucha,TheGreatFather:The UnitedStatesGovernment
and theAmerican
when she wrotethatPresidentJamesMonroe'sbenevolent
5LydiaSigourneysummedup thesesentiments
promisingto overcomethat
regardfor"ouraborigines""seemsnow to be pervadingthehigherranksof society,
bya nationwhichcovered
towardsthesonsof theforest,
sternindifference
whichhas too longbeen entertained
Traitsof theAborigines
theirglory."L. H. Sigourney,
ofAmerica(Boston,1822), 284. See also "News Fromthe
Aug. 21, 1819, p. 138. On the otherhand,MartinVan BurenpraisedJacksonfor
Panoplist,"BostonRecorder,
on removal.JohnQuincyAdamshad, in fact,restored
to theCherokeesomeland
tradition
breaking
presidential
ofMartinVanBuren,276-88. GeorgeB.
ed.,Autobiography
theyhad signedawayunderduress.See Fitzpatrick,
Cheever,"The Removalof the Indians:An Examinationof an Articlein the NorthAmericanReviewand an
AmericanMonthly
Exhibitionof the Advancementof the SouthernTribesin Civilizationand Christianity,"
This content downloaded from 161.6.94.245 on Sat, 26 Apr 2014 12:44:35 PM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
18
TheJournal
ofAmerican
History
June1999
Oppositionto removalcan be measuredthroughthe new denomination-based
periodicalsof the 1820s and 1830s,whichdevelopedan earlyand decisivestance
These religiousorganswerebyfarthemostwidelycirculated
of all
againstremoval.
at thetime,enjoying
a readership
farlargerand morediversethanthatof
periodicals
rarelyexceeded
the traditionalpartyand secularperiodicals,whose circulations
maleand elite.Ata timewhenthe
1,500copiesandwhoseaudienceswereprimarily
of only3,000, thirty
religious
esteemedNorthAmericanReviewhad a circulation
listsof 3,000 or more,withfifteen
of thosehaving
periodicals
reported
subscription
each.The MethodistChristian
AdvocateandJournalhad a
over5,000 subscribers
list of 25,000, the Presbyterian
New YorkObserver
over6,000, the
subscription
MissionforForeignMissions(Congregational)
AmericanBoardof Commissioners
Zion's
Herald
and the
6,000,
5,000,
aryHerald 14,000, the Religious
Intelligencer
Boston
York
Recorder
over
Arthur
New
5,000.
Tappan'sevangelical
Congregational
faroutsoldeveryothernewspaperin New York.All of these
Journalof Commerce
and thatthe
periodicalsopposedremovalon groundsthatit violatedlegaltreaties
southernIndians'practicesof agriculture
and commercehad made themvirtually
fromthewhitefarmers
of Georgia.When southernofficials
porindistinguishable
trayedSoutheastIndiansas nomadichunterswho could not maketheirland proremovalproponents
as motivated
ductive,thesepapersrespondedbycharacterizing
Indian assetsit
primarily
by greed,favoring
removalbecauseof the considerable
at littlecost,to whites.6
transferred,
Anotherindicator
of deepdissentfromIndianremovalwas theorganized
oppositionofwomenin townsand communities
acrossthenation.Deniedpoliticalstandwomenin thenewrepublichad developedtheconcept
ingbythenation'sfounders,
whichimpliedthatwomen'sinterests
of republican
coulddivergefrom
motherhood,
thoseof themaleelectorate
and recognized
women'srolein promoting
publicvirtue.
Republicanmotherhoodsanctionedwomen'spetitionson widows'pensionsand
In theseexperiences,
and on behalfof theneedyin theircommunities.
employment
womenmade themselves
subjectsin theearlyrepublic,a statusremovedfromfull
but one thatlaid on womenan obligationto act as moralguardiansof
citizenship
To
thenation'svirtue,a dutythatrequireda publicpresenceand publicactivities.
B. Cheever:
and SocialReformer,
1807-1890 (Orono,
Review,10 (Jan.1830), 704; RobertYork,George
Religious
of theremovalissue,see Donald B. Cole,
1955), 56. For stateand local histories
thatemphasizetheprominence
in New Hampshire,
Jacksonian
Democracy
1800-1851 (Cambridge,Mass., 1970), 99; and RandolphAnthony
Roth,"WhenceThis StrangeFire?Religionand ReformMovementsin theConnecticutRiverValleyof Vermont,
1791-1843" (Ph.D. diss.,YaleUniversity,
1982).
6 For evidencethatno secularjournal'scirculation
exceeded4,500 in the 1820s,see GaylordP.Albaugh,HistoryandAnnotatedBibliography
Religious
Periodicals
andNewspapers
(2 vols.,Worcester,
1994), I, xiiiofAmerican
xv.By the 1820s,whenthepopulationof theUnitedStatesstoodat 13 million,over400,000 copiesof religious
newspapers
regularly
circulated.
See also FredericHudson,Journalism
in theUnitedStates
from1690-1872 (New
to1861: A History,
and Record
York,1873); WesleyNorton,Religious
Newspapers
in theOld Northwest
Bibliography
of Opinion(Athens,Ohio, 1977); GeorgeHenryPayne,HistoryofJournalism
in theUnitedStates(New York,
1929); EdwinEmeryand HenryLadd Smith,ThePressandAmerica(NewYork,1954); and Carol Sue Humphrey,
a substantial
ThePressoftheYoungRepublic,1783-1833 (Westport,
1996). Forevidencethatremovalrepresented
of Cherokeeassetsin land improvements
to whitefarmers,
see David Wishart,"Evidenceof SurplusProtransfer
ductionin theCherokeeNationPriorto Removal,"JournalofEconomic
History,
55 (March1995), 120-38.
This content downloaded from 161.6.94.245 on Sat, 26 Apr 2014 12:44:35 PM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
The Struggle
againstIndianRemoval
19
achievetheseends,womencreatedtheirownorganizations
and societiesto improve
sociallifeand alleviatetheharsherconsequencesof themarketeconomyforurban
and rurallife.7
The newdenomination-based
politicalhiernewspapers
undermined
traditional
archiesin theirpages by accordingwomen'sworka statusequal to men'spublic
activities.They printedside by side accounts of women'sbenevolentactivities,men's
politicalcampaignsand elections,articleson the healthof womenand children,
marriageannouncements,details of legislativeactivity,reportsof mission achieve-
thatcharacterized
thetradiments.In thenew newspapers,
thesharppartisanship
tionalpolitical
theimportance
presswasabsent.Thatabsenceimplicitly
de-emphasized
women'spublicworkon
of a formalpoliticsthatexcludedwomenwhileitjustified
behalfof otherswithincivicsociety.'
made theirprioritythe missionsand
Many women'scharitableorganizations
schoolsforAmericanIndiansin theAmericanSouthand theNortheast,
and their
withmissionaries
philanthropy
was markedly
personal;theycorresponded
regularly
and Indianstudentsat themissionschoolsand spokeof themas personalfriends.
This activityreflected
establishedpatterns.Women'sassociationsoftenprovided
withfinancialsupport.For example,CharlesFinney'sfirstmissionary
clergymen
commission
camefromtheUticaFemaleMissionary
Societyin March1824. About
halfof thedonorslistedin theMissionary
Herald'sreportsappearto be womenor
women'sorganizations.
Indeed,thefirst
bequestto theAmericanBoardof CommissionersforForeignMissionscame fromSallyThomas, a domesticworkerwho
of foodstuffs,
collections
fabric,
bequeathedto itherlife'ssavings.Womenorganized
whosenamesand life
writing
materials,
books,and moneyto educateIndianyouths,
who taughtthem.Duringthe
storiestheyknew,and to supportthemissionaries
1820s, women regularly
sponsoredIndian youthand communityleadersfrom
the Southeastas theytourednorthern
areasand spoketo overflow
publiccrowds
In 1824, when
in theircommunities.
about the schoolsand agricultural
progress
of moneyforschoolsand
Georgiarepresentatives
opposedfederalappropriations
in Cherokeeterritory,
agriculture
arguingthat the Cherokeeswere becoming
denominational
"extinct"
andhadhardly
anyway
anyschoolsandevenlessagriculture,
Indiansand printedtablesdetailing
ranlengthy
fromsouthern
periodicals
responses
and comthenumberof Cherokeeschoolsand scholars,theirextensive
agriculture
I On republican
and Idealsin Revolutionary
motherhood,
see Linda K. Kerber,Women
oftheRepublic:Intellect
America(Chapel Hill, 1980). See also Lori Ginzberg,Womenand theWorkof Benevolence:
Morality,
Politics,
and
Classin theNineteenth
Century
UnitedStates(New Haven, 1990); BarbaraBerg,TheRemembered
Gate:Originsof
American
Feminism:
TheWomanand theCity,1800-1860 (New York,1978); BarbaraLeslieEpstein,ThePolitics
in Nineteenth-Century
ofDomesticity:
Women,
Evangelism,
and Temperance
America(Middletown,1981); JeanE.
Friedman,The EnclosedGarden:Womenand Community
in theEvangelicalSouth,1830-1900 (Chapel Hill,
1985); and LindaK. Kerber,Towardan Intellectual
History
ofWomen:
Essays(Chapel Hill, 1997). On thechanges
wroughtby the marketeconomy,see CharlesSellers,TheMarketRevolution:
Jacksonian
America,1815-1846
(NewYork,1991); andJosephBlau,ed., Social Theories
ofJacksonian
Democracy
(New York,1947).
8 The lead article
in thelargestof thesepapers,theChristian
Advocate,
was frequently
a reportof a femaleassociation'sactivities
and meetings.The contributors
wereusuallyanonymous,but womenappearto have written
forexample,indicatesfemaleauthorship.
manyof thesepieces.A phrasesuchas "letus, belovedsisters,"
See, for
example,"New YorkFemaleAssociationSocietyReport,"Christian
Advocate,
Jan.15, 1830, p. 1.
This content downloaded from 161.6.94.245 on Sat, 26 Apr 2014 12:44:35 PM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
20
The Journal
ofAmerican
History
June1999
ofwhitedealings
withIndiantribes
merce.Furthermore,
theypointedout,thehistory
ofourancestors
contained
andofournation."In thisclimany"blotson thecharacter
Heraldfoundit instructive
to printan accountof the1782 masmate,theMissionary
MoravianIndiansat Gnadenhutten.9
sacrebya whitemobofoverninety
community,
imbuedwitha visionof a nationgoverned
By 1830, thebenevolent
of justice,aidedbymissionreportsthroughout
thereligious
byuniversal
principles
of theIndians,and benefitting
fromtheincluthatstressed
theperspective
periodicals
sion of women'sconcernsand work,had developeda clearpositionagainstthe
in thewidelycircoercedremovalof southernIndiansthatwas forcefully
expressed
had madean
culatedreligious
press.Opponentsof removalbelievedthatAmericans
practices,
implicitpromiseto the Indians:If theyadoptedEuropeanagricultural
as whitesettlers.
The Cherotheywould be grantedthesame rightsand privileges
kees'successin mastering
and culture,
alongwiththeenormity
Europeantechniques
of theCherokeeremoval,theorganizedand articulate
oppositionof theCherokee
and thefactthatremovalwouldopen vastnew areasto theslavelabor
themselves,
Each timethatthestateof
madethiscase appearuniqueto antiremovalists.
system,
Georgiawrestednewland concessionsfromtheCherokeeor demandedfederalaid
in forcing
Readersof thedenomination
papersread
theirremoval,
protestincreased.
accountof a cessionof Cherokeeterriregularreports
suchas theBostonRecorder's
of thewhite
toryin 1824 thatquotedan elderlyIndianas sayingthathe was "afraid
forhischildrenlesttheybe drivenfromtheearth.... White
peopleand distressed
Heraldprinteda
peoplekillmypeopleand no noticeis takenof it."The Missionary
Cherokeewoman'slengthy
whichconcludedthat
protestagainstlandexpropriation,
"whitepeopleseemto aim at our destruction....This grievesme morethanI can
whichis as dearto us as
tell... we shallbe drivenawayfromthelandof ourfathers,
wentbeyondmerelydefending
theIndiansto
our lives."The Religious
Intelligencer
placingthemin a superiormoralposition:
I On theeighteenth-century
Indiansand Christian
missionmovement,
see HenryWarnerBowden,American
Missions:Studiesin CulturalConflict
(Chicago, 1981); Colin B. Goodykoontz,HomeMissionson theAmerican
withParticular
totheAmerican
HomeMissionary
Society
(Caldwell,1939); and JohnA. Andrew
Frontier
Reference
and ForeignMissions,1800-1830
III, Rebuilding
theChristianCommonwealth:
New EnglandCongregationalism
American
Protestant
ErrandtotheWorld:
(Lexington,
Ky.,1976). On foreign
missions,seeWilliamR. Hutchinson,
Americaand thePagan World:
Thought
and Foreign
Missions(Chicago,1987); CliftonJacksonPhillips,Protestant
forForeignMissions,1810-1860 (Cambridge,
The FirstHalf Century
of theAmericanBoard of Commissioners
Journalof
A Studyin AmericanForeignRelations,"
Mass., 1969); and JosephGrabill,"The InvisibleMissionary:
Churchand State,14 (Winter1972), 93-105. At least half of thosewhom missionboardssupportedwere
andMissionarwas reserved
formen.WilliamG. McLoughlin,Cherokees
women,althoughtheterm"missionary"
1826Evangelists,
ies,1789-1839 (New Haven, 1984), 249; CharlesCole Jr.,TheSocialIdeas of theNorthern
1860 (New York,1954), 59. On women'ssupportforIndianmissions,see,forexample,"DonationsFromNov.
21st to Dec. 20th,Inclusive,"Missionary
Herald,22 (Jan.1826), 30-31; "DonationsFromMarch21st to Apr.
of theMissionat Brainard,"ibid.,16 (Feb. 1820), 8420th,Inclusive,"ibid.,23 (May 1827), 165-68; "Journal
in Civilization,"
93; "Visitof IndianYoungMen," ibid.,(July1820), 29-30; "NorthAmericanIndians.Progress
froma Letterof Mr. Kingsbury,
datedJanuary
29, 1829,"ibid.
ibid.,25 (Feb. 1829), 57-62; "Choctaws.Extracts
(May 1829), 152-54. On the Gnadenhutten
massacre,see "Miscellanies,"ibid.,20 (June1824), 197-99. See
March 27, 1824, pp. 675-77; "Civilizationof the
also "Fromthe New YorkObserver,"Religious
Intelligencer,
ibid.(April1824), 747; "AmongtheCherokee,"Boston
Indians,"ibid. (Feb. 1824), 605; "IndianImprovement,"
March 11, 1820, p. 42; "The Cherokees,"Christian
Watchman,
Sept. 14, 1827, p. 1; "Concerningthe
Recorder,
1 ([Dec.?] 1824), 541-42; "FromArkanMissionary
Intelligencer,
MissionAmongtheCherokee,"UnitedBrethren
Oct. 15, 1825, p. 103.
sas,"Niles'Weekly
Register,
This content downloaded from 161.6.94.245 on Sat, 26 Apr 2014 12:44:35 PM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
The Struggle
againstIndianRemoval
21
Wereanyarguments
to provethedoctrineof totaldepravity,
we might
necessary
amongotherproofs,refer
to thetreatment
whichsomeof theIndianTribesreceive
fromthewhites.... whitemenmakeinroadsintotheIndianTerritories,
destroy
theirgame,and stealtheirfurs.If thenatives,indignantat suchoutrages,make
any resistance,
we immediately
findarticlesin newspapers,
headedwith"Indian
Barbarities,
Murders,
&ec.&ec.Y!!"1o
When Georgia surveyorsmarked out Cherokee lands for distributionto white
farmersin 1829, religiousperiodicalsattackedstateofficials.
The Journalof Commerce
said thattheproceedings"awakenour indignationand lead us almostto wish thatthe
Cherokees had the power to vindicate theirrightsand chastise theiroppressors.
The MissionaryHerald declaredthatGeorgia stateofficialswere engagedin a massive
land graband told itsreadersthat"now is thetimewhen everyChristian,everyphilanthropistand everypatriotin the United Statesoughtto be exertingthemselvesto save
a persecutedand defencelesspeople fromruin." The Hamilton [Ohio] Intelligencer
assertedthatthe Indianswere"thelivingmonumentsof thewhiteman'swrongs."11
AfterJackson'selectionin 1828, Georgia legislatorsadded, by fiat,Cherokeelands
to the northwesterncounties of Georgia, forbadeCherokee gold mining,nullified
all Cherokee laws, and prohibitedIndians fromtestifying
against whites in court.
Alabama and Mississippi quickly followed suit. For men and women attentiveto
Indian issues, the time was short. The president-electwould be inaugurated in
March 1829, and a new Congresswould convene the followingDecember. Denominational periodicals alreadycarriedantiremovalsentiments,and voluntaryreform
associationsprovidedan organizationalnetworkforopposingthe legislation.The first
attackson removalcame fromthese quarters,and theyinitiallyfollowedthe established boundaries of political tradition:Public meetingswere called on the issue,
petitionsdrawn up, and pamphletsprinted.12
10"CherokeeMission,"Boston
Recorder,
Jan.10, 1824, p. 1. ForotherresponsesopposingIndianland cessions
to Georgia,see "Indian Eloquence,"Religious
Dec. 6, 1823, pp. 426-28; "Mr. Brown'sAddress,"
Intelligencer,
ibid.,Dec. 27, 1823, pp. 470-71; "CreekIndians,"ibid.,June18, 1825, pp. 41-43; "CherokeeNation,"ibid.,
Aug. 6, 1825,pp. 153-54; "AnnualReportof theMethodistChurch,"Christian
Advocate,
May 5, 1827, pp. 6566; "The Choctaws,"Geniusof Universal
Emancipation,
Nov. 27, 1829, p. 94; "The Cherokees,"Christian
Watchman,Sept. 14, 1827,p. 1; "Choctaws,"Missionary
Herald,26 (Aug. 1830), 250-55; "LetterBya nativeCherokee
Woman,"ibid.,15 (April1819), 171; and "WhitesversusIndians,"Religious
May 22, 1824, p. 823.
Intelligencer,
11"The Cherokees,"
BostonRecorder,
MissionJuly9, 1829, p. 112. See also "CriticalStateof theCherokees,"
aryHerald,25 (Dec. 1829), 375; and "Lo, thepoorIndian!,"HamiltonIntelligencer,
June30, 1829, p. 2.
12 Georgia's
new laws forbadeCherokeeassembliessaveforpurposesof cedingland and disallowedthetestimonyof anyCherokeein courtagainstwhitemen.See Theda Perdueand MichaelD. Green,eds., TheCherokee
Removal:A BriefHistorywithDocuments(Boston,1995); WilliamL. Anderson,Cherokee
Removal:Beforeand
Cherokees,
and GoldFever
After(Athens,Ga., 1991); David Williams,The GeorgiaGoldRush: Twenty-Niners,
(Columbia,S.C., 1993); Louis Fillerand Allen Guttmann,eds., TheRemovalof theCherokee
Nation:Manifest
Destinyor NationalDishonor(Boston, 1962), 18-21; MurielWright,"The Removalof the Choctawsto the
IndianTerritory,
1830-1833," Chronicles
ofOklahoma,6 (June1928), 103-28; and MaryE. Young,"The Creek
Frauds:A Studyin Conscienceand Corruption,"Mississippi
ValleyHistoricalReview,42 (Dec. 1955), 411-37.
On removalattacks,see,forexample,"The Cherokees,"Hudson[Ohio] Observer
and Telegraph,
Aug. 18, 1829, p.
19; "Georgiaand theIndians,"ibid.,March 19, 1830, p. 4; "The Indians,"ibid.,May 28, 1830, p. 2; "Reasons
ForEspousingtheCause of theIndians,"ibid.,Jan.27, 1831, p. 2; "The Presidential
Election,"Geniusof Universal Emancipation,
Nov. 8, 1828, pp. 53-55; "Rightsof the Indians,"ibid., Oct. 2, 1829, p. 30; "Memorial,"
Christian
Advocate,
Jan.8, 1830, p. 1; "SecularSummary,"
BostonRecorder,
Dec. 25, 1828, p. 107; "The Cherokees,"ibid.,Feb. 5, 1829, p. 24; "Domestic:Rightsof theIndians,"ibid.,Aug. 20, 1829, p. 135; and "Fromthe
VermontChronicle,'The Indians,"'ibid.,Dec. 2, 1829, p. 196.
This content downloaded from 161.6.94.245 on Sat, 26 Apr 2014 12:44:35 PM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
22
History
TheJournalofAmerican
June1999
This earlyoppositioncame fromeveryregionof the country:fromthe South,
throughout
Ohio and the cityof
even fromGeorgiaitself;fromthe Northwest,
cities,including
Pittsburgh;
fromthe New Englandstates;and fromnortheastern
capturedtheimagination
and
Boston,New York,and Philadelphia.It particularly
of reformers.
WhenAngefervor
of thenation'syoungadults,thesecondgeneration
in 1829,beforeshebecamea Quakeror
linaGrimkeleftCharleston
forPhiladelphia
an abolitionist,
thestrongest
in herletters
backhomeweresharp
politicalreferences
in the
objectionsto theIndianRemovalBill.Likewise,theonlypoliticalreferences
reports
of herworkin thewomen's
letters
of youngHarrietBeecherareenthusiastic
leaderin the
petitioncampaignto opposeIndianremoval.GeorgeCheever,a future
abolitionist
duringtheremovalcrisis,
movement
and a studentatAndoverSeminary
and petitions
and eventakled antiremoval
efforts
there,organizing
publicmeetings
of
ingon LewisCass,governor
of theterritory
of Michiganand a strongproponent
Cass'sdefense
Indianremoval."Nothingcan saveus," Cheeverwrotein castigating
of Indianremoval,"unlessthepublicmindbe universally
arousedfromitslethargy,
and an appealmade,so loud,simultaneous,
and decisive,as shallastonishtheworld
in theheartof thecountry,
at thepowerof moralfeeling
and causethemostinveterateand boldsupporters
of nationaliniquityto tremble."13
AtWesternReserveCollegein northern
Ohio, oppositionto removalwas so profollowing
nouncedthatit formedthesubjectof thestudentspeechat ceremonies
theannualexamsin 1830.The speech,entitled"The PresentPolicyof ourGovernmentTowardstheIndians,"attackedtheremovalbillforrobbingtheIndiansof the
improvements
theyhad made to theirland,forviolatingall previouslegaltreaties,
The quantifiable
evidence
and forbesmirching
thenation'sinternational
reputation.
of Indianprogress
laid out in theevangelical
periodicals
appealedto the
abundantly
thattheIndianshad proved
assertions
studentorator,and he challengedJackson's
incapableof settledagriculture,
pointingoutthattheCherokeealonehad:
wheels-3000 ploughs80,000 domesticanimals-750 looms-2500 spinning
10 sawmills-31 gristmills-62 smithshops-8 cottongins-10 schools-9
and 20 publicroads.Theynowhavea printing
press,a weeklypaperand
turnpikes
a nationalacademy.
Removalwould violatethe "sacredand inalienablerightsof the Indian and the
itwouldleave"a stainon theAmerpledgedfaithandhonorofournation,"
he asserted;
of scornwillbe
The finger
icancharacter
whichthelapseof timewillneverefface.
turnedfromtheinfamousdespoilationof Polandand pointedat America."Could
the Indiansbe saved?Could thisignominiousfuturebe averted?Yes: "let every
. . . let themoralpowerof thepressbe
patriotspeakout withhonestindignation
3 Gerda Lerner,The Grimke'
Sisters
fromSouthCarolina:RebelsagainstSlavery(Boston,1967), 92; JoanD.
Hedrick,HarrietBeecherStowe:A Life(New York,1994), 58-60; Cheever,"Removalof theIndians,"711. See
of a Boardin theCityof New
Relatingto theFormationand Progress
LewisCass, "Documentsand Proceedings
of theAborginesof America,"NorthAmericanReview,
Preservation,
and Improvement
YorkfortheEmigration,
of warand implemented
theremovalpolsecretary
41 (Jan.1830), 62- 121. Cass laterbecameAndrewJackson's
icy.See also GeorgeB. Cheever,"Reviewof theSpeecheson thePassageof theBill fortheRemovalof Indians,"
3 (Oct. 1830), 492-500, 517-32.
SpiritofthePilgrims,
This content downloaded from 161.6.94.245 on Sat, 26 Apr 2014 12:44:35 PM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
againstIndianRemoval
The Struggle
23
and theywill
and ruinouspolicy. .. waitbuta little,
arrayed
againstthisdisgraceful
be drivenbeyondour reach."The roleof thefederalgovernment
camein forespecial criticism-federally
fundedremovalat thebehestof thestateof Georgiawas a
"nationalcrime,"one criticcharged.14
even
by the Georgialegislature
Protesters
in the Southopposedremovalefforts
beforeJacksonwas elected.In August1828, RobertCampbell,a lawyerin Savannah, offered
one hundreddollarsto anyonewho drewup the bestpetitionto be
to theGeorgiaGeneralAssembly
denouncingthestate'seffort
signedand presented
to removetheCherokees."It willjustlyentailupon Georgiatheodiouschargesof
and inhumane,"
he wrote,"becausein modbeingfaithless-covetous-ungrateful
erntimesin civilizedcountriesthereis no instanceof expellingthemembersof a
wholenationfromtheirhomesor driving
an entirepopulationfromitsnativecounof Polandinvolvedno suchstigmaof crupartition
try.The notoriously
disgraceful
15
shameto Georgia's
posterity."
elty.It willbringenduring
When the Georgialegislature
passed a law declaringthat"no Indian and no
of an Indian,notunderstanding
theEnglishlanguage,shallbe deemeda
descendant
competentwitnessin anyCourt of Justicein Georgia,"Campbellsenta copyof
thelaw to northern
newspapersto fantheprotestagainstremoval.Indeed,much
thatthe nationalpresscarriedon Georgia'slegislative
moves
of the information
camefromregularreports
sentbyremovalopponentsin Georgiaitself.Some Georprintedreportsfrom
gia periodicalsalso opposedremoval.The SavannahGeorgian
openedits pagesto the
opponentsof Indianremoval,and the SavannahMercury
one of whomlamentedthathe had heardtoo manyofAndrew
Indiansthemselves,
exhortations
to Indians:"I havelistenedto a greatmanytalksfromour
Jackson's
you are
greatfather,
but theyalwaysbeganand endedwiththis:geta littlefurther;
too near me."'16
As thecampaignagainstremovalspread,Jeremiah
Evarts,a lawyerand commisfor ForeignMissions,pulled
sionerof the AmericanBoard of Commissioners
into a legal treatiseknownas The "William
removalopponents'broadarguments
betweenthe
on thepasttreaties
The essaysoffered
detailedinformation
Penn"Essays.
the Indiansas legal
SoutheastIndiansand the UnitedStatesthathad established
possessorsof theirthen remaininglands. Evartsarguedeloquentlythat forced
removalwould constitute
a gravelegal breach,and his appeal forjusticefounda
readyaudience.The masspublicbought,read,and discussedthePennessays,which
that
werereprinted
in morethana hundrednewspapers
and publishedas pamphlets
14"PresentCrisisin the Conditionof theAmericanIndian,"Hudson[Ohio] Western
Intelligencer,
Dec. 29,
portrayal
of Cherokeelife,seeWilliamG.
1829, p. 4. Forcensusdatashowingtheaccuracyof theantiremovalists'
A Statistical
Analysisof theFederalCheroMcLoughlinand WalterH. ConserJr.,"The Cherokeesin Transition:
History,
64 (Dec. 1977), 678-703; and Douglas C. Wilms,"Cherokee
kee Censusof 1835,"JournalofAmerican
and After,
ed. WilliamL. Anderson(Athens,
Removal:Before
Land Use in GeorgiabeforeRemoval,"in Cherokee
Ga., 1991), 1-28. See alsoWishart,"Evidenceof SurplusProduction."
15 R. Campbell,"FromtheGeorgian,
Register,
Aug.30, 1828, p. 14.
Literary
Premium,"
Niles'Weekly
16 "Georgia Indians," ibid., Sept. 13, 1828, pp. 41-42; "From the Savannah Mercury,"
ibid., June20,
1829, p. 14.
This content downloaded from 161.6.94.245 on Sat, 26 Apr 2014 12:44:35 PM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
24
TheJournalofAmerican
History
June1999
blanketedthecountry.
Theywere,accordingto a contemporary,
readbymorethan
halfa millionpeopleduringthesummerof 1829.17
EvenbeforetheIndianRemovalActwas introduced
in Congressin 1830, petitiondrivesagainstitspreadthroughout
thenation,and thereligious
periodicals
uniformly
endorsedthem,reporting
on local petitionefforts
a steady
and reprinting
streamof newspaper
accountsof petitioncampaignsin otherareas.In Washington,
Pittsburgh,
Boston,Hartford,
Philadelphia,
New York,and townsin theMidwest
and South,opponentscalledpublicmeetingsand drewup petitionsto defeatthe
removalbill.The petitionspouredintoWashington.
"Havingnearlyexhaustedmy
stockof memorials,
I mustask formore,"a professor
at Amherst
Collegewroteon
February
20, 1830, "I shouldwant 15 or 20 copiesmore,at least."Collegepresidentsexhorted
students
to sendpetitions
to Congress;at othercolleges,students
led
theopposition.In somecities,mayorschairedthepublicmeetings
calledto drawup
petitions.In New YorkCitytwothousandpeoplegathered
in theMasonicHall to
A Pennsylvania
drawup a petitionagainstremoval.18
notedin disbelief
representative
thatin his notablyquietdistrict,
peoplewereholdinglargeand enthusiastic
public
meetingsto petitionCongresson thebill.In BrownCountyalongtheOhio River
justeastof Cincinnati,overtwohundredmensigneda petitioncallingtheremoval
act "cruel,unjust,and disgraceful."
At a meetingin Bostonto considera petitionto
Congresson Sundaymails,thepetitioners
also drewup one on Indianremovaland
sentit to Congress.In Tallmadge,Ohio, overone hundredmen signedpetitions
opposingIndianremoval."The tablesof the members(of Congress)are covered
withpamphletsdevotedto the discussionsof the Indian question,"the congressionalcorrespondent
fortheJournalof Commerce
wrotein lateMarch."Thereis a
movement
in thelandon thissubject."The Christian
thelargestmighty
Watchman,
circulation
Baptistperiodical,declaredthat"it mustbe gratifying
to everycitizen
who lovesequal and exactjusticeto noticethefeelingwhichis now excitedin the
in relationto therights
community
of theAborigines
of thiscountry."19
17
The essaysbyJeremiah
in pamphletformand
Evartswerefirstprintedin July1829 and laterdistributed
reprintedin othernewspapers,includingthe Cherokee
Phoenix.See JeremiahEvarts,Cherokee
Removal:The
"WilliamPenn"Essays
and OtherWritings,
ed. FrancisPaul Prucha(Knoxville,1981). See JohnA. AndrewIII,
FromRevivalstoRemoval:Jeremiah
Evarts,theCherokee
Nation,and theSearchfortheSoul ofAmerica(Athens,
Ga., 1992).
18 For thestart
of theIndianremovaldebatebeforetheSenate,see Register
ofDebatesin Congress,
pt. 1, vol. 6,
21 Cong., 1 sess.,April6, 1830,p. 305. Forthestartof thedebatebeforetheHouse of Representatives,
see RegisterofDebatesin Congress,
117 towns,24, for
pt. 1, vol. 6, 21 Cong., 1 sess.,May 13, 1830, p. 988. Of Vermont's
example,petitionedCongressto oppose the removalbill. Nearlyone-quarterof the adultmale inhabitants
in
thesetownssignedthepetitions.See Roth,"WhenceThis StrangeFire?,"305-18. On thepetitions,
see Evarts,
Cherokee
Removal,23; "DomesticSummary,"
BostonRecorder,
Jan.13, 1830, p. 7; ibid.,Jan.20, 1830, p. 11;
"ThoughtsConcerningtheIndians,"ibid.,Dec. 30, 1829, p. 210; "ReportFromWashington,"
Niles'Weekly
Register,
Jan.23, 1830, pp. 363-64; and "PresentCrisisin theConditionof theAmericanIndian,"Hudson[Ohio]
Western
Intelligencer,
Dec. 29, 1829, p. 4.
19 The Boston-based
Baptistperiodicalthe Christian
Watchman
was latercalledthe Watchman-Examiner,
and
libraries
generally
catalogit underthatname.Register
ofDebatesin Congress,
pt. 1, vol. 6, 21 Cong., 1 sess.,Feb.
24, 1830, p. 582; "Memorialof Inhabitants
of BrownCounty,in theStateof Ohio in Relationto theCherokee
Indians,February
22, 1830," PA, Box 726.9 (Ohio HistoricalSociety,Columbus);"DomesticSummary,"
Boston
Recorder,
Jan.20, 1830,p. 11; "FortheWesternIntelligencer,"
Hudson[Ohio] Western
Intelligencer,
Jan.29, 1830,
p. 1; "FromtheJournalof Commerce,25 March 1830,"BostonRecorder,
April14, 1830, p. 1. See also "Removal
of theIndians,"Christian
Watchman,
Oct. 23, 1829, p. 170.
This content downloaded from 161.6.94.245 on Sat, 26 Apr 2014 12:44:35 PM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
The Struggle
againstIndianRemoval
25
Popularoppositionto Jackson's
removalbill overwhelmed
traditional
formsof
ofpamphlets
politicalparticipation.
The massiveoutpouring
and petitions
itselfwas
unprecedented.
The demandforJeremiah
Evarts's
Pennessayswas so greatthatthey
weremorewidelydistributed
and readin the summerof 1829 thananypolitical
pamphletsinceThomasPaine'sCommonSense.Not onlydid mensendan unprecewomenbeganto drawup and circulate
theirownpetidentednumberof petitions,
tionsopposingremoval,thefirsttimethattheydid so on a nationalpoliticalissue.
some opponentsof removalwentto prisonratherthancomplywith
Ultimately,
removallaws.The politicalcrisisthatthepopularpoliticalactivismcreated
Georgia's
resultedin two SupremeCourt decisionsagainstthe administration's
positionon
removal,
decisionsthatan embattled
and defiant
president
ignored.
To defeatremoval,CatharineBeecherinitiatedthe firstnationalpetitiondriveby
women.Duringthesummerof 1829,sheheardJeremiah
Evartsspeakin Bostonon
theprospectof Indianremoval.He askedher,Beecherrecalledin hermemoirs,
publishedin the1870s,to do whatshecouldto avertthetragedy.
WhenBeecherreturned
to theHartford
whereshe was director,
she calledtogether
some
FemaleSeminary,
friends,
including
LydiaSigourney,
a popularwriter
and poet,to discusstheimpending removalbill.The womenimmediately
resolvedto drawup a petitionopposing
removal
and to sendcopiesto femaleacquaintances
throughout
thecountry.20
A nationalwomen'spetitiondrivewas unprecedented,
and the Hartfordgroup
it. In hermemoirs,Beecherdid not
decidedto concealits own rolein organizing
indicatewhysheoptedforanonymity.
It was notbecauseshehopedthatthepublic
thatitwas
wouldassumethepetitionwas organized
asserted
bymen,forthecircular
If
preparedand sentsolelybywomen.Perhapsshe fearedpersonalcondemnation.
so, she was certainly
vindicated,forremovalproponentsin Congressseized the
women'scircular
as a pointof attackon removalopponents.In anycase,therequirementsfororganizing
a petitioncampaignanonymously
impededit; Beechereven
To compiletheirmailinglist,theHartfeltcompelledto sweartheprinter
to secrecy.
women'sassociations,
fordwomenreliedon thenetwork
of benevolent
drawingup
citiesacrossthe
namesand addressesof theirfriends
and acquaintances
throughout
Beechersaid,howmanynamestheycollectedin thisfirst
nation.It was remarkable,
fromHartford
wouldriskexposingtheirinvolvement,
step.Sendingout thecircular
so Beecherarranged
to haveall of thepetitionssenton thesamedayfromfourdifferent
was askedto sendcopies
itself.Each recipient
cities,butnonefromHartford
of thecircularto friends,
or to drawup herown petition,and to assemblepublic
as manysignatures
as possibleto
meetingson behalfof the Cherokees,gathering
in Congress.Throughitall,theywereaskedto pray"forthe
swaytherepresentatives
intervention
of the NationalGovernment
to protectthe Indians."The Hartford
(New York,1874), 62-64. Beecherdoes
and Suggestions
20Catharine E. Beecher,EducationalReminiscences
notprovidethenamesof theotherwomen,one of whomwas marriedto ThomasChester,and anotherto Daniel
and benefactor
of theHartfordFemaleSeminary.
Wadsworth,
who was an architect
This content downloaded from 161.6.94.245 on Sat, 26 Apr 2014 12:44:35 PM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
26
ofAmericanHistory
The Journal
June1999
tosign
their
secrecy
so completely
thattheybegantobesolicited
womenmaintained
ownpetition.21
copiesoftheir
first
The Ladies'Circular,
itself
to "benevolent
as itcameto be called,addressed
byusing
pietyandpolitics
andurgedthemto combine
ladiesoftheUnitedStates"
thecalamity
ofremoval."
both"prayers
toavert
Itdepicted
theIndians
andexertions
in timespast,supplying
their
of theUnitedStatesas "saviors"
of theEuropeans
bynativetalents"
as anyother
necessities
in crucialperiodsand,bynow,as "fitted
forintellectual
thesouthern
Legaltreaties
guaranteed
American
andrefined
pursuits.
to
inserted
partsofpasttreaties
argued,
andBeecher
Indianstheir
lands,thecircular
from
roseprimarily
madeontheCherokee
provethepoint.TheclaimsthatGeorgia
notlegal,motives,
thecircular
said:"thelandsofthispeopleareclaimed
acquisitive,
tobe embraced
within
thelimits
ofsomeofoursouthern
states,
andas theyareferand
bythewhitesas theirownpossessions,
tileandvaluabletheyaredemanded
theIndiansof theirnativesoil."22
efforts
aremakingto dispossess
Thecircular
thenappealeddirectly
towomentojointhepolitical
against
struggle
removal.
"Havenotthefemales
ofthiscountry
somedutiesdevolving
uponthemin
womenshould
to thishelpless
race?"itasked.Indeed,thecircular
asserted,
relation
inalleviating
theplight
oftheIndiansas they
exercise
thesamebenevolent
influence
owncommunities.
Benevolent
womencould
didinaidingtheneedyintheir
already
in thisinstance
exertlegislative
becausetheIndiansneededit-that itself
pressure
a moralimperative.
drewon a biblicalmodel
Beyondthat,thecircular
represented
fordealing
witha peoplein crisis,
theaccountofEsther,
whoapproached
theking
existence.
thecircular
topleadforherpeople's
argued:
Women,
are protectedfromthe blindinginfluenceof partyspirit,and the asperitiesof
forpower,norany
politicalviolence.Theyhavenothingto do withanystruggle
rightto dictatethedecisionsof thosethatruleoverthem.Buttheymayfeelforthe
hand forthem,and by their
distressed;
theymay stretchout the supplicating
overthem.It maybe,that
striveto avertthecalamitiesthatareimpending
prayers
rulers
ofourland.... It
be heard,evenbythehighest
femalepetitioners
canlawfully
theJewish
princess
who,being
yetwe stillremember
maybe thiswillbeforbidden;
evenwhen
sentto supplicatefora nation'slife,was thusreprovedforhesitating
hold thypeace at thistime,then
deathstaredherin theway:"If thoualtogether
houseshallbe
shalldeliverance
arisefromanotherplace;butthouand thyfather's
And who knowethwhetherthouartcome to thekingdomforsucha
destroyed.
timeas this?"
The circular
mustdecidethisinteresting
andimportant
urgedhaste."Afewweeks
willbe in vain."It asserted
its
and afterthattimesympathy
and regret
question,
waswritfemale
andcalledallwomento action:"Thiscommunication
authorship
womanwhoperuses
tenandsentabroadsolelybythefemale
hand.Letevery
it,
herlawful
insociety
whichfallswithin
andendeavour
exert
thatinfluence
province,
21Ibid.,63.
22 "CircularAddressedto the Benevolent
AdvocateandJournal,Dec.
Ladies of the UnitedStates,"Christian
25, 1829, pp. 65-66.
This content downloaded from 161.6.94.245 on Sat, 26 Apr 2014 12:44:35 PM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
The Struggle
againstIndianRemoval
27
by everysuitableexpedientto interestthe feelingsof her friends,relatives,
and
in behalfof thispeople,thatarereadyto perish."23
acquaintances,
The resultof theirpetitionefforts,
Beecherwrote,"exceededour mostsanguine
expectations."
The womenwho receivedtheHartford
petitionscalledpublicmeetforsignatures,
ingsagainstremovalwheretheydrewup theirownpetitions
and they
set out to enlistfriendsand neighborsin the campaign.The petitioncampaign
somewomenorganizedtheLadiesAssociationfor
spurredotherpoliticalactivities;
to send
Supplicating
Justiceand MercyTowardthe Indians,whichmet regularly
antiremoval
petitionsto Congress.Petitionssignedby hundredsof womenbegan
pouringintoCongress,a featthatmanynewspapers
notedwithastonishment.
The
where670 womensignedand sentitto
largest
singlepetitioncamefromPittsburgh,
theSenate.In organizing
to defeatremoval,
manywomenviewedthemselves
as continuingworkto whichtheyhad longbeen accustomed.For twenty
yearstheyhad
forIndianschools.In theirperiodicals
donatedmoneyand materials
theyreadreguon removal.
lar reportsfromIndianmissionsthatprovidedan Indianperspective
forthewelfareof specificindividuals
Womenwerefamiliar
withlocal petitioning
and groups;theyhad grownaccustomedto seeingwomen'sconcernsgivenequalstatusin theirperiodicals;
theyfelta senseof missionas guardiansof nationalvirtue.
Allocating
federalfundsto forceIndianremovalthreatened
Indianswhomtheyhad
heardspeakin theirchurches
and homes,whosewritings
theyhad readin theirperiodicals,andwho appearedfullydeserving
of legalprotection.24
The circularsucceededin delugingCongresswithwomen'spetitions,
butfearof
foundherselfin
beingfoundout tookitstollon CatharineBeecher.She frequently
conversations
thatturnedto thequestionof thecircular's
author,and she had,she
oursecret."When
to preserve
said,"manynarrowescapesfromfalsehoodin efforts
someoneasked her once who she supposedwrotethe circular,she repliedthat,
itto LydiaSigourney,
shethoughtitwasnotlikeSigourney's
thoughsomeattributed
writing
stylebutmorelikethatof a manwhomBeechernamed,thereby
"escaping"
withoutrevealing
herown authorship
but directly
thecircularitself,
contradicting
whichflatlydeclaredits femaleorigin.In writingof the campaignyearslater,she
I sudsaid that"notat all awareof theconsequencesof thisadditionalexcitement,
and unableto perform
denlyfoundmyselfutterly
prostrated
anyschooldutywithout extremepain and such confusionof thoughtas seemed like approaching
She wentto recoverat thehomeof friends,
insanity."
leavingothers,includingher
sisterHarriet,to carryout her dutiesat the HartfordFemaleSeminary.Harriet
23
Ibid.
Beecher,EducationalReminiscences,
63. On the Ladies Associationfor SupplicatingJusticeand Mercy
Jan.1, 1830, p. 6. See also,"Congressional,
TowardtheIndians,see "FortheWatchman,"ChristianWatchman,
Congress,1stSession,"Niles'
Senate,"Hudson[Ohio] Western
Intelligencer,
March 12, 1830, p. 3; "Twenty-First
Jan.13, 1830, p. 7; and "For the
Weekly
Register,
Feb. 27, 1830, pp. 4-7; "DomesticSurvey,"BostonRecorder,
Proceedpetition,see "NationalAffairs:
Watchman,"Christian
Watchman,
Jan.1, 1830, p. 1. On thePittsburgh
ingsof Congress,"Christian
Advocate,March 12, 1830, p. 111; and Louis Filler,The CrusadeagainstSlavery,
of femalebenevolenceborelittle
1830-1860 (New York,1960), 99. Lori Ginzberghas notedthat"therhetoric
conservative
women,she pointsout, readily
resemblance
to women'sactualorganizational
behavior."Relatively
local officialson poor reliefand orphanasylums.See Ginzberg,Womenand theWorkof
justifiedpetitioning
Benevolence,
6; and Berg,Remembered
Gate,167.
24
This content downloaded from 161.6.94.245 on Sat, 26 Apr 2014 12:44:35 PM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
28
TheJournalofAmericanHistory
June1999
thrivedin hernew responsibilities,
sendingenthusiastic
lettersto Catharineabout
theworkinvolving
thecircular.
"Lastnightwe teachers
satup tilleleveno'clockfinishingour Cherokeeletters,"she wrote,adding thatspeculationstill abounded
aboutthelikelyauthor.
The successofthecircular,
andherknowledge
thatitwaswrittenbyheroldersister,
inspiredthefuture
authorof UncleTomsCabinto writethat
"theexcitement,
I hope,is butjustbegun.So 'greateffects
comefromlittlecauses.'"25
The women's
fromsomeantiremovalists
petition
campaigndrewcriticism
and from
withone crucialdifference:
fromtheformer
congressional
Democrats,
objections
were
whilethelatteroffered
harshandpersistent
criticism.
Someedimutedand temporary,
torsofdenomination
periodicals
initially
expressed
dismayatwomen's
political
petitions
to Congress,
buttheyalso printed
thecircular
in theirnewspapers,
thereby
spreading
of the campaignand increasing
itssuccess.Amongantiremovalists,
publicawareness
wereundercut
thatit represented
a
objections
to theLadies'Circular
bytherealization
newsourceofpolitical
assistance.
HenryClay,forexample,
notedthepractical
advantage
ofusingwomen's
in defeating
removal
whenhe pointedouttoJerepolitical
organizing
on [theIndians']side,and a cooperation
miahEvartsthat"thefemalesexis generally
ifnotdecisive,
influence."26
between
thatandtheclergy
wouldhavea powerful,
first
to
the
circularby urgingwomento
Many religiousperiodicals
responded
limittheirpoliticalactivityto the traditional
theirhusbands,
taskof influencing
but thenprintedtheentirecircularwithoutfurther
commentor
sons,and fathers
The Christian
forexample,
ceasedtheirobjections.
Watchman,
hopedthat"Godwould
of all
preserve
our Congressso pureand enlightened
as notto needtheorganization
to geta questionrighteously
thefemalesin theland into'societies'
decided,"and it
reminded
womenthatthebiblicalEstherappealedto herhusbandwhenshemadea
politicalappeal on behalfof herpeople. Still,subsequentissuesof the Watchman
no further
offered
objections.Some periodicalscarriedthe entireLadies' Circular
The Christian
withoutanycriticism.
thelargestof the religiousperiodiAdvocate,
thecircularon itsfrontpagewitha note
cals,impliedan endorsement
byprinting
And theantisayingonlythatit had been sentby "a femalefriendof humanity."
slaveryperiodicalthe Geniusof Universal
Emancipation
quicklyurgedunreserved
support.That urgingcamein thepaper's"Ladies'Repository"
section,whichElizabethMargaret
Chandlereditedanonymously.27
25
at Yale Univercenteredon BenjaminSilliman,a professor
Widespreadpublicspeculationon itsauthorship
64-65. Kathryn
sityand themostprominent
scientist
inAmericaat thetime.Beecher,EducationalReminiscences,
Kish Sklarattributed
Beecher'sbreakdownto Zilpah Grant'srejectionof Beecher'sofferto be associateprincipal
of the HartfordSeminary.Beecherplaced her breakdownin relationto the Ladies' Circularand the strainof
A Studyin AmericanDomesticity
(New Haven,
secrecythatfollowed.See KathrynKish Sklar,CatharineBeecher:
Stowe,60.
1973); and Beecher,EducationalReminiscences,
65-70. See also Hedrick,HarrietBeecher
26 Evarts,
Cherokee
Removal,
30.
27
Jan.20, 1830, p. 7; "For theWatchman,"
See, forexample,"Fromthe Hamp. Gazette,"BostonRecorder,
ChristianWatchman,
Jan. 1, 1830, p. 1; "CircularAddressedto the BenevolentLadies of the UnitedStates,"
Christian
AdvocateandJournalDec. 25, 1829, pp. 65-66; "The Choctaws,"Geniusof Universal
Emancipation,
ibid.,1 (July1830), 54-55; "Ladies'ReposiNov. 27, 1829, p. 94; "FortheGeniusof UniversalEmancipation,"
tory:The Indians,"ibid.,Jan.8, 1830, pp. 140-41. ForevidencethatMargaretChandlerrequestedthe Geniusof
JourUniversal
Emancipation'editor,BenjaminLundy,not to use hername,see BenjaminLundy,"Missionary
neysin the Interestof the Cause," VerticalFile Manuscript288 (Ohio HistoricalSociety).For WilliamLloyd
Garrison's
short-lived
disapprovalof theLadies'Circular,seeWendellPhillipsGarrison,ed., WilliamLloydGarrison,1805-1879, TheStoryofhisLifeToldbyHis Children(4 vols.,New York,1969), II, 156-57.
This content downloaded from 161.6.94.245 on Sat, 26 Apr 2014 12:44:35 PM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
The Struggle
againstIndianRemoval
29
In contrast,
Democratssubjectedthe women'spetitionsto unalcongressional
menforfailingto keeptheirwomenout of
antiremoval
loyedcriticism,
castigating
politicaldebateand faultingthepetitionsforundermining
politicalorderand the
normsof chivalry.
Theyscornedwomenfortakingup congressional
timewiththeir
menwhosupported
women'spoliticalactivity
petitions
and depictedthebenevolent
as effeminate.
ThomasHartBenton,chairmanof theSenateCommitteeon Indian
Affairs,
summed up Democratic sentimentswhen he mockinglydescribeda "vision"
he had of theantiremovalists,
bothmenand womenmarching
undera singlebanhe said,having"earnedtheplacebytheparttheyareactingin the
ner,thefemales,
of Congresson the subjectof theseGeorgia
publicmeetingsforthe instruction
to the benevolent
Indians."Bentonadded thathe meant"no disrespect"
women;
indeed,he said,he preferred
theircompanyto thatof the"unbenevolent
males"and
wouldhimself
ratherappearin thefeminine
thanin themasculinegender;had rathermarchin
thanin hat,coat,and pantaloons.Withtheaid of
bonnet,cloak,and petticoats,
I hadrather
thefamous
todrawmeupa little,
corset-maker
MadameCantalo,
trip
italongas a Miss,infrock
andpantalets,
thanfigure
as a warchiefoftheGeorgia
I had
Cherokees
bedecked
andbedizened
in all thefinery
of paintandfeathers.
rather
be on footamongthedamsels,
thanon horseamongtheleaders,
white,
black,andred.I apprehend
theseleaders
willbe on footon thereturn
march,
dismountedand discomfited,
unhorsed
and unharnessed,
better
prepared
forthe
flight
thanthefight,
andleadingtheladiesoutof dangerafter
havingledthem
intoit.Inthatretreat,
I wouldrecommend
ittothebenevolent
females
toplaceno
reliance
upontheperformances
of theirdelicatelittlefeet.Theirunequalsteps
conducswift
wouldvainly
strive
tokeepupwiththe'doublequicktime'oftheir
tors.No helping
handwouldthenbe stretched
backforthe'littlelulus'.... I
wouldrecommend
ittotheseladies,nottodousetheir
andtuckuptheir
bonnets,
of
coats,forsucha race,buttositdownon thewayside,andwaitforthecoming
theconquerors.28
and
AndrewJackson
had placedIndianremovalat thetopof hispolicypriorities,
who tried,unsucthestormof oppositionit createdseemedto bafflethepresident,
an alternative
base
to countertheorganizedoppositionbymanufacturing
cessfully,
of benevolent
headof theIndianOfficein
ThomasMcKenney,
supportforremoval.
theWarDepartment,
formedwhathe calledtheIndianBoardfortheEmigration,
of theAborigines
ofAmericaand setout to recruit
Preservation,
and Improvement
to promoteremoval.He hopedto duplicatetheantiremovalists'
tacreligious
figures
ticsby organizing
publicmeetings,
drawingup a publicpetitionforremoval,and
publishingproremoval
pamphlets.But the Indian Board generatedscantsupport
effort
culand itsoon collapsed.Anotheradministration
beyondMcKenney's
office,
whosupportedremoval.
tivatedIsaacMcCoy,a former
Baptistmissionary
Although
of Indianlands,
McCoy had goneon thegovernment
payrollin 1828 as a surveyor
28 On debateoverthepetitions
pt. 1, vol. 6, 21 Cong., 1 sess.,
in Congress,see Register
ofDebatesin Congress,
Jan.11, 1830, pp. 506-11; ibid, Feb. 2, 1830, p. 109; Editorial,Niles'Weekly
Register,
Jan.23, 1830, p. 1; "The
Jan.15, 1830, p. 150; and Filler,CrusadeagainstSlavery,99.
Indians,"Geniusof Universal
Emancipation,
This content downloaded from 161.6.94.245 on Sat, 26 Apr 2014 12:44:35 PM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
30
TheJournal
ofAmerican
History
June1999
theJacksonadministration
used his former
statusas a Baptistmissionary
to claim
thatremovalhad Baptistsupport.McCoywas notrepresentative
of theBaptistmission board'sposition,and tensionsbetweenhim and thatboardgrewmorepronouncedas theremovalcrisisintensified.
In 1830 theBaptistboardflatly
refused
to
endorseMcCoy'spetitionfavoring
removal.
The BaptistChristian
subseWatchman
quentlyprintedon itsfrontpage a stinging
criticism
of McCoy'sefforts
to put the
on
the
of
removal.
Because
of
article
Baptiststamp approval
McCoy,
said, it was
now necessary
"to correctthe falseimpression
thatis now goingon in thepublic
mindthattheBaptists
areengagedwiththeGeorgians
orothersin removing
theIndiansagainsttheirwill."Baptistswerecompletely
theartiopposedto removalefforts,
cle said, and forgood measurethe editorsignedthe writer's
name as "Veritas."
McCoylaterbeganhisownseparateBaptistMissionBoard,whichwassupported
by
in the1840s.29
theSouthernBaptistchurches
afterthesplitoverslavery
thanJacksonhad
Oppositionto theremovalbillmadeitspassagemoredifficult
envisioned.
The Senatepassedthebillbya voteof 28 to 19 on April24, 1830.The
House marginon May 26 was narrower:
their
102 to 97. Southernrepresentatives,
numbersswelledbythethree-fifths
clause,votedheavilyin favorof thebill;representatives
fromtherestof thecountry
votedtwoto one againstit.The House vote
was so closethatJacksonheldhisvetoof theMaysvilleRoad projectin check,fearingthatif aid to theroadwerevetoedfirst,
CongresswouldrejectIndianremoval.
Whenthevetocamedownimmediately
aftertheremovalactpassedtheHouse,congressional
opponentstriedto retrieve
thebillbeforeit reachedthepresident's
desk,
reach.30
hopingthatCongresscouldreconsider
it,butitwas beyondtheirlegislative
The Cherokeesimmediately
appealedto theSupremeCourtto strikedownGeorgia'sattemptto legislateforthem.Spiritedpublic meetingscontinued,petitions
articlesdefending
pouredonce againintoCongress,and periodicalscarriedlengthy
theSupremeCourt
Cherokeerights.In March1831, in Cherokee
Nationv. Georgia,
thatthelawsof thestateof Georgiacouldhaveno forceovertheCheroconcurred
thatgavethemfullrightsto theirlands.
kee,who wereprotected
byfederaltreaties
thatthelegalstatusof theCherokeeplaced
ThoughtheCourtalso acknowledged
themoutsideitsjurisdiction,
opponentsof removalwerecheeredbyitsendorsement
of theirposition.31
The presidentremaineddetermined
to coerceIndianremoval,
and he respondedbydefiantly
federaltroopsfromGeorgia,leavingno
withdrawing
29Cass, "Documentsand Proceedings
Relatingto theFormationand Progress
of a Boardin theCityof New
Yorkforthe Emigration,Preservation,
of the Aboriginesof America."See also HermanJ.
and Improvement
Architect
Viola, ThomasL. McKenney,
ofAmericasEarlyIndian Policy:1816-1830 (Chicago, 1974), 220-22;
FrancisPaul Prucha,"ThomasL. McKenneyand theNew YorkIndianBoard,"Mississippi
Historical
Valley
Review,
48 (March 1962), 635-55; "Indian Question,"ChristianWatchman,
May 7, 1830, p. 1; "SecularSummary,
Domestic,"BostonRecorder,
Nov. 11, 1829, p. 183; GeorgeA. Schultz,An Indian Canaan: Isaac McCoyand the
Visionofan IndianState(Norman,1972); and McLoughlin,Cherokees
and Missionaries,
266-78.
30For the removalbill'spassageand thepartymaneuvering
involved,see Donald B. Cole, ThePresidency
of
AndrewJackson(Lawrence,1993), 109; and FrancisPaul Prucha,ed., Documentsof UnitedStatesIndian Policy
(Lincoln, 1975), 52-53. GeorgeCheeverwrotethatthe expectationof the bill'spassageled him "almostto
despairwitha dejectionof feelingwhichnothingcan express."Cheever,"Removalof theIndians,"715; Editorial,
Niles'Weekly
Register,
June5, 1830, p. 1.
3 5 Pet. 1 (1831).
This content downloaded from 161.6.94.245 on Sat, 26 Apr 2014 12:44:35 PM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
The Struggle
againstIndianRemoval
31
betweentheCherokeeand thestate,whichmovedimmediately
to forcethe
buffer
Indiansout.
The Georgialegislature
in Cherokeeterrithenpasseda lawaimedat missionaries
Cherokee
tory,requiringthatall whitemen livingwithinthe now-appropriated
landsapplyfor,and receive,
licensesfromthestateof Georgiaor faceprison.Applying forthelicenseincludedswearingan oathof allegianceto all of Georgia'slaws,
and mostof the missionaries
refusedto do so. In repeatedincidentsovera dozen
missionaries
werechainedand marchedto prisonswheretheywereunsuccessfully
were
pressured
to signdocumentspromising
to leaveGeorgia.Femalemissionaries
werearrested
overthe
not includedin thelegislation,
and as themalemissionaries
The denomination
nextmonths,theytookovertherunningof missionoperations.
printingdispatches
periodicalscoveredtheseeventswithoutragedastonishment,
detainment
and harassfromthemissionaries
describing
theirrepeatedand lengthy
in violationof civiland criminallaws.One missionmentbyGeorgiastateofficials
himtoldhimthat
Heraldthattheofficial
who arrested
arywroteto theMissionary
and Christians
to wanderin themoun"itwouldprobablybe betterformissionaries
tainsand cavesof theearth,clad in sheep-skins
and goat-skins
as theydid of old;
and thatthiswouldprobablyproducean increaseof piety."The official
threatened
himwithre-arrest
ifhe did notleavetheareaentirely.
The Heraldwenton to say:
Our citizenshave been accustomedto see offenders
againstthe laws arrested
by
civilofficers,
but nowsee
actingin obedienceto thewarrantof a civilmagistrate;
whom
arresting
armedsoldiers,withoutany civilprecept,scouringthe country,
theyplease,detainingthemas long as theyplease,and releasingthemwhenand
wheretheyplease.... They see thosewho makeno attemptto resistor escape,
loaded withirons,forcedto travelgreatdistanceson foot,vilified,reproached,
and threatened
bytheircaptors.Such scenesas thesearestrangeand unexpected
in thiscountry.32
therebrought
actions,officials
WhentheJackson
administration
ignoredGeorgia's
forrefusing
to applyforthenewlyrequiredlicense.
chargesagainstthemissionaries
on this
In September1831 a Georgiajuryconvictedelevenof the missionaries
to expulsionor fouryears'hardlaborin thepenitentiary.
charge.
Theyweresentenced
andElizurButler,
electedtoservetheir
Ninewereexpelled,
buttwo,SamuelWorcester
inchainsto
termsandappealto theUnitedStatesSupremeCourt.Theyweremarched
in Milledgeville.
the statepenitentiary
As theirappealwound itsway throughthe
courtsystem,petitionspleadingforlegislative
redressforthe missionaries
poured
v. Georgia,came down in
into Congress.The SupremeCourt'sdecision,Worcester
theCherokeenationwas a "disearly1832, rulingthat,basedon previoustreaties,
tinctcommunity"
overwhichthelawsof Georgiawerenulland void and ordered
thatthemissionaries
be released.33
287-88; "Cherokees:FurtherProceedingsAgainstthe Mission32McLoughlin,Cherokees
and Missionaries,
Respectingthe Imprisonaries,"Missionary
Herald,27 (Sept. 1831), 281-84; "Cherokees:FurtherParticulars
Missionary
AmongtheCherokees,"UnitedBrethren
mentof theMissionaries,"
ibid, 299-302; "The Missionaries
4 ([Jan.?]1831), 186-87.
Intelligencer,
of theMissionariesof theBoardin theCherokeeNation,"Missionary
33Forthearrests
and trials,see "Arrest
This content downloaded from 161.6.94.245 on Sat, 26 Apr 2014 12:44:35 PM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
32
TheJournalofAmerican
History
June1999
The court'sdecisiongrantedtheopponentsof theremovalbillone briefeuphoric
momentof victory.
ArthurTappan carriedthe newsdirectly
fromWashingtonto
Bostonwhere,one observersaid, "no eventsincethe organization
of the government,exceptperhapsthetreaty
of peace,has createda liveliersensationof joy ...
thanthisdecisionof the SupremeCourt."In Boston,LymanBeecherheardthe
newsof theCourt'sdecisionfromElias Boudinot,theCherokeeeditorof theCherokeePhoenix,
whowas thenon a lecturetourin theNortheast.
WhenBeecherheard
thenews,Boudinotsaid,he "jumpedup,clappedhishands,tookhold of myhand
andsaid'God be praised,'andrushedoutto tellhisfamily."
AtthatmomentBoudinot
believedthattheCourt'sdecision"creates
a neweraon theIndianquestion."But it
soonbecameclearthattherulingwouldneverbe enforced.
violent
Georgiathreatened
ifblockedandrefused
resistance
After
torelease
Worcester
andButler.
Andrew
Jackson
wasreelected
thatyear,thestateof Georgiaexpelledthetwomissionaries.34
The deep divisionsoverremovaltouchedeventhevicepresident's
family.
Martin
Van Burenrecalledthathis own niece,whomhe admired,fiercely
denouncedhim
forhisrolein removal.Duringthe1832 electionseason,whenhe was a guestin her
thatsheearnestly
wouldlose
house,shetoldhimsharply
hopedthathe andJackson
theelectionbecause"sucha resultoughtto followsuchacts!"ThoughtheIndians
werefinally
Van Burenwrote,itwas a hardstruggle
becauseopponentsof
removed,
Indianremovalreceivedwhathe calleda "fulland unfairmeasureof cooperation"
from"thePress,the Courtsof law and last,tho' farfromthe leastin powerand
theChurch."Writing
in 1854,Van Burenreflected
influence,
that
itisscarcely
possible
now. . . torealize
theextent
towhichmanyofourreligious
wereagitated
ofthosemissionaries,
societies
anddisturbed
bytheimprisonment
inthestate
andthere
wasnodoubtthatnotlessthaneightortenthousand
voters,
ofNewYorkalone,werecontrolled
in the
at thesucceeding
Presidential
election
oftheir
bestowal
consideration.35
suffrage
bythatsingle
In lookingback on the passageof the removalbill,Van Burengave generous
creditto the president
thathe had servedunder."It was his judgment,his experithatsecuredsuccess.Therewas
ence,hisindomitable
vigorand unrestrained
activity
Herald,27 (May 1831), 165-67; "Arrest
of theMissionariesin the CherokeeNation,"ibid. (July1831), 229;
"Cherokees,"ibid. (Aug. 1831), 247-54; "Cherokees:FurtherParticulars
Respectingthe Imprisonment
of the
Missionaries,"ibid. (Sept. 1831), 299-302; and "Cherokees,"ibid. (Oct. 1831), 332-34. See also JohnEhle,
Trailof Tears:TheRiseand Fallof theCherokee
Nation(New York,1989), 244-53; and WilliamG. McLoughlin,
"CivilDisobedienceand Evangelism
amongtheMissionaries
to theCherokees,"
JournalofPresbyterian
History,
51
(Summer1973). ElizurButler'swifehad taughtin an Indian schoolforyears.See "Death of Mrs. Butler,"MissionaryHerald,26 (Jan. 1830), 29. On Worcester
v. Georgia,see 6 Pet. 515 (1832); and JosephC. Burke,"The
CherokeeCases: A Studyin Law,Politics,and Morality,"
Stanford
Law Review,21 (Feb. 1969), 500-531.
34 Garrison,
ed., WilliamLloydGarrison,
I, 270; EdwardEverettDale, "Lettersof theTwo Boudinots,"Chroniclesof Oklahoma,6 (Sept. 1928), 333. See also Edwin A. Miles, "After
JohnMarshall'sDecision: Worcester
v.
Georgiaand the Nullification
Crisis,"Journalof Southern
History,
39 (Nov. 1973), 519-44. For evidencethat
AndrewJacksonstayedin closetouchwithGeorgiaofficials
as theymaderemovaldecisions,seeJohnSpencerBassett,ed., Correspondence
ofAndrewJackson,1829-1832 (7 vols.,Washington,1926-1935), IV, 450-51. The
stateof GeorgiarepealeditsCherokeelawsin 1979 and pardonedWorcester
and Butlerin 1992. The statecalled
theirimprisonment
"a stainon thehistoryof criminaljusticein Georgia"and acknowledged
thatit had usurped
Cherokeesovereignty
and ignoredtheSupremeCourt.New YorkTimes,Nov. 23, 1992,p. A13.
35 Fitzpatrick,
ed.,Autobiography
ofMartinVanBuren,290-96.
This content downloaded from 161.6.94.245 on Sat, 26 Apr 2014 12:44:35 PM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
The Struggle
againstIndianRemoval
33
no measurein thewholecourseof his administration
of whichhe was moreexclusivelythe authorthan this.His was the hand, mind,and spiritthatcontrolled
and fierce
throughout."
Buttheformer
president
also concludedthatthewidespread
oppositionto theIndianRemovalActand thesuccessof itsopponentsin portraying
victory.
Van Buren
removalas unjusthad forever
diminishedJackson's
legislative
aid he renlamentedthat"thecreditwhichhas beenawardedto himfortheeffective
deredto hiscountry
byhispolicyin respectto Indianaffairs
and bythesuccesswith
whichitwas executedhas fallenfarshortof hisdesserts."
ThomasHartBentonalso
and likeJackremembered
thefightovertheremovalact as unusuallymemorable,
son, he blamedthe oppositionon partisaninterference
fromthosewho had no
in thecase.It was,he said,"oneof theclosestand mostearnestly
condirectinterest
majority...
testedquestionsof thesession;and finally
carriedbyan inconsiderable
The removals
wereeventually
on account
butwithgreatdifficulty,
chiefly
effected;
frompoliticians
of a foreign,
or outsideinfluence
and philanthropists."36
who viewedpoliticsprimarily
in termsof mobilizinga narrow
AndrewJackson,
electoratearound its economic self-interest,
chargedthat removalopponents
theiraccessto federalmoneyfor
objectedto removalonlybecauseit threatened
Indianschools.AftertheIndianRemovalActpassed,he summedup hisownsentimentsby sayingthat"thusfarwe have succeededagainstthe most corruptand
secretecombination
thateverdid exist."He placedanyblameforinjuryto theIndi"I haveexonerated
ans on theantiremovalists.
thenationalcharacter
fromimputation,"he wroteaftertheCherokeesappealedto theSupremeCourt,
and nowleavethepoordeludedCreeksand Cherokeesto theirfate,and theiranniwhichtheirwickedadvisers
hasinduced.I am surethestandtheExecutive
hilation,
has takenwas not anticipatedby theirwickedadvisers.It was expectedthatthe
morethe Indianswould hold out, and oppose the viewsof the Government,
and
the greater
wouldbe theoffers
madebytheExecutiveand all themissionary
tribewouldmakefortunes
out of theUnitedStates.The answersent
speculating
has blastedthesehopesand if I mistakenot,theIndianswillnowthinkforthemand moveX
selvesand sendto thecitya delegationpreparedto cedetheircountry
[across]theM [Mississippi].37
Antiremovalists
failedto defeatthe removalbill, but the experienceprovided
and woman
reform
womenwithpoliticalskillsvaluablein subsequentantislavery
forthem
antiremoval
and gathering
signatures
suffrage
campaigns.
Writing
petitions
requiredattentionto legaldetailsand skillin defining
publicissuesin compelling
and persuasive
language.Petitioning
providedwomenwitha meansof measuring
36Ibid.,295, 275-76. On theremovalissue,Bentonlamented,Jacksonwas subjectedto "misrepresentations
Thomas Hart Benton,Thirty
Years'View:
whichhavesurvivedtheobjectof theircreationand goneintohistory."
forThirty
of theWorking
of theAmericanGovernment
or,a History
Years,From1820 to 1850 (2 vols.,New York,
1854-1865), I, 285, 690-91.
37 Bassett,
IV, 177-78. In hisfarewell
addressin 1837,Jacksonsummed
ed., Correspondence
ofAndrew
Jackson,
up histriumphon Indianremovalbydeclaringthat"theStateswhichhad so longbeenretardedin theirimprovementbytheIndiantribesresidingin themidstof themareat lengthrelievedfromtheevil."JamesD. Richardson,
1789-1897 (20 vols.,Washington,1896-1899), II,
ed.,A Compilation
ofMessagesand Papersof thePresidents,
2.
1511-27; Blau,ed., SocialTheories
ofJacksonian
Democracy,
This content downloaded from 161.6.94.245 on Sat, 26 Apr 2014 12:44:35 PM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
ofAmerican
History
The Journal
34
June1999
to educateotherwomenon issues,and
supportin theircommunities,
opportunities
a sense of achievingconcreteresults.It could also be discouraging.Catharine
Beecher'swritings
containno responseto the congressional
attackson the Ladies'
to
in thatendeavorseemsto havecontributed
Circular,
butherunsettling
experience
theend of bothherworkat theHartfordSeminaryand heradvocacyof women's
politicalpetitioning.
In 1837, afterCongresshad respondedto thefloodof petitionson slaverybypassingthePinckneygag rule,Beecherwrotea lengthytreatise
on the roleof womenin the antislavery
struggle,
and she dealtwiththe issueof
women'spetitionsin a mannerthatrecalledThomas Hart Benton'sattackson her
petitioncampaign:
if theywillbe deemedobtruIf petitionsfromfemaleswilloperateto exasperate;
sive,indecorous,and unwise,by thoseto whomtheyare addressed;if theywill
increase,
ratherthandiminishtheevilwhichit is wishedto remove;if theywillbe
the openingwedge,thatwill tendeventually
to bringfemalesas petitioners
and
partisans
intoeverypoliticalmeasurethatmaytendto injureand oppresstheirsex,
in variouspartsof the nation,and underthevariouspublicmeasuresthatmay
be enforced,
fora woman
appropriate
norwise,norright,
hereafter
thenitis neither
to petitionforthereliefof oppressedfemales.38
The case of Esther,Beecherconcluded,was a suitableprecedentonlywhen a
of herselfand her nation;when
womanwas facedliterally
withthe destruction
deathwas imminent,
"thenshe maysafelyfollowsuch an example."But whena
womanwasaskedto join an abolitionsocietyor puthernameon a petitionto Conas a suitableexamplefor
gress,"thecaseof Queen Estheris notat all to be regarded
in reference
to
imitation."
In thiscountry,
to congress,
Beecherwenton, "petitions
theofficial
dutiesof legislators,
withoutthesphere
seem,inall cases,to fallentirely
of femaleduty."Women'sresponsibility,
shesaid,was to inducemento petitionfor
Beecher's
overthestressof thepetitioncampaignmarked
breakdown
justlegislation.
andwomen's
a retreat
frompoliticalactivity.
Shebecamea criticofbothimmediatism
politicalrights.39
If the experienceof mass politicalpetitioningultimatelymade Beecheropt
fortraditionalpolitics,it had a different
effecton others.For example,fromthe
timeof her marriagein 1819, Lydia Sigourneyhad publishedall her writings
becauseherhusbanddid notwantherto use hernamein herwritanonymously
ings. In 1832, afterher considerableeffortsin the antiremovalcampaign,
Sigourney's
writingsbeganappearingunderherown name despiteherhusband's
objections.AngelinaGrimke,who was captivatedby thewomen'spetitioncampaign,subsequentlyadopted the positionthatwomenhad the rightto petition
mens'.Some
petitionsto Congressoutnumbered
38After
theIndianRemovalActpassed,women'santislavery
legislators
claimedthattherewould be but fewabolitionpetitions"if the ladies and SundaySchool children
petitionsand,withthecrucial
wouldlet us alone."In 1835 AndrewJacksonurgedCongressto ban all antislavery
Days (New
helpof thevicepresident,
Congresspassedthefirst"gag"rule.See JamesFreemanClarke,Anti-Slavery
in History
(NewYork,1979), 117, 126; RichYork,1883); GerdaLerner,TheMajority
FindsItsPast:PlacingWomen
An
99-100, 179. CatharineE. Beecher,
ards,"The Jacksonians
and Slavery,"
110; and Filler,CrusadeagainstSlavery,
Females(1837; New York,1970), 103-4.
EssayonSlavery
andAbolition
withReference
totheDutyofAmerican
39Beecher,
Essayon Slavery,105.
This content downloaded from 161.6.94.245 on Sat, 26 Apr 2014 12:44:35 PM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
TheStruggle
against
IndianRemoval
35
Congresson all issues."The factthatwomenare denied the rightof votingfor
membersof Congress,is but a poor reasonwhytheyshouldalso be deprivedof
therightof petition.If theirnumbersare countedto swellthenumberof representativesin our Stateand Nationallegislation,theveryleastthatcan be done is
to give them the rightof petitionin all cases whatsoever;and withoutany
abridgement,"
Grimkedeclaredin a public replyto Beecher'sargumentagainst
women'srightto petition.40
in opposingIndianremovalalso dampenedsupportforAfrican
Experience
colonization.Before1830, colonizationefforts
receivedbroadpoliticalsupportand colonizationsocietiesraisedlargesums.As the debateoverIndian removalintensified,
colonization
supporters
who opposedremovalgrewdiscomfited
bythestrongsimilaritiesbetweenthe two issues,discovering
thattheyopposedremovalin one case
whileopposing
butsupportedit in theother.If he workedforAfricancolonization
Indian removal,an uncomfortable
rationalizer
wrotein late 1829, it was only
becausecolonizationwas,in part,"a remuneration
of pastinjury."Delineatingdifferences
betweenthe two removalscould not obscuretheirsimilarities,
and ultimatelythe experienceof opposingIndian removalpromptedsome reformers
to
rethinktheirstandon slavery,
rejecting
Africancolonizationin favorof immediatismand embarking
on a determined
campaignto stopwhattheyfeared
wouldbe a
secondremovalinjustice.41
Most of the immediatist
leadersof the 1830s had been colonizationists
during
the 1820s.They had also been antiremovalists
at the turnof the decade. Roberts
Vaux, AngelinaGrimk6,Theodore Weld, Beriah Green,Charles Storrs,Elizur
Wright
Jr.,LydiaMaria Child,Arthur
Tappan,BenjaminLundy,and JamesBirney,
amongmanyothers,supportedcolonizationefforts
duringthe 1820s, but all of
themopposed removaland laterbecameoutspokenimmediatists.
WilliamLloyd
a supportive
Garrisondelivered
FourthofJulycolonizationaddressin 1829,butby
of
January
1831 he had made whathe calleda "fulland unequivocalrecantation"
the"pernicious
doctrineofgradualabolition."42
after1830
fortheremarkable
Historicalexplanations
surgeof a newabolitionism
theabolitionists'
haveusuallycentered
on threefactors:
senseof socialdisplacement,
The SweetSingerof Hartford(New Haven, 1930), 34-35; Angelina
40GordonS. Haight,Mrs. Sigourney:
Letters
to Catherine
E. Beecher(1838; New York,1969), 113.
Grimkr,
41
antecedents,
Dec. 30, 1829, p. 210. For immediatist
"ThoughtsConcerningtheIndians,"BostonRecorder,
1754 (New York,1976); HenryHighlandGaron theKeepingofNegroes,
seeJohnWoolman,SomeConsiderations
net,Walker's
(New York,1969); and JamesForten,Letters
Appeal,in FourArticles
froma Man of Colouron a Late
Mystrey
ofIniquity([Phila(Philadelphia,1813). See also Ralph Sandiford,
Bill BeforetheSenateofPennsylvania
in Bondage(Philadelphia,1737).
ThatKeeptheInnocent
delphia],1730); and BenjaminLay,All Slave-keepers
recantedin
Jan.1, 1831, p. 1. At thattimeGarrisonsaid thathe had similarly
42"To thePublic,"Liberator,
Sept.2, 1829, p. 5. But althoughthe1829 articlebyGarrison
"To thePublic,"Geniusof Universal
Emancipation,
it also supportedcolonization
declaredthat"theslavesare entitledto immediateand completeemancipation,"
efforts.
He was not an impassionedimmediatist
untilCongresspassedtheremovalbill.The post-1830attackon
colonizationbyitserstwhile
supporters,
historian
RonaldWaltershaswritten,
marksa breakwithpriorantislavery
writtenon thesubject."Ronald G. Walters,The
thoughtso completeand inexplicablethatit "hauntseverything
after18.30(Baltimore,1976), xi.
Antislavery
Appeal:American
Abolitionism
This content downloaded from 161.6.94.245 on Sat, 26 Apr 2014 12:44:35 PM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
36
History
The Journal
ofAmerican
June1999
CgE'.b~~~~~~~~~0
010Oo V 0WH't-h<fO o1.
Theoriginal
masthead
oftheLiberator.
theLibraryCompany
Courtesy
ofPhiladelphia.
.43 Some of the
theirethical commitmentto the oppressed,or theirreligiousbeliefs
mostprominentabolitionistleadersalso drewexplicitparallelsbetweentheiroppositionto Indian removaland theiroppositionto colonization.At theverytimewhen Garrison
deliveredthe Fourth of Julycolonizationaddressin Boston'sPark StreetChurch in
1829, he began to denounce removalin harsh terms.As coeditor,with Benjamin
Lundy, of the Geniusof Universal
Emancipation,Garrisonregularlyprintedstrong
Phoedenunciationsof removalin thepaper,oftenincludingexcerptsfromthe Cherokee
When Jacksonbroughtin federalgovernment
nixand theSavannahMercury.
troopsto
declaredthatforcibleremoval"wouldbrand
help GeorgiadispossessIndians,the Genius
thiscountrywitheternalinfamy,"
and Garrisondeclaredthat"we are a nationof
the
and
bent
of
God ofheaven!Whenshallequity
our
is oppressive.
tyrants,
legislation
of thycreatures
be protected
fromdomesticinvaprevailon theearthand therights
annualmessagein itsentirety
sion?"In December1829 the Geniusprinted
Jackson's
totheportion
thatrelated
totheCherokee.44
topayespecialattention
andurgedreaders
debatesover removaloccurredwhile Garrisonwas
The heated congressional
forlibelin April1830 fora writtenattackon a slavetrader.He passed
imprisoned
43 David Donald, LincolnReconsidered:
Essayson theCivil WarEra (New York,1956), 19-36. See also Avery
Craven,The Comingof theCivil War(Chicago, 1957), 117-50; ArthurYoungLloyd,The SlaveryControversy
and Psychology,"
JournalofNegroHistory,
(Chapel Hill, 1939), 49- 101; MartinDuberman,"The Abolitionists
NewEssayson theAbolitionists
47 (July1962), 183-91; MartinDuberman,ed., TheAntislavery
(PrinceVanguard:
The Crusadefor Freedomin America(Ann Arbor,1962);
ton, 1965); Dwight Lowell Dumond, Antislavery:
Meansand
StaughtonLynd,TheIntellectual
OriginsofAmerican
Radicalism(New York,1968); AileenS. Kraditor,
and Tactics,1834-1850 (New York,1967);
Endsin American
Abolitionism:
Garrison
and His Criticson Strategy
the Civil War(New York,
and CarltonMabee, BlackFreedom:The Nonviolent
Abolitionists
from1830 through
Impulse,1830-1844 (New
1970). On religiousexplanations,
see, forexample,GilbertBarnes,TheAnti-Slavery
York, 1933); David Brion Davis, "The Emergenceof Immediatismin Britishand AmericanArnti-Slavery
Thought,"Mississippi
ValleyHistoricalReview,49 (Sept. 1962), 209-30; CharlesC. Cole Jr.,TheSocialIdeas of
theNorthern
Evangelists,
1826-1860 (New York,1977); Daniel WalkerHowe, "The EvangelicalMoment:Political Culturein theNorthduringtheSecondPartySystem,"
History,
77 (March 1991), 1216JournalofAmerican
and theSocial Orderin theConnecticut
39; RandolphAnthonyRoth,TheDemocratic
Dilemma:Religion,
Reform,
in Vermont,
RiverValley
1791ofVermont,
1791-1850 (Cambridge,Mass., 1987); David Ludlum,SocialFerment
in Connecticut
(New Haven, 1984). On
1850 (New York,1966); and CharlesKeller,TheSecondGreatAwakening
Society
and Revivalsin Rochester,
New
evangelism
as socialcontrol,see Paul E. Johnson,
A Shopkeepers
Millennium:
see LawrenceFrederick
Kohl,"The ConYork,1815-1837 (New York,1978). On evangelism
as moralprinciple,
ceptof Social Controland theHistoryof Jacksonian
America,"Journalof theEarlyRepublic,5 (Spring1985),
21-34.
""Rights of theIndians,"Geniusof Universal
Emancipation,
Oct. 2, 1829, p. 30; "The Indians,"ibid.,Sept.
2, 1829, p. 7; "FromtheNationalPhilanthropist,"
ibid.,Dec. 4, 1829, p. 110.
This content downloaded from 161.6.94.245 on Sat, 26 Apr 2014 12:44:35 PM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
The Struggle
againstIndianRemoval
141
.,
L.
3-ER-?
-
-
-
~~~~~
~~~
~
-
~
37
L-
,-1
M35Sc-.'o
OTER
I
S
61
4~~~ORSES
~
- TOliiiF
~~A+ r-'
Detailfrom
therevised
Liberator
as itappeared
onApril23, 1831,following
thepassage
oftheIndianRemoval
Act.
theLibrary
Courtesy
Company
ofPhiladelphia.
his timein prisonreadingthe congressional
speecheson the removalbill and was
of it.
seizedwithSen.TheodoreFrelinghuysen's
particularly
eloquentdenunciations
Fromhis cell, Garrisonwrotea lengthypoem extollingthe senator'sspeechin
defenseof Indian rightsand harshlydenouncingthe Democratsforsupporting
removal."If thedominantpartyin theSenatehad not [had]heartsmoreimpenetrable thanpolarice,"Garrisonwrote,"hisspeechwouldhave. . . rescuedtheAmerican namefrometernalinfamy."
AfterArthur
Tappan,anotherantiremovalist,
paid
hisfine,Garrisonbeganpublishing
The paperfirst
theLiberator.
appearedinJanuary
aftertheCherokee
Nation
1831witha plainfront
heading,butinApril,immediately
of
v. Georgia
decision,Garrisonreplacedhisplainheadingwitha graphicillustration
thelinkhe drewbetweenIndianremovaland theabolitionist
cause.The Liberator's
newheadingdepictedscenesof a slaveauctionand a flogging,
and underthesewere
sheavesof trampledpaperprintedwiththewords"Indiantreaties."
The newmasthead enlargedslavery's
context,depictingEuropeanAmericansas beginninga patternof injusticeagainstIndiansand continuingit againstAfricans.
Garrisonthen
usedtheremovalactto denouncecolonization
In 1832,whenhe published
directly.
onAfricanColonization,
hispowerful
attackon theAmericanColonization
Thoughts
of coloGarrison
to describing
devotedhalfof thatargument
Society,
Negrorejection
nizationand chosea comparison
thatmanyof his fellowreformers
wouldinstantly
understand:
"theyareas unanimously
opposedto a removalto Africa,as theCherokeesfromthe council-fires
and gravesof theirfathers,"
he asserted.The Liberator
This content downloaded from 161.6.94.245 on Sat, 26 Apr 2014 12:44:35 PM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
38
TheJournal
ofAmerican
History
June1999
continuedto carrythelatestnewson theremovalcrisis,and foryearsGarrisondison whathischildren
of theredman."45
calledthe"wrongs
tributed
pamphlets
The prominentabolitionistJamesBirneyalso linkedAfricancolonizationto
WhenBirney,
to theCherokeedurwhohad providedlegalservices
Indianremoval.
of theColonizationSocietyof Kentucky,
ing the 1820s,resignedas vice-president
he wrotea widelydistributed
openletterexplaining
hisnewoppositionto colonizafromitsparallelswiththerecentremovalact. Birneypointedout
tionas stemming
feato his readers"theverygreatresemblance
thiscase bearsin itsmostprominent
turesto thatof theIndianswho havebeenmovedupon,in nearlythesamemeasure
to "consent"to leavetheirlandswithinthelimitsof severalof the states."Slaves
oftenwerefreedonlyon theconditiontheygo to Liberia,he said,and sometimes
consentwas gainedbyunfairpressures,
oftenthesamekindof consentthathe had
BirfromtheIndians.In summingup hisoppositionto colonization,
seenextorted
had portrayed
Africancolonizationin termsremineynotedthatThomasJefferson
werewitnessing.
niscentof theIndianremovalthatBirneyand his contemporaries
to Africancolonizationas a "desirThe former
president,
Birneysaid,had referred
ablemeasurewhichcouldbe adoptedforgradually
drawingoffthispartof ourpopulation.. . . It may perhapsbe doubtedwhethermanyof thesepeople would
voluntarily
consentto suchan exchangeof situation. .. thisshouldnot,however,
northeearlytrialof it." BirneyobjectedthatJefferson's
discouragetheexperiment
of Africancolonizationas humanitarian
was erroneous
becauseits
characterization
Biropposedit.Likewise,
theIndiansthemselves,
supposedbeneficiaries
vehemently
neyremindedhisreaders,
had longago said of whitesthatthey"createthenecessity
whichmakesit expedientforus to removeto a wilderness,
and then. . . claimthe
Colonization,Birneyconcluded,was like
praisesof philanthropy
and humanity."
becausebothpolicies"supposeditwaseasierto removefromthecounIndianremoval
thanto successfully
combatand
trythosewhowerethesubjectsof thisdegradation,
overthrow
theprejudices
whichproducedit."46
and falseprinciples
ElizurWrightJr.,also supportedtheAmerican
Anotherprominent
abolitionist,
itsFourthofJulyfund-raising
Colonization
1829,whenhe presented
Societythrough
addressin his hometown.That fallWrighthelpedlead oppositionto removalat
" "FortheGeniusof UniversalEmancipation,"ibid. (July1830), 54-55. In theirbiography
of theirfather,
issueof theLiberator,
April23, 1831,
Garrison's
childrencalledattention
to thenew mastheadon theseventeenth
and
p. 1. See Garrison,ed., WilliamLloydGarrison,
I, 232-33, 270; WilliamE. Cain, ed., WilliamLloydGarrison
on
theFightagainstSlavery:Selections
FromtheLiberator(Boston,1995); and WilliamLloydGarrison,Thoughts
AfricanColonization,
PartH (1832; New York,1968), 5. As lateas 1852, GarrisonlinkedIndianpoliciesand slaverywhenhe chastisedLouis KossuthforextollingAmericanfreedomand ignoring"thestainon our national
Indiantribes,and of millionsof thedescendants
of
escutcheon. . . thatis theblood of thealmostexterminated
of WilliamLloydGarrison
(4 vols.,Cambridge,
Africa.'WalterM. Merrilland Louis Ruchames,eds., TheLetters
Mass., 1975), IV, 100, II, 441.
46 James
SecLetteron Colonization,
Addressed
totheReverend
Thornton
GillespieBirney,
J.Mills,Corresponding
Birney:Slaveholder
retary
of theKentucky
Colonization
Society(New York,1838); BettyGladeland,JamesGillespie
of theLifeand Writings
ofJamesGillespieBirney
to Abolitionist
(Ithaca, 1955), 37, 86; BeriahGreen,Sketches
onlyyoungAfricanAmericansand notedthatseparating
(Utica,1844), 17. ThomasJefferson
suggested
removing
infants
at a gnat,
fromtheirmothers"wouldproducesomescruplesof humanity.... But thiswouldbe straining
and swallowinga camel,"he concluded.See H. A. Washington,
ed., The Writings
of ThomasJefferson
(9 vols.,
Washington,
1853-1855), VII, 332-35.
This content downloaded from 161.6.94.245 on Sat, 26 Apr 2014 12:44:35 PM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
TheStruggle
against
IndianRemoval
39
WesternReserveCollege, wherehe was a professorof mathematics.Afterthe
removalbill passed,he publiclyrepudiatedcolonizationand funneledhis enerfordomestic
Society,becomingitssecretary
giesinto theAmericanAnti-Slavery
correspondence.
Wrightchargedthatcolonizationto Liberiamerelyrepeatedin
Africathe same patternthathad been followedwithAmericanIndians,and he
set out to convertothersto immediatism.His colleaguesat WesternReserve
who went
College, BeriahGreen and CharlesStorrs,were also antiremovalists
fromthatcause directlyinto immediatism.AfterTheodore Weld spentseveral
weeksat WesternReserveCollege in October 1832, he likewiseabandonedcolonizationforimmediatism.47
BeriahGreenbelievedthatIndianremovalwas an instructive
lesThe abolitionist
at voluntary
African
son in theprobableoutcomeof eventhemostbenignefforts
like Indianremoval,would quickly
colonization.Greenwarnedthatcolonization,
to Africawhenever
of
turnintoa schemeof forcedrepatriation
riddingthecountry
Africansappearedexpedientto a majorityof those in Congress.In a sermon
preachedat WesternReserveCollegein 1833, Greenpointedout thatthesamelanguageusedin thetacticsof Indianremovalwasalreadyappearingin speechesbylegfromNegroes
evenifconsentwereextorted
islators.
Suchmenadvocatedcolonization
includingbeatings,calculatedto rendertheirsituationin
bya seriesof oppressions,
theUnitedStatesinsupportable.
Of his friendBirney,
Greenwrotethat"fromthe
Indianto theNegro,thetransition
was easyand natural.He couldhardlyfailto see,
of
whenthewrongof theIndianshad thoroughly
arousedhim,thatthesuffering
theNegroflowedfromthesamebitterfountain."48
outspokenoppoAnti-Slavery
Societywereall first
The founders
of theAmerican
nentsof Indian removal.BeriahGreenchairedthe foundingmeetingin 1833,
and Elizur
ArthurTappan was its firstpresident,Garrisonits foreignsecretary,
backer
of
the
American
its
Roberts
once
a
financial
Vaux,
Wright domesticsecretary.
ColonizationSociety,
ColonizationSocietyand boardmemberof thePennsylvania
in 1830 and chaireda Philadelphiameetingin
becamean outspokenantiremovalist
January
1830 to drawup a memorialagainstremoval.Comingfroma well-known
of Jackson,
Vaux'svocal oppositionto removal
Democratand erstwhile
supporter
To woo himback,Jackson
Vauxa seaton theTreaty
thepresident.
offered
concerned
of thetransCommissionthatwould settheboundariesand plan thegovernment
to whichtheIndianswerebeingremoved,butVaux declined,
Mississippiterritory
47SecondAnnualReportof theAmerican
on the12thMay
Anti-Slavery
Society. . . heldin thecityofNew-York
on the
Containing
SomeReflections
1835 (New York,1835); ElizurWrightJr.,TheSin of Slaveryand itsRemedy:
MoralInfluence
ofAfricanColonization(New York,1833), 35-36; GilbertBarnesand DwightDumond, eds.,
1822-1844 (2 vols.,New York,1934), I, 99; Robert
and SarahGrimke,
Letters
ofTheodore
Weld,AngelinaGrimke',
(New York,1980), 87; BenLiberator:Theodore
DwightWeldand theDilemmaof Reform
H. Abzug,Passionate
1950), 80; C. H. Cramer,Case WestFreedom(New Brunswick,
Weld:Crusaderfor
jaminPlattThomas,Theodore
A History
1826-1976 (Boston,1976), 16-21.
oftheUniversity,
ernReserve:
ReserveCollege(Cleveland,1833), 45; Green,
Preachedin theChapelof theWestern
48BeriahGreen,Sermons
ofJamesGillespieBirney,10. Colonizationopponentsalso pointedto the cataSketches
of theLifeand Writings
rateof immigrant
AfricanAmericansin Liberiaas an argumentagainstcolonization.See
strophicmortality
Century
Liberiain theNineteenth
Costof Colonizing
AntonioMcDaniel, SwingLow,SweetChariot:TheMortality
(Chicago,1995).
This content downloaded from 161.6.94.245 on Sat, 26 Apr 2014 12:44:35 PM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
40
TheJournal
ofAmerican
History
June1999
and the
citingoppositionto removal.He becamean earlyadvocateof immediatism,
president.49
Societyaskedhimto be itsfirst
Anti-Slavery
boardof theAmerican
who led theantiremoval
camGeorgeCheever,thestudentat AndoverSeminary
thepassionthatantiremovalists
carriedwiththeminto
paignthere,well expressed
radicalabolition."The passageof theIndianbill has disgracedus as a people,has
of all civilized
woundedournationalhonor,and exposedus to themeritedreproach
in theworld,"he concludedwhenthebill passed."We would rather
communities
thanavoidit by takingshelterin
havea civilwar,werethereno otheralternative,
crime,"Cheeversaid laterof his oppositionto Indianremoval."We wouldtakeup
thatmany
sentiments
armsfortheIndiansin sucha war,"he wenton, anticipating
in oppositionto slavery.
The Ladies'Circularhad simiabolitionists
laterexpressed
larlyraisedtheprospectof a civilwarovertheremovalissue,sayingthatthepresidenthad thepower"to commandthewholemilitary
forceof ournationto protect
and sustaintheIndianin hisrights."50
to challengeslavery
directly.
antiremovalists
Protesting
Indianremovalencouraged
fromthedeep disappointment
The antislavery
upsurgein theearly1830sbenefitted
who vowed not to repeatthat processby removingAfricans
of antiremovalists
throughcolonizationpolicies,and to defeatthe Democraticparty-the partyof
bolderin acting
The IndianRemovalAct made abolitionists
removal-on slavery.
to achievetheirgoals.
againstslavery
and moredetermined
an increasein democratic
participaWhetherAndrewJackson's
fostered
presidency
tionmaybe debated,but creditforan enlargeddemocracy
mayaccrueto him by
to carryout Indian removalgeneratedthe deepest
default,forhis determination
that
It also usheredin a newage
the
had yetwitnessed.
movement
country
political
of popularpoliticsthatsaw energizedantiremovalists
transfer
theirtechniquesof
massiveand continuouspamphleting
againstslavery:
removalprotestto thestruggle
reportsin periodicalsthat
and petitioning
by both women and men, persistent
to chalfromtheperspective
of theslave,and a willingness
slavery
soughtto present
langelawsthattheybelievedweredeeplyunjust.
1801-1835, and Its Debt to RobertsVaux(Philadelphia,
49Joseph
J. McCadden, Educationin Pennsylvania,
1937), 144.
50Cheever,
"Reviewof the Speeches,"492; Cheever,"Removalof the Indians,"716; York,GeorgeCheever,
210; "CircularAddressedto theBenevolentLadiesof theUnitedStates."
This content downloaded from 161.6.94.245 on Sat, 26 Apr 2014 12:44:35 PM
All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions