1
CLOTHING MOTIVATIONS AND BEHAVIOUR OF FEMALE
UNDERGRADUATES IN UNIVERSITIES IN BENUE STATE
BY
EJILA, ENAYI ESTHER
PG/M.Ed/03/34909
DEPARTMENT OF VOCATIONAL TEACHER EDUCATION
(HOME ECONOMICS EDUCATION)
UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA, NSUKKA
JANUARY, 2014
TITLE PAGE
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CLOTHING MOTIVATIONS AND BEHAVIOUR OF FEMALE
UNDERGRADUATES IN UNIVERSITIES IN BENUE STATE
BY
EJILA, ENAYI ESTHER
PG/M.Ed/03/34909
A RESEARCH PROJECT SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF
VOCATIONAL TEACHER EDUCATION, UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA,
NSUKKA IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS
FOR THE AWARD OF DEGREE OF MASTERS (M.Ed) IN
HOME ECONOMICS EDUCATION
JANUARY, 2014
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APPROVAL PAGE
This research project has been approved for the Department of Vocational
Teacher Education, University of Nigeria, Nsukka.
By
_____________________
Prof. C. A. Igbo
Supervisor
____________________
Internal Examiner
_____________________
Head of Department
____________________
External Examiner
___________________________
Dean, Faculty of Education
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CERTIFICATION
This is to certify that Ejila Esther Enayi a Postgraduate student in the
Department of Vocational Teacher Education, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, with
Registration Number PG/M.Ed/03/34909 has satisfactorily completed the
requirements for course work and research project for the award of the degree of
Master of Education in Home Economics Education.
The work embodied in this project is original and has not been submitted in
part or full for any Diploma or Degree of this or any other university.
_____________________
Prof. C. A. Igbo
Supervisor
____________________
Ejila, Esther Enayi
Student
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DEDICATION
This thesis is dedicated to God Almighty who is the source of my
inspiration and knowledge for seeing me through the hurdle. To my late father Mr.
Okwoli Ejila and mother Mrs. Ada Ejila. To my children Uloko, Ogwu and
Okwoli for their love, prayers, patience and understanding.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The researcher is immensely indebted to our father in Heaven who made it
possible for me to start and accomplish this work. This study was made possible through
the assistance, Support and encouragement of many people. Her appreciation goes to her
supervisor, Professor C. A. Igbo for her patience and advice and for spending her scare
time to read this work making correction and criticism where necessary. She is a mentor,
sister and a friend.
She is particularly grateful to her reader Professor E. U. Anyakoha for her
objective and constructive advice and suggestions. Her gratitude also goes to Professors
SCOA Ezeji, Osuala, Osinem and Ogwo all of the Department of Vocational Teacher
Education for their advice, encouragement and feedback.
A very special thanks to sister Ada Abubakar and children without whose help
this work wouldn’t have been completed. She feels greatly indebted to them for their
immense contributions, advice and encouragement. The researcher also wishes to
appreciate the contributions of her brothers. Drs. Amali Ejila and Robinson Ejila, their
wives and children for their assistance. Appreciation also goes to the Education Secretary
Mr. Acha Onche for permitting her to further her Education.
The researcher cannot forget the contribution and encouragements of people so
dear to her such as Mrs. Awa Okpabi, Mrs. Sala Abu and Mrs. Onyemowo Ogwuche for
their prayers and moral support.
She is highly appreciative of the role her family played in the course of her study
particularly her dear sister Mrs. Ada Abubakar and her children Uloko Adeka, Ogwu
Adeka and Okwoli Adeka. She also appreciates her neighbours who cared for her son
Okwoli in her absence. The researcher is also grateful to all her respondents.
Ejila Esther Enayi
PG/M.Ed/03/34909
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Page
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Approval Page
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Certification
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Dedication
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Acknowledgements -
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Table of Content
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List of Tables:
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Abstract
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CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION -
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Background to the Study
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Statement of the Problem -
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Purpose of the Study
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Significance of the Study -
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Research Questions
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CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW -
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Conceptual Framework -
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Concepts of Clothing
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Function of Clothing
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Hypotheses -
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Scope of the Study
Clothing Motivations and Behaviour
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Clothing Perception -
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Clothing of Female Undergraduates in Universities
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Factors that Influence Clothing Decision Choice
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Problems encountered by Female Undergraduates in their clothing practice 34
Ways of enhancing Clothing Practice of Female Undergraduates
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Theories of Clothing
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Related Empirical Studies
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Summary of Literature Review -
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CHAPTER THREE: METHODOLOGY
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Design of the Study
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Sampling and Sampling Techniques
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Instrument of Data Collection
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Validation of the Instrument
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Area of the Study
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Population for the Study
Reliability of the Instrument
Method of Data Collection
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Methods of Data Analysis -
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CHAPTER FOUR: ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION OF DATA
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Research Question 1
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Research Question 2
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Research Question 3
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Research Question 4
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Research Question 5
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Hypothesis 1
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Hypothesis 2
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Finding of the Study
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Discussion of Findings
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CHAPTER FIVE: SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND
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Restatement of the Problem
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Summary of Procedure Used
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Principle Findings of the Study
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Conclusion
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Implication of the Study
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Recommendations
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RECOMMENDATIONS
Suggestions for Further Research
REFERENCES
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APPENDICES
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LIST OF TABLES
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Mean Responses of the respondents on the Clothing Motivation
Factors which the Female undergraduates underlay when selecting
and wearing of clothes - -
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Mean Responses of the respondent on the type of Clothes worn
by the female undergraduates-
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Mean Responses of the respondents on guidelines for wearing
Clothing items by female undergraduates -
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Mean Responses of the respondents on the problems encountered
in selecting and wearing Clothing: -
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Mean Responses of the respondents on ways of solving
problems encountered by female undergraduates in clothing
themselves:
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Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) of the Mean Responses of the
respondents on the motivating factors underlying the selection
and wearing of clothing:
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Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) of the Mean Responses
of the respondents on the guidelines for wearing clothing items
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ABSTRACT
This study was designed to investigate the clothing motivations and behaviour of
female undergraduates in universities in Benue State. Specifically the study
determined (i) The motivating factors or the reasons underlying the selection and
wearing of clothing by female undergraduates in Benue State universities. (ii) The
types of clothing items worn by the female undergraduates. (iii) Clothing
guidelines of female undergraduates in universities in Benue State. (iv) Problems
encountered by the female undergraduates in clothing themselves. (v) Solving
problems of female undergraduates clothing in universities. Five research
questions were developed and two null hypotheses were formulated and tested at
0.05level of significance. The study was conducted in Benue state. The population
for the study consisted of 6619 female undergraduates from federal university of
agriculture. Benue state university and university of Mkar while 659 constituted
the sample for the study. A structured questionnaire with five sections was used as
instrument for data collection. Mean was used to analyse the data generated from
the research questions while ANOVA was used to test the null hypotheses at 0.05
level of significance. The study revealed that fifteen motivating factors underlined
the selection and wearing of clothing; sixteen types of clothing items were selected
and worn, with eighteen guidelines for wearing clothing items by female
undergraduates in the universities in Benue State. Twenty two problems were
encountered by the female undergraduates in their choice of clothing and thirteen
ways of solving the problems encountered by female undergraduates were
identified. There was no significant difference in the mean responses of female
undergraduate students in federal, state and private universities on the motivating
factors underlying the selection and wearing of clothing and guidelines for
wearing the items. It was recommended that the university administrations should
incorporate element of good etiquette into the orientation programmes of the first
year undergraduates. It was also recommended that good clothing for females
should be incorporated into the programme of Nigerian universities as compulsory
course to be taken by female undergraduate.
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CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Background to the Study
Clothing is anything placed on the body to adorn or to motivate behaviour
(John and Foster, 1990). It includes all the different garments, accessories or
ornaments worn by people as well as their make-up and styles. Theories have
attempted to explain the motivation factors underlying clothing choices and
decision. Such theories include: modesty, immodesty, protection and adornment
theories (Marshal Jackson, Stanley, Kefgen and Touchie 2000).
Modesty theory focuses on standard regarding the area of the anatomy to be
concealed and state that clothes are worn solely to conceal or cover nakedness
(Marshal et al. 2000). Various cultures have rules about modesty that relate to
their use of clothing. The immodesty theory on the other hand states that clothing
is not to cover nakedness but to attract attention. The argument here is that
wearing of garment is far erotic than in going without them (Marshal et al. 2000).
The protection theory view physical protection and psychological protection as
major reasons of purpose of wearing clothes. Adornment theory stresses that
clothing is used to decorate or adorn the body according to the standard or culture
(Weber, 1990). People adorn themselves via clothing for many reasons for
adornment namely for psychological protection to ward off evil spirit, for sexual
attraction and as means of motivating the female undergraduates clothing
practices.
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Clothing protects the human body from extreme weather and other features
of the environment. It is worn for safety, comfort and modesty and to include all
the different garments, accessories or ornaments worn by people as well as their
make-up and styles. Many theories have attempted to explain the motivation
factors underlying clothing choices and decision. Such theories includes: modesty,
immodesty, protection and adornment theories (Marshal, Jackson, Stanley, Kefgen
and Touchie, 2000).
People therefore wear different types of clothing based on certain
motivations and this affects their behaviours. Motivation is a process in which
people choose between alternative forms of behaviour in order to achieve personal
goals (Cole 2002). Motivation involves internal force that actuates behavioural
pattern, through process, action or reaction. Negative force or positive forces can
act as actuators. When used affectively, this force can help individuals or group
work toward achieving common goals. These forces can be either intrinsic or
extrinsic. For motivation to take place the intrinsic and the extrinsic force in an
individual must produce a behavioural change.
Motivation is varied by socio-economics, group. Culture, background and
the programming of the brain. This means that clothing helps to form impressions
about an individual cultural, emotional, moral, educational, social etc. status and
personality (Fialola and Pullen 1982 in Ozuogwu 2004). It follows that an
individual’s clothing is an important factor in the interpretation of body image,
which in turn affects response behaviour of his observers (Buckey and Rouch
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1981 in Ozuogwu 2004). If people are to present a good visual image and be
accepted, they must wear the right clothing at the right time.
Behaviour is individualistic Nwachukwu (1992) defined behaviour as the
response of an organism to the surrounding. Every form of behaviour simple of
complex is a reaction to a stimulus. A stimulus comes from both living and non
living part of the organism’s environment. Man is the only species of animal that
has the ability to describe stimuli. In its broadest sense Russell and Pearce (1993)
refer to behaviour as the feeling of emotion associated with a given object of
entity. Clothing can create wide variety of feelings and emotions. Behaviour is
used here to express the feeling or emotions associated with the undergraduates
clothing when dressed in different attires for various occasions,
Clothing motivations in relation to behaviour is determined by inter-alia,
the wearer awareness and perception of self, which in turn is dependent on her age
bracket (Kelly and Eubanks 1981 in Ozuogwu 2004). The three universities in
Benue State are dominated by late adolescence and youth within the age bracket of
17 and above. This period covers the transition from childhood to adulthood. It is
one of the most crucial periods in an individual’s life because during this period,
social, biological, economic, demographic events occur that set the stage for adult
life (Akingba and Adeniyi, 1987). In this regard, (Steinberg 1985 in Illiya, 2004)
states that clothing is an important domain of life. Undergraduate’s appraisals by
their peers of their appearance and action become a major concern in their lives
and play a significant role in developing their self-concepts. They also identify
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themselves with their peers, and develop conformity to preferred styles of clothing
behaviour or action established in the undergraduate subculture. Clothing
motivations in relation to the behaviour of the female undergraduates in
universities in Benue State assist them to develop a higher sense of competence or
make them feel good about themselves. In relation to these clothing behaviours at
times the female undergraduate’s ways of life do not conform to the societal
values and norms (Johnson and Foster, 1990).
In Nigerian universities, since the university does not provide any uniform
or dress codes, the students are permitted a relative amount of freedom in their
clothing choices and selections. Orekwe (2000) observed that the female
undergraduates dress to sexually attract the male counterparts, to be admired and
to seduce people. She also stressed that the females are more desirous of attracting
the males with their clothing at the adolescent age.
The university is the seat of all education and the citadel of learning. The
undergraduates are expected to be models not only in academic excellence but also
in matters relating to social, emotional and moral standards. Their clothing choices
and practices should be such that will encourage trust, confidence, comfort,
respect and sense of responsibility. Available report indicates that the reverse is
the case. Adelena (2000) lamented that today no average university student who
does not go half-naked is considered uncivilized.
For the female undergraduate to be motivated towards choice of appropriate
clothing, several considerations which will help them in the choice and wearing of
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clothes have to be made. The type of occasion or activity one engages in, garment
styles, body building, colour and size are some of the factors consider (Anyakoha
and Eluwa, 1991, Vanderhoff, 1988). Some of the occasions or activities that
require special clothes include: school, work, sport, religious worship, parties and
social gathering among others. In choosing clothes for school especially when
school uniform is not used, because of the school activities such as sports,
classroom work as well as practical lessons and recreational activities. Clothes
chosen should be smart, colourful and pretty; loose and roomy enough to allow for
free circulation of blood, free movement and comfort during classroom and
practical lessons; of appropriate length and size (Anyakoha and Eluwa, 1991;
Johnson and Foster 1990) stressed that very tight and revealed clothes are
provocative.
The clothing behaviour of female undergraduates in Benue State
Universities are however not different from the clothing motivations and
behaviour of female undergraduates in other universities in Nigeria. Gwinn,
Swanson and Goetz (1995) explain that clothing motivations and behaviours are
influenced by life style and standard of living of various undergraduates. The
students in the universities are constantly faced with clothing challenges in the
campus. Therefore, there is need for the female undergraduates of Benue State
Universities to imbibe good and acceptable clothing norms. Any provocative
clothing will expose them to hazards (problems).
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Statement of the Problem
The styles and patterns of dressing are largely determined by variables like
group dynamics cum peer group relationship, weather, event, ethical dressing code
(such as law and medical student) etc. Despite these and other variable certain
types of dressing by the ladies in particular tend to have disastrous effect on their
male counterparts, lecturers, and the society hence negative motives may be
developed generally through cursory looking.
Beside, most of the attitude and behaviour towards dressing, at times by the
female students do not conform to moral standard thereby, debasing the human
value, norm and standard. As a result, the cherished cultural norms and values are
highly abused and relegated to the background, according to Best (2002), this
negative trend in dressing is an indication of poor parental upbringing, low level of
cultural and religious values and practices.
In Nigerian universities, there are not established school uniforms or
dressing codes guiding students clothing on university campuses. Besides, there is
presently no basic clothing education for the undergraduates in Nigerian tertiary
institution. Students are lift to wear whatever clothing they choose because they
are expected to be adults. They are often predisposed to various forms of clothing
norms and practices.
This has in some cases led to orientation programmes for students on
clothing norms. From indication many undergraduates especially the girls
ignorantly copy and wear indecent reckless and provocative clothing meant for
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commercial sex hawkers (Olufunwa in Bimbo. 1997). Studies by Kim and Jone
(1990) showed that provocative, erotic or sexual attractive clothing induce sexual
harassment and disciplinary problem in schools. There is also significant
association between dressing in costumes and drinking of alcohol, smoking
marijuana and take of other drugs by college students (Millers, 1993).
Some of the deviant behaviour cases reported in Nigeria Universities such
as sexual harassment, rape, ill – health examination malpractices etc have
sometimes been attributed to the type of clothing selected, worn by the
undergraduates (Adelena, 2002; Bakut, 1997). It therefore becomes questionable
whether the female undergraduates of Nigeria universities are actually aware in
various ways. This is a problem. It thus becomes necessary to investigate the
clothing motivations and behaviour of female undergraduates in Universities in
Benue State.
Purpose of the Study
The main purpose of the study was to investigate the clothing motivations
and behaviour of the female undergraduates in Benue State Universities.
Specifically the study was designed to examine:
1.
the motivating factors underlying the selection and wearing of clothing by
female undergraduates in universities in Benue State;
2.
the types of clothing items selected/worn by the female undergraduates in
universities in Benue State;
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3.
guidelines for wearing clothing items by the female undergraduates in
Benue State universities;
4.
the problems encountered by the female undergraduates in their clothing
selected and wearing ; and
5.
the ways of solving problems encountered by undergraduates in clothing
themselves.
Significance of the Study
The findings of this study will be of immense value to the students, Home
Economics teachers, Home Economics students, education system in Nigeria as
well as parents. The findings of this study will reveal various clothing items and
clothing motivations and behavioural practices of the undergraduates. This type of
information if made available to students will help to educate them on the choice
of clothes.
The findings of this study will reveal the clothing motivations and
behaviour of female undergraduates and what they actually communicate to
people by their clothing choices. The observers’ reaction as well as problems
encountered will also be revealed. This type of information will be useful to the
students, if made available to them, to correct some mistakes in their clothing
choices.
This will reveal desirable clothing norms for the undergraduates. This will
generate a vital source of information, which will help stimulate the clothing, and
textile curriculum planners in developing basic clothing education programme for
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undergraduates, through this appropriate clothing choices and decision techniques
could be inculcated in the students.
The usual conflicts that occur between parents and their adolescents as a
result of wrong clothing choices will drop to the barest minimum when they get
well oriented to proper clothing norms as the result of the findings of this study.
Based on the findings of the study on students clothing problems, policy makers
could also come up with some form of dress codes to guide students’ dressing
habits in the university campuses.
This will equally help in minimizing the clothing related problems when
the dress code is adhered to. The educational system within the university level
and below it stands the chance of gaining from this study as academic problems
and other problems associated with students’ poor clothing attitude will be
minimized. When the undergraduates practice desirable norms, the female
undergraduates will not have the opportunity of seducing both the male students
and the lecturers with their mode of dressing. As the result, the male students and
the lecture will not have the avenue of humiliating or harassing the female
students sexually.
The findings of this study will act as a resourceful document to be
maintained in library for public consumption and research. On the other hand, the
research will be relevant for seminars and workshop in tertiary institutions.
Markets will equally derive a lot of benefit from the study, as it will create an
avenue for them to maintain and keep variety of stock/clothing for selection. This
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will make it easy for the public and students in particular to make appropriate
choice of wears for different purposes.
Above all, Clothing and textile students, Home economics students and
teachers could see the findings handy in the course of teaching and learning as a
source of secondary literature in researches of related topics. The Home
Economics teachers will be in a better position to enlighten both students and non
– students on desirable clothing norms and practices.
Research Questions
The following research questions guided the study:
1.
What are the motivating factors underlying the selection and wearing of
clothing by female undergraduates in Benue State Universities?
2.
What are the types of clothing items that are selected and worn by female
undergraduates in Benue state Universities?
3.
What are the guidelines for wearing clothing items by female
undergraduates in Benue state Universities?
4.
What are the problems encountered by the female undergraduates in their
choice of clothing?
5.
What are ways of solving the problems encountered by female
undergraduates towards clothing themselves?
Hypotheses
The following null hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance:
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H01: There is no significant difference in the mean responses of female
undergraduate student in federal, state and private universities on the
motivating factors underlying the selection and wearing of clothing.
H02: There is no significant difference in the mean responses of female
undergraduates students in federal, state and private universities on the
guidelines for wearing clothing items
Scope of the Study
The study was delimited to:
1.
Types of clothing worn by female undergraduates.
2.
Guideline for choosing what to wear.
3.
Three universities in Benue State.
The universities in Benue State were selected namely: The Federal
University of Agriculture, Makurdi, Benue State Universities, Makurdi and NKST
University, Mkar.
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CHAPTER TWO
REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE
In this chapter, Literature related to the present study were reviewed and
organized under the following sub heading:
1.
Conceptual Framework
•
Concept of Clothing,
•
Clothing Motivations and Behaviour,
•
Factors that Influence Clothing Choices and Decisions,
•
Problems Encountered by Undergraduates in their Clothing Practices,
•
Ways of Enhancing Clothing Practices of Undergraduates,
2.
Theories for Clothing
•
Modesty Theory,
•
Immodesty Theory,
•
Protection Theory,
•
Adornment Theory,
3.
Review of Related Empirical Studies
4.
Summary of Literature Review.
Conceptual Framework
This will be discussed under the following:
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Concepts of Clothing
Clothing constitutes garments and accessories as worn by individuals stone
(1992) defined clothing as a major aspect of personal appearance that often bears
cultural shared meaning. Cultural shared meanings are learnt from birth, and it is
expected that the female undergraduate through their interaction with others have
learnt these behaviours. It has been identified as essential for every human
existence all over the world. The term “clothing” described by (Horn and Gurel,
1981 in Ozougwu 2004) embodies wearing of apparel and accessories such as
garments, jewelleries, shoes, scarves. Bags, etc that man places or put on the body.
They further refer to clothes as “second skin” that covers the body.
Functions of the Clothing
Horn and Gruel (1981) in Iliya (2004), maintained that the primary function
of clothing is for protection against harsh weather conditions and environmental
hazard. In addition, individuals and the female undergraduates in universities use
clothing as a means of adjusting to social group. Social customs do not only affect
the everyday garment worn but also what is thought right or wrong to wear on
special occasions, bearing in mind the motivating and behavioural pattern of
female undergraduates in relationship to clothing.
Highlight further on the function of clothing, Craig in Iliya (2004) explains
that people use clothing for aesthetic, satisfaction, modesty, status and
identification. For instance, the appearance of the female undergraduate
beautifully dressed to the church, naming ceremony, wedding or festivals may
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enhance her personality in the society. Through clothing the basic human needs
are satisfied both physically and socially by the female undergraduates.
Clothing is one of the basic needs of man. An individual’s health and
wellness are greatly influenced by the textiles worn as those encountered in living
or working spaces (Ukpore, 2001), For example, clothing plays decorative and
symbolic roles. It reflects ones social, mental, spiritual and economic values and
expresses one’s personality to others. What one wears is determined by several
factors.
According to Fiaola and Pullen (1982) in Ozuogwu (2004), clothing
motivations help to form impressions about an individual’s cultural, emotional,
moral, educational, social, status and personality. It follows that individual
clothing is an important factor in the interpretation of body image which in turn
affects response and behaviour of the observer. Russel and Pearce (1983) refer to
behaviour as the feeling and emotion associated with a given object or entity.
Clothing can create a wide variety of feelings and emotions associated with the
female undergraduates clothing when dressed in different attires for various
occasions. Clothing motivation in relation to behaviour is determined by inter –
alia, the wearer’s awareness and perception of self, which in turn is determine by
her age bracket (Kelly and Eubanks 1981 in Ozuogwu, 2004).
The female undergraduates are usually victims of scorn or mockery when
indecently/immodestly dressed. Besides, most of the attitude and behaviour
towards dressing, at times by the students do not conform to the moral, standard
26
thereby, debasing the human value, norm and standards. As a result, the cherished
cultural norms and values are highly abused and relegated to the background.
From all indication many female undergraduates ignorantly copy and wear
indecent, reckless and provocative clothing meant for commercial sex hawkers
Lufunwa in Bimbo (1997). Kin and Jones (1990) showed that provocative, erotic
or sexy attractive clothing induces sexually harassment and disciplinary problems
in schools.
The ultimate effect of clothing motivations and behaviour of the female
undergraduates in universities in Benue State can be seen as an indication of poor
parental upbringing, low level of cultural and religious values and practices. It is
also attributed to lack of established school uniforms or dress codes guiding
students in universities in Benue State, some of the deviant behaviour cases
reported in Nigerian Universities such as sexual harassment, rape, ill-health,
examination malpractices etc. have sometimes been attributed to the type of
clothing selected and worn by the female undergraduates (Adelena, 2002; Bakt,
1997). It therefore becomes questionable whether the female undergraduates in
Nigeria are actually aware that the individual clothing behaviours, could affect the
wearer in various ways. The knowledge acquired is very important because it
enables the female undergraduate to understand their clothing problems, needs and
demands especially the requirement at each function or occasion.
27
Clothing Motivation and Behaviour
Vanderhoff (1989), attributes clothing motivations and behaviour to one’s
lifestyles, occupation, community standards, values and climatic conditions. The
university undergraduates are prone to exhibiting such variables. Clothing
motivation is also used as a symbol for expression of ideals, thoughts or opinion
(Weber, 1990; Johnson & Foster, 1990; Faiola and Pullen, 1982).
The two theoretical perspectives useful in explaining motivation via
clothing include: symbolic interaction theory and impression formation theory
(Buckley and Rouch 1974). Symbolic interaction
theory emphasize the
importance of social interaction as a basis of acquiring meaning for experiences
which are interpreted and used to promote further social interaction. Impression
theory deals with the ascription characteristics to other people in social interaction
situation of the bases of minimal outward cues. It also states that as viewer
perceives another person, he gathers information about the other and processes this
information in his mind to form a coherent impression that enables a definition of
the other.
These theories recognize the importance of clothing as a symbol that
motivates the individual to interact both in establishing the self identity and in the
identification of others, hence Vanderhoff (1988) confirmed that clothing as a nonverbal communicator motivates the wearer to be observed by the observer who
they are and the observer forms impression of the wearer based on their clothing
symbols.
28
To understand ways by which clothing motivations and behaviour are
carried out, Stanley’s (1986), person-perception motivator model is used.
The model consists of four components:
1.
The environment
2.
The wearer
3.
The observer
4.
Social context
1.
The environment: The environment is the physical, technological aesthetic
and cultural domains that influence the individuals.
2.
The wearer: The wearer is the person who is motivated to communicate to
the internal force that actuates the behavioural pattern, thought process,
action or reaction.
3.
The observer: The observer is the person who watches or read and
interprets message. Both the wearer and the observer have three aspects of
self that influence clothing motivations and behaviour.
i.
Interpersonal
development
comprising
of
cognitive
development,
perceptual development and sex – role development. Interpersonal
development – represented by Sontag’s (1983) five perspective of
proximity to self picture of self which consists of a profile individual’s
mental, physical and material characteristic.
ii
Presentation of self to others includes. Clothing cues project the desired
image.
29
iii.
Self worth is the compassion of self to a cultural standard. Clothing is used
to reflect one’s self –esteem.
iv.
Feelings about self worth-consist of the emotional and behaviour responses
of self evaluation and affect the behaviours and projected image of the self.
People who feel good about themselves act like they feel good themselves.
v.
Body cathexis: is the level of satisfaction one feels towards one’s physical
self. Clothing is used to camouflage of emphasis an imagined physical
attributes.
b.
Socialization processes are the demographic and lifestyle aspects of persons
that influence their fashion involvement and consumer behaviour such as
age, occupation, income, group membership, values and attributes.
4.
Social context: Social context is the forth component in the model. The
social context component brings situations and motives that motivate
clothing behaviour practices. Example of social context include; the
physical setting, emotional climate, interpersonal relationship among the
participants’ social status and power.
In analogy of how clothing behaviour are developed and interpreted,
Stanley’s (1986),person perception motivation model was used to illustrate how an
artist can use props (clothing) on stage (social context) to perform play. In
response the audience claps in praise or boos in rejection of the performance. In
other words, when clothing behaviours are clear, they will be understood and
interpreted correctly. On the other hand if the image projected through clothing
30
does not reflect the real self, others will get a cloudy picture of the individual, this
leads to false interpretation, impression and assumption on the wearer by the
observer. The clothing practices could be negative (Johnson and Foster, 1990)
Clothing Perception
Different people perceive clothing practice differently. How individual’s
clothing is perceived depends entirely on the frame of reference or point of view
of the person making the judgment: his age, social status, academic standing, life
style etc. (Johnson and Foster, 1990 & Marshal et al, 2000). Different people
because of their unique background will evaluate clothing cues in their
perspectives. People who dress in similar manner generally approve of each other
and criticize those who dress differently. Although dress codes were written, in
many occasions there are different clothes for different occasions. People are
therefore, expected to dress in accordance with the dress norms acceptable to their
culture as well as society.
What clothes Motivate and Types of Clothes that motivate them?
An individual clothes/garments present visible cues to the characteristics of
the wearer. Clothes motivate the behaviour of the wearer or present visible cues to
the characteristics of the wearer. Clothes motivate the behaviour of the wearer or
present visible cues to his/her characteristics. Hence clothes indicate an
individual’s interest, values, attitudes, habits, temperaments, trustworthiness and
integrity, all of which make up an individual personality (Behling and Williams,
1990, & Johnson, 1992, Marshal et al, 2000). The clothes an individual wears also
31
speak and tell others whether the individual is conservative or daring, outgoing
(sexy) or reserved, casual or organized, a leader or follower, confident or insure
(Weber, 1990; Johnson & Foster, 1990).
Clothing has been used in classifying an individual’s personality type. Type
of personalities expressed through as specified by Spillane and Sherlock (1990),
include:
1.
Nature Personalities
Those types of personality are more comfortable in relaxed styles, clothing
with a roomy fit and layered look as well as casual clothing etc.
2.
Classic Personalities
These personalities focus on elegant well – fitted tailored clothing styles
such as tailored suits, skirts and blouses, gowns, pants etc.
3.
Creative Personalities
Creative personalities tend to use a variety of clothing items in different
combination to reflect their mood and show off their fitness. In their own
classification, Johnson and Foster (1990) presented four major elements
that determine the image on individuals clothing projects.
These include: Fit, colour, texture and accessories
Fit: there are two types of fit:
a.
Fit created by fashion in vogue
32
b.
Fit that creates a look. The look created by fit is part of image such as
oversized fit look, closer to the body or tight fit, or handing from the
shoulder (looser fit)
According to Johnson and Foster, (1990) a looser fit suggests relaxed or
informal. Such clothing as sports wears and casual clothing are examples. Baggy
clothing suggests being careless about the individuals appearance. A tight fit
according to him may be sexy, showing off, unflattering or simple current fashion.
Such clothes as tight skirts/gowns, tabular (body hug) skirts, gowns or tops, tight
miniskirts/gowns and skirts are regarded as sexy fashion which show degree of
display of body for male appraisal. Similarly, Johnson and Foster (1990), stressed
that a tight fit doesn’t flatter some bodies, they call attention to the body instead of
the face even though that may be the intention of the wearer.
Texture
Texture is another element used to create or alter an image. Texture refers
to the way a fabric looks and drops, shiny, dull, smooth or rough, fuzzy, nubby
and harsh are some of the words used to describe the way a garment looks or feels.
Wearing an equal amount of two different types of texture, one very dressy and
the other quite coarse is a type of creativity sending a mixed message. Bull (1994)
is of the view that shiny materials with shiny surfaces such as satin appear to
increase size, whereas matt surfaces such as crepes and woollens have the reverse
effect. Bulky fabrics too, add to size.
33
Colour
Colour is an essential part of an individual image the same styles of
garment in different colours motivate or communicate different attributes such as
mood. Dark colours are unobtrusive. Unless they are combined with lighter
colours or ascent colours, they can be sombre, such colour as black, grey etc. may
be used to convey a sad mood. Bright colours call attention for self. Webb – lupo
and Lester (1988) posited that colours can affect health, as indicated by finding of
studies. For instance, the colour red raise high blood pressure and speeds up heart
beat. Blue can bring it down. People see red when angry and feel blue when
depressed. However, a variety of colours enables an individual to showcase
various parts of his/her personality and express the mood he/she is in. colour also
increase or reduces an individual’s size.
Accessories
Accessories are added part of an outfit such as socks and shoes, belt, purse
or book bags and jewelleries. Accessories contribute to the overall harmony an
image or destroy what the rest of an individual’s personal appearance achieved.
They can muddle an image.
Attitude
Individual’s clothing choices also reflect their attitudes; attitudes are
expressions of feelings, thoughts or behaviour. According to Marshal et al (2000),
attitude are often learned from family and peer groups but with maturity, they are
moulded over time by societal, family and educational experience. Attitude about
34
clothes tends to focus on comfort, utility, conformity, economy, fashion, self –
expression and status. People choose clothes to respond to their psychological and
emotional needs.
A tabular table representation of different feelings/emotion with the
corresponding clothing styles likely to be chosen
Feeling/Emotions
Clothing choice
Body revealing clothes such as Spaghetti/Halter tops
or gowns, show backs, belly or very low necklines,
Sleeveless tops, going braless, bare shoulders, short
Hot pants etc., trouser below the bottoms, tight
shirts, wearing of T shirts with some write ups
written on them to attract the opposite sex.
Fun-fashion, bright colours, red pink and yellow
Happiness
Somber hue, body concealing clothes; black, green,
Sadness
grey etc.
Current teen fads/ fashion in vogue
Youthfulness
Understand, severe, cosmopolitan
Sophistication
Expensive, high fashion, use of expensive, high
Superiority
Fashion, use of expensive symbols, Jewry, club
Insignia
Seductive, worn inappropriate or too perfect
Inferiority
Appropriate style for function
Self confidence
Marshal et al (2000).
Sexuality
Clothing motivates culture’s component interactive nature of these common
as well as the uniqueness of each culture such cultural components motivated by
clothing include social status, political belief, occupation, sex roles, economic
position, technical changes and industrialization as well as aesthetic idea (Abina,
200 Marshal et al, 200). Clothes motivate everything about an individual. Horn
(1981), emphasizes clothes never lie, that they reveal at a glance ones present
35
economic level, capacity for success enhancing strategies, social skill and
promoability.
The argument by people on the truth behind overall judgment is based on
their clothing cue and external appearance. Johnson and Foster (1990), expressed
that an individual cannot judge a book by its cover but it is true that a person can
certainly select one by its cover. In this view, Wallace (1985) warned that since
‘since no one knows what you are like inside at a glance, it is your ‘packaging’
that draws others to you. She maintained that clothing power should not be
underestimated.’’ This is because the physical attractiveness has a big impact how
an individual responds to self and to others. Wallace therefore concluded that
since the inner and outer beauties are interwoven one should not have one without
the other.
Clothing of Female Undergraduates in Universities
The undergraduates by their clothing choices and practices are expected to
be models to the less informed young boys and girls in the wider society. It is a
well established fact that clothing affects behaviour Annita et al (1987) as such,
their dressing modes should be descent enough to motivate their clothing
behaviour (practices) such as sound moral, values, self dignity and respect for the
dignity of man-kind. Report from various sources show that the dressing of female
undergraduates in Benue State and Nigeria Universities generally are nothing to
write home about. Orakwu (2002) pointed out that their quest for immodest
fashion clearly suggests that it may be a way of sexual manipulation, domination
36
and exploitation by the undergraduates especially the women and men who see
their targets as men and possibly their fellow women. Therefore these campus
undergraduates are seen these days in:
“scanty – clad and in painted faces. Their garments are
so up that they hardly cover the thighs, when they
cover the thigh, they are so tight that the lines and
curves of the female anatomy is clear, the gowns are
torn open scandalously revealing the briefs. The
blouses have such a low neckline that the breasts are
hardly concealed. It is all nudity galore in the name of
fashion’’ (Okafor 2002; 10)
On a more serious note, Onoyima (2003), quite aware of the threatening
effect and impact of the scandalous nature of some clothing items worn by female
undergraduates on campuses and even to the churches, made a list of twenty eight
different clothing items and advertised these. These clothing items which he
captioned scandalous/sensational/suggestive dresses include:
‘’Mini Skirts, leggings, Hipstars, Hug-me/half-cut,
Kiss-me, Onu-gbajie-boys, Onitsha-show-your back,
show-your-chest parade blouses / gowns, Off-shoulder,
Spaghetti Blouse/gowns. See-through-air- condition
dresses, sleeveless gowns/blouses, One hand blouse,
Fish blouse, Fly Over, Body hug, short Gowns, Half
‘’Ori-okpa’’ trousers, Hips trousers, Short-mini
fish skirts, Chin-Chim blouse/show Navel blouses,
Halter-Neck blouses/gowns, the guys must not wear
body hug, sleeveless T-shirts, singlet; etc. into the St.
Peter’s Chapel and its environs, Gate-way, Indomi,
Imalu ndi anyi bu, Ala (madness) yiba boys, For
trousers, the ladies must fly long blouses on top normal
trouser’’ (Onoyima, 2003:4).
37
Onoyima (2003) emphasized that no student or individual should wear any
of such clothes in the society except on stages as customs. Some individuals and
students who dress irresponsibly use it as a tool for seduction, it is quite,
unfortunate that some people who do this are innocent but do that just to join the
bandwagon without knowing the implication (Ekpo 2002). Some of the female
undergraduates who dress immodesty may therefore be ignorant of the clothing
motivation practices.
Factors that Influence Clothing Decision Choice
Decision making is the action taken, in selection from alternative course of
action Anyakoha and Eluwa (1999). It is the decision made and taken by the
female undergraduates on how to spend on clothing items, when making clothing
choices. Faiola and Pullen (1982) categorized these influences into internal and
external influences:
1.
Internal factors
Internal factors are those that are inside of an individual. These are the
sociological and psychological influences that influence individuals’ clothing
choice/decisions. They include individuals, values, need, wants, belief, age, body
shape/image, personalities and life style etc. these aspects of the individual are
always changing as the individual grows and matures. As a result the style of
dressing changes over the year.
38
Body Shape
People are in different shapes, sizes and proportions. An individual’s body
shape or figure determines the kind of clothes that look and fit well; the size as
well as the style. Height also influences clothing decision/choice.
Personality
Personality is one of the major factors that influence clothing choice.
Personality has to do with what an individual likes about certain clothes and
dislikes about others, the individual’s needs, wants, values and beliefs are
attributes of personality and determine that kind of clothes he/she chooses and
feels comfortable wearing.
Life Style
Life styles are part of the socialization process that influences fashion
involvement and the consumer’ behaviour. Life styles help people make decision
from the numerous alternatives facing them each day, a way of life, friendships,
food preferences, clothing decisions and choices, careers, personal philosophy,
book selections, time management, the value placed on people and objects. The
joys of living are some of the facts of life that are determined by an individual
lifestyle (Marshal al 2000). Clothing consumption is a means of expressing a
particular lifestyle (Rouse, 1999).
Age
The degree of interest in clothing and garment chosen by individual is
related to the individual’s age bracket. The female undergraduates are made up of
39
late adolescent youths within the age bracket of 17 and above. It is the age of the
highest interest in clothing (Webb-Lupo and Lester 1988). This is because self
awareness is intensified at this period. Great deal of attention is given to their
physical appearance, body shape or figure, shape of face, nose etc.(Kelly and
Eubanks 1981). During the period of late adolescence, most young people become
interested in selecting mates and many undergraduates especially the female use
clothing as a means of enhancing their sexual attraction, this they accomplish
through the exposure, concealment or emphasis of different parts of the body
using erotic symbolism of sexually provocative clothing (MuCullough, Miller and
Ford, 1977)
2.
External Factor
External factors are those influences that are outside the individual that
affects the clothing decision and choices. These factors can be controlled by an
individual, culture and cultural contacts, geographical location, economic position,
group membership/ peer group influence, mass media, fashion in vogue etc.
Culture and Cultural Contact
Osuala (1992) pointed out that culture and family factors affect the way
individuals select clothing for themselves. The type of clothing selected and worn
and the meaning associated with them within society are determined by the
cultural environment of contributory members. Firmly established in this
environment are knowledge and belief from the past that are remoulded in the
present (Roach – Echer and Johnson, 1995). Cultural traditions, values and beliefs
40
are passed down from one generation to another. An individual’s clothing is a
symbolic aspect of people’s culture which gives them identity. In Nigeria, the
ethnic groups differ in their mode of dressing, in the choice of fabrics and in their
attitude to fashion generally. The cultural differences are mainly in style which
Jones (1990) categorized into traditional, casual, functional and fashionable. Each
of the ethnic group clothing culture may be identified. For instance, men in Idoma
tradition dress in wrappers with the black and red stripes covering from the waist
to the knee.
For the Yoruba, Abina (2000) stated that what constitutes a complete dress
for the Yoruba is an up and down wear plus a head cover. For the men, the up and
down are known as ‘buba and ‘soro or ‘esiki’’ and ‘a soro’ which may be overlain
with an Agbada. For Yoruba women, the popular dress is ‘buba’ and‘ Iro or single
wrapper and a headgear and ‘Iborun’ or a piece of cloth that is hanged down the
shoulder length. The Kaftan and the Agbada with caps are very prominent among
the Hausas. Some Hausa women who appear in public wear blouse and wrapper
with head and their shoulders covered with shawl or veil.
The traditional Igbo society dresses in clothes, stiges and sometimes with
single wrapper that covered from the waist to the knee or calves. Their women’s
dressing consists of single wrapper which covers from the waist and occasionally
from the bosom to the knee. This eventually developed into wearing of two
wrappers with a blouse top.
41
Due to the improvement in science and technology the rate of fashion
change increases, locally and internationally. People from different cultures not
only interact, but intermarry. This brings about importation and adoption on
foreign cultures including dress styles (Spencer, 1998).
Group Membership/Peer Group Influence
Social approval is of great importance to the undergraduate (adolescence)
as well as the individual peer group standards. Through dress the female
undergraduate is affiliated to a social peer group. Every individual belong to a
group which may be either family group, school group, community group, prayer
group etc. these group may have clothing requirement or uniforms which may give
members a sense of identification or belonging as they try to conform to the group
standard of clothing (Weber, 1990). Parents make all clothing choices while their
children are still young. But at later age, (adolescence/adult) this may change.
Webb-Lupo and Lester (1987) maintained that through some of the teens or
clothing style or choice may differ from those of parents, they may still have some
of the buying habits and parent’s dressing habit that affect them.
Peer group pressure also has much impact on individuals clothing choices.
Peer group consist of one’s friends and acquaintances. Webb- Lupo and Lester
(1987), Faiola and Pullen (1982), pointed out that most teenagers seek the
approval of their classmates and identify with a group. Clothing that does not
conform to their group standards and expectation may be criticized, the person
(undergraduate/ adolescence) may be talked about, laughed at or teased. In some
42
cases the peer pressure can be gentle and used to help members develop a sense of
belonging and togetherness. At other times it can be strong and cruel, forcing
people to either conform or excluded from the group. Faiola and Pullen (1982),
lamented that, some people, in the process of conforming to peer pressure in
clothing lose their individuality. The teenagers clothing is largely influenced by
peer group pressure than any other group (Kelly and Eubanks, 1981; Webb Lupo
and Lester 1987). Sharing country view, Faiola and Pullen (1982) argued that if
the teenager’s clothing were most influenced by peer group pressure than the
people, why would so many men and women wear almost identical business suit
to work each day? They concluded that all age groups are subject to peer group
pressure because there is nothing wrong with little of it except when they rule
individual’s lives.
Environment
The type of environment one lives in influences one’s clothing choices.
Marshal et al (2000) contends that college/ students clothing choice may reflect
campus tradition, local culture or urban centres or in school institution has much
influence on the type of clothes worm at any point in time. The weather or
atmospheric condition of a place also influences the choice of clothes made by
people. Types of clothes chosen should suit the climate of the geographical
location. The clothes should be able to insulate the body during cold season and let
the body heat escape during the hot weather (Webb Lupo and Lester, 1981).
43
Fashion in Vogue
The reigning clothing style’s at a particular time influence the choices of
clothes made by people. Fashion ‘Fads’ and fashion ‘classic’ are two terms used to
describe clothing style in Vogue at the point in time (Marshal et al, 2000;
Vanderhoff, 1989) lived. Fads are quickly accepted by a relatively small group of
people and they leave the scene almost as quickly as they came. Hence they are
called ‘fashion of the moment’, they may be the rage this season or for a year or
two, then disappear. Johnson and Foster (1990) pointed out that teenagers enjoy
Fads; they may not know the Fad isn’t going to last forever because their
experience with fashion is limited. They sometimes think that their popularity at
school depends on having the item, which they will be left out when everyone else
is wearing a brand new clothing style or shoe or accessories.
Classic on the other hand is the opposite of fashion Fads. A classic style is a
design that endures or remains over time. If changes are made in the design, they
are minor and happen slowly. An example of a classic design is jeans wears. More
mature persons choose classic designs that are not in vogue and they will wear for
a long time.
Mass Media Advertising
New clothing, styles gain their popularity through the mass media
advertisements. People are motivated and copy the clothing styles they like from
television, fashion catalogues, magazines, newspaper, journals, films shows as
well as through fashion shows and demonstration. (Rouse 1995; Faiola and Pullen
44
1982). Fashion shows and demonstrations are used by garment manufacturing
industries to show latest styles on attractive models. People look and admire
clothes when its worn by somebody. These styles look attractive on the models
and they motivate people to buy them whether they fit or not. Faiola and Pullen
(1982), commented that the main disadvantage of this influence is that clothes
may not fit or look good who copied it as did on the model
Economic Position / Cost
The cost of clothes and financial position of individuals have great
influence on choice of clothes made. The money available determines the quality
and quantity of garments possessed by an individual at any point in time. It also
determine whether the female undergraduates should rely on ready-to-wear
garments (Anyakoha and Eluwa, 1991)
The Activity or Occasion for which the Clothes are used
The type of occasion or activity that the clothes are used also influence the
clothing choices. Different occasions and activities require different types of
clothing. The type of clothing chosen by an individual should reflect or suit such
occasions or activities engaged in. Some of the occasions and activities that
require special clothes include: school clothes, clothes for work, clothing for
household work or activities, night gown or sleeping garment, clothing for sports,
and picnic, clothes for religious worships, clothes for parties and social gathering
or occasion, undergarments or underwear, clothes for travel etc. (Anaykoha &
Eluwa, 1991)
45
Problems Encountered by the Female Undergraduate in their Clothing
Practice
The university female undergraduates face several problems in their
clothing practices. Decision for instance, involving one or more judgments on
what to add or discard from their wardrobe is a yearly occurrence. Craig (1983)
stated that clothing decision has to be made on the basis of appropriateness for the
culture, climate and suitability to the occasion, comfort emotional and
psychological needs. Vanderhoff (1985) maintained that, the need, desire and
demand of the female undergraduates clothing is influenced by the problems
encountered which are mainly circumstantial. These problems are compounded by
the very increasing styles and designs available in several colours, texture and
fabrics in the market.
Johnson and Foster (1990), were of the opinion that the habits and attitudes
that cause people to select certain kind of clothes could be problematic, these
habits and attitudes have been shaped by the physical and socio- psychological
need. Vanderhoff (2000) mentioned that clothing is one of the basic needs of
people that satisfied the socio-psychological or emotional needs with relationship
to the inner self and in relationship with others, when these needs are not met,
problems arise.
A person’s appearance profoundly affects the way she is treated by others
in the home, in the social gathering, in job area or office etc. when individual’s
clothing and appearance send message that do not correspond with their
46
personality, cognitive, dissonance or what is called disintegrated personality
(Marshal et al 2000).
This does not only lead to negative impression and value judgment on the
wearer that a false impression created of an individual due to his clothing could
change person’s life. They can mean the differences between success and failure
not only in interpersonal relation but also in educational pursuit and professional
careers.
Poor clothing hinders good/excellent academic performance (Johnson and
Foster 1990). Tight fits are uncomfortable and lead to lack of attention and
concentration during lesson. Adekoya (1997) in Bimbo (1997) stressed that those
who wear it can be seen in class pulling their skirt to the kneel, many of them have
to change their sitting position several times just to cover their nakedness. In this
way lack of concentration hinders effective teaching and learning. Talking on
health ground, Anyakoha and Eluwa (1991), stated that tight and restrictive
clothing can interfere with free movement and blood circulation. Dirty clothes
harbour germs which cause health problems via skin infection and diseases. Cold
and catarrh affect people by wearing body revealing clothes which expose various
delicate parts of the body to cold, such clothes are; show back and front neck line
revealing holes, miniskirts, midriff top etc.
Indecent clothing brings about discipline problems culminating to various
kinds of disciplinary actions and punishments in schools, work places or in some
religious denominations. Students who fail to adhere to uniform or dress codes and
47
norms set out by the school could be suspended from school until he/she complies
or face expulsion. Employees could be sent home or have their appointment
terminated if they refuse to follow the dress codes of the employer or denied
promotion (Johnson and foster 1990). Poor dressing could prevent one from being
selected in job interviews.
Clothing can be used to deceive people, Weber (1990), regretted that people
adopt extreme styles of clothing to create a false image of themselves. They may
dress too old, too young, too extreme or bizarre some people spend much time,
effort and money just to look good neglecting other activities and interests. There
are yet others who are careless about their clothing appearance. Weber concluded
that either too much or too little concern with clothes may limit a person’s life.
Under-dressing or overdressing can create problems of mistaken identity. Johnson
and foster (1990) warned that if an individual dresses like an hourly employee, for
instance, but is actually a boss, he may incur the hostility or disrespect of those
who mistake his identity or vice versa. Because of lack of awareness of clothing
function, people wear different clothing styles that predispose them to problem.
Very tight clothes provoke and induce sexual urge. They are regarded as
indecent and immodest dressing which is one of the factors contributing to moral
decadence in society today (Adelena, 2002). Similarly, Offor (2002) lamented
that problem that accompanies this issue of indecent dressing (sex dress) is a case
of not only rapes which have a day to day phenomenon in our society, but
hampered socio-ethical standard in the society.
48
Ekpo (2002), during her oral interview as the miss Nigeria 2001-2002 was
asked whether immodest clothing is deliberately used as seductive machinery
among the female undergraduates. She regretted and said that it was unfortunate
that some person involved in this act may be innocent; they do that to join the
band wagon without knowing the implication. This implies that many people wear
such indecent clothing without knowing that clothing style motivates their
behaviour.
Indecent/immodest clothing attracts public assault, disrespect, mockery and
throwing of stones or beating drums and following the wearer, humiliation, sexual
harassment and rape. An instance is the declaration by the Emir of Ilorin and other
Northern Emirs that ‘any Moslem lady who walks in the traditional area of Ilorin
in mini skirt whether an indigene or non-indigene should be publicly whipped
(Bimbo, 1997). Similarly, Christian denominations (Catholics) debar some female
who wear very low neckline clothes; halter tops, skirts and gown with long
revealing slits from receiving Holy Communion with such clothes. This is because
those clothes that reveal one’s chest, breast or anatomy are regarded as indecent,
seductive and therefore sinful (Orakwu, 2002). The business people according to
Johnson and Foster (1990) are affected by poor clothing. Those individuals, whose
clothing is too loud, sloppy, sexy or un-coordinated, divert attention. The observer
may become so enchanted or disturbed that he may not listen to the wearer’s
words. They concluded that a business person whose appearance is unprofessional
may find it difficult to deal successfully with others. An individual needs to dress
49
well to avoid all forms of assaults, humiliation, rejection, sexual harassment,
(physical harm and rape embarrassment).
Ways of Enhancing Clothing of Female Undergraduates
It is important for an individual to understand the desirable clothing norms
in order to enhance his/her clothing practice. Clothing choices and decision
enhance the female undergraduate’s daily activities and interpersonal relationship.
This is because “since clothes cover as much as 90 percent of the body” they are
your packaging and provide most of the materials with which people judge you
(Nethery and Smith, 1988). For the female undergraduate to present good visual
image, she must conform to the clothing norms and code acceptable by the
society. Dress code is a standard of dressing, usually for a particular purpose.
Where formal uniforms and written dress codes are lacking, all situations and
occasions have parameters or boundaries of clothing that are expected. People are
still judged on the appropriateness of the clothing they wear for work or activities
they do as well as the type of people they meet Johnson and Foster (1990).
Dressing appropriately can help people to be successful and confident.
In their view, Faiola and Pullen (1982) stated that to be well-dressed, an
individual needs to know a lot about him/herself and how to let his/her clothes
speak for him/her. He has to consider all those qualities that influence clothing
choices such as personality, physical shape, lifestyles and even the world around
as well as the clothing items that are available. Proper analysis of these will help in
decisions about the best clothes to choose for any occasion or activity. In
50
enhancing clothing practices of the female undergraduates, the choice of clothing
made should suit the occasion or activities which it is used (Anyakoha and Eluwa,
1991). Various occasions and activities which requires special items such as
school, work, household, religious worships, parties, travel and social gathering
occasions, leisure, sports, etc, when the style, colour, texture, size and overall
quality or garment suit the occasion as well as the personal characteristics or
individuality of the wearer. It is desirable. For example, school clothes according
to Anyakoha and Eluwa (1991) should be pretty, smart, colourful and comfortable.
The sleeves should be loose enough to allow free movement of hands on and off
book shelves and for relaxation and free movement. Clothes worn should make
provision for the comfort of the wearer hence Weber (1990), stressed that the
smartest approach to dressing is to make oneself comfortable, not only in different
activities but in all types of weather too. He further stated that if an individual
understood how to promote body warmth and ventilation, he/she can enjoy oneself
under most conditions. In other words clothes that are roomy and allow for free
movement are suitable or desired for the female undergraduates.
Still commenting on desirable clothing practices and on health perspectives,
Volkes and Copper (1989), maintained that clothing styles are deemed fitting and
suitable when it is capable of protecting the wearer from harsh climatic condition
and be of good fitting to the wearer. It is therefore, deduced that clothing that
expresses the individual to cold and physical hazard are not desirable.
51
Individuals clothing is desirable and normal when he presents a
professional image. A professional image is ‘a total look from head to toe
implying a degree of expertise and a sense of responsibility’ John & Foster (1990).
The purpose of a professional look is to encourage respect and trust, it will also
motivate others to focus on what an individual says rather than what he/she wears,
work of activity they do as well as the type of people they meet (Johnson &
Foster, 1990).
Here are some check points for a professional image as presented by
Johnson and Foster (1990).
A Professional Image
-
Creates a favourable impact for school or employer
-
Looks individual, yet would fit ‘fit in’.
-
Appears well groomed and colour coordinated
-
Shows that you know correct fashion
-
Suits your body
In their own view, Ozuogwu (2004) agreed that individuals give clues
about their personality, attitude and values; a normal or desirable clothing
practices or norm should be the choice of clothes that suit the physical, mental,
and emotional characteristics of the wearers. The individual clothing behaviour
and looks should motivate the observer to make a true and consistence impression
of the wearer. The appearance of female undergraduates should suit the physical,
mental and emotional characteristics of the wearer as well as the occasion or
52
activity it is used and be accepted by members of the society. It should be capable
of maintaining the respect and sense of responsibilities and dignity of the wearer.
Theories of Clothing
Clothing is used for the satisfaction of human needs and desires. Clothing is
the second skin, and clothes make the man (Johnson and Foster, 1990). Various
attempts have been made to explain the motivation or reasons why people wear
clothes. Jones (1990), stated that clothes are worn among all people for six
common reasons: protection, modesty, occupational identity, attraction, social
status and traditional identity.
However, four major theories have been used to explain the reasons behind
individuals’ clothing choices and decision, such theories include modesty,
immodesty, protection and adornment theories (Marshal et al, 2000).
Modesty Theory
Modesty has been identified as one of the psychological needs by Lever
(1999). In this respect, he considered modesty as an inner need that varies in
degrees, culture and occasion. Horn and Gruel (1981) explained modesty as
covering the body according to what is proper which is determined by culture,
environment, age, location and situational factors. For example, modesty in some
Moslem culture determine the age at which young girls must cover their heads and
the length of their garment, scarf and sometimes even the colour of the women’s
dresses.
53
It is also an inhibitory impulse against either social or sexual forms of
display (Lever 1964 in Marshal et al 2000). Modesty also refers to what people
feel is the proper way of clothing. Modesty theory stresses that clothes are worn
solely to what people feel is the proper way of clothing. Modesty theory stresses
that clothes are worn solely to conceal or cover nakedness. It is opposed to the
wearing of gorgeous clothes and to the wearing of too few clothes. It is aimed at
the prevention of disease, satisfaction, disgust, shame or disapproval. Various
cultures have rules about modesty that relates to their bodies. There is a lack of
agreement as to what constitute modesty in dress because of cultural
interpretations. Clothing style that may be accepted in one culture may be rejected
in another culture. Modesty theory has been criticized for three major reasons
(Marshal el al 2000):
First, there is a wide variety of ideas people have about what constitutes
modesty or nakedness. For instance while the Indian Woman would try as much as
possible to cover her breast and legs leaving her abdomen open. The Suya Indians
of Brazil would wear lip disks or ear plugs without bordering to cover other parts
of the body.
Secondly, there is evidence that modesty is not an instinct but a culturally
induced habit that varies depending on the time and place.
Finally, the concept of modesty changes with age.
54
Immodesty Theory
The Michigan State University extension report (1999), pointed out that
clothing is an important domain of life in the process of self-redefinition and
attraction to different groups. The immodesty theory states clothing is used not to
cover but to attract attention. The argument here is that the wearing of garment is
far more erotic than going without them.
The midst argue that once people get used to seeing naked bodies of
opposite sex, the importance attached to sex differences disappears. The theorists
belief that the body was first covered as sexual lure and clothes were used to call
attention to the parts of the body covered. Such revealing clothing items as
revealing holes or cut-outs, very low neck lines, show backs, show belly and bare
shoulders (spaghetti/halt top or gowns). Short skirts and paints, very tight fitted
garments which reveal the contours of the body are some clothing items that
favour this theory (Johnson and Foster 1990, Webb Lupo and Lester 1997).
Protection Theory
Clothing responds to the basic physical needs of man including protection;
Vanderhoff et al (1996). Human beings lack natural protection coats like animals
as such they are forced to look for other means of protecting themselves. Marshal
et al (2000) emphasized that clothes are worn for two major reasons: Physical
protection and Psychological protection. Physical protection involves making
body covering and items to facilitate individual’s survival in an unfriendly
55
environment or for harsh weather conditions. Clothes are worn to protect the skin
from hot weather and keep it
warm in cold weather (Kennet, 1994), clothes are worn to protect the body from
physical harms such as thorns, insect bite, sun burn and in job areas from job
hazards by wearing overall, space suit, lab coat etc (Kadolph, 1998).
Psychological harms such as security also involve the need for individuals
to defend themselves from harmful spiritual powers Vanderhoff (1988), pointed
out that this was viewed as the origin and primary function of clothing of early
individuals (early men). Their belief in the spiritual forces to cause floods. Earth
tremor droughts, illness and death prompt individuals to adorn the body for
protection. Superstition, fear of the unseen, belief in evil spirits and demon as well
as luck have all been responsible for the use of certain garment, jewelry and other
body clothing. For instance, bridal veil is believed to protect the bride from evil
spirits, lucky clothing brings luck whenever worn, sex organs being the seed of
fertility need to be protected from evil eye, hence the need to cover it leaving other
parts uncovered (Vanderhoff, 1988).
Adornment Theory
Adornment theory states that clothes are worn for the purpose of
beautifying one’s body according to the standard of their culture (Faiola and
Pullen, 1982). This theory also contends that the people have the urge to express
themselves creatively and that this urge is universal. Ways of adorning the body
include not only body painting tattooing, scarification, mutilation, deformation or
56
body piercing but also through clothing as well as application of cosmetics
(Weber, 1990), people adorn themselves for many reasons but specifically for
three reasons for psychological protection to ward off evil spirits, (terrorism) for
sexual attraction and as a means of motivation (Marshal et al, 2000).
Related Empirical Studies
Various studies have been carried out in relation to clothing motivations
and behaviour. Those studies were carried out in other countries such as the
United States of America (USA), Great Britain etc and not in Nigerian
universities. The studies reviewed here have some direct/indirect bearing on the
present study. Humbleton et al, (1988), carried out an investigation on 191
students at the University of Wisconsin on teenager’s appearance and conformity,
preference and self concept, conformity of teenagers to group, standard for
appearance, and their individual display of preferred appearance, to determine
whether they were related to teenager’s self personal appearance.
Cross tabulation between variable were made and chi-square test were
applied to determine the acceptance of the null hypothesis at 0.5 level of
significance. There was no relationship between conformity to observed norms
with the socio-economic status of either boys and girls or any relationship between
displays of preferred appearance. That also concepts of personal appearance do not
vary with socio-economic status, concept of personal appearance do not vary with
conformity to observed norms for appearance of boys, whose appearance
conformed highly to the group norms that preferred that appearances, and that
57
there was no significant difference between display of preferred appearance and
concept of personal appearance for girls and upper socio-economic level. A study
on the effects of clothing on the formation of observers’ impression was
purposeful investigated by Hamid as stated in Greekmore (1980). Photographs of
four men and four women dressed in four types of dress-high school uniforms,
casual clothes, work clothes and evening clothes were evaluated by 60 college
males and females. The results reveal a tendency for rating to be consistently low
when the uniform was worn and consistently high when either the casual or
evening dress appeared. However, no effect was made in the study to evaluate the
relative aesthetic quality of the customers or differences in becomingness to each
of the wearers. The effect of clothing impression formed on the wearer by the
observer was not investigated.
Akubue (2002) conducted a study on one hundred (100) female
undergraduates at the University of Nigeria, Nsukka, on the choice of clothing
style and factors that influence their choice. The study showed that the female
undergraduates make their choice to be in tie with the fashion in vogue which had
the highest rating, for fitting purpose and to look attractive to the other students
and protection from weather hazards. The influencing factors that affect clothing
practices of female undergraduates in university of Nigeria, Nsukka, include other
female undergraduate’s styles, media and cost as determining factors of clothing
styles among the undergraduates.
58
In an attempt to ascertain if there is any relationship between clothing and
self concept, a survey study on Depression, Relationship to clothing and
appearance of self concept, was carried out by Duber and Gurel (1984). Using a
mood scale, a survey of perceived clothing appearance self concept scales, the
researcher collected data from two groups of women over a 28 day – time span.
One conclusion was that clothing may be used in an attempt to boost self concept
and mood, the researcher did not attempt in any way to investigate the respondent
awareness of clothing practices.
In their study, Horridge and Richard (1986) researched on “Awareness and
clothing economic practices”. The researcher administered that sporles and
consumer interests and priorities questionnaire, to 3.036. Home Economist,
awareness of social implication of clothing, correlated positively with fashion
awareness and clothing economics practices. Result suggest that persons
exhibiting substantial awareness of social importance of clothing also tend to
evidence awareness of contemporary, fashion trends and a conservative,
compulsive approach acquisition. The awareness of social implication of clothing
correlating positively with fashion awareness as revealed by finding in this study
is an indication of awareness that clothing motivates behaviour.
“The influence of physical attractiveness and Dress on Campus Recruiters
impressions of female job Applicants” was studies by Johnson and Roach –
Higgins (1987). The influence of physical attractiveness dress and job type upon
300 college recruiters’ impressions of female’s employment potential was
59
investigated. Subject rated females’ applicants from photograph on eight
employment potential statements; result indicates that the applicants’ style of dress
exerted a consistent influence on recruiters’ perceptions of employment potential.
A study on “sexually attractive clothing, attitude and usage” was carried out
in United States of America by McCullough, Miller and Ford (1977). The attitudes
and clothing usage of 68 black and 163 white unmarried were studied in relation to
the sexual attractiveness of clothing. Subjects rated 20 specified clothing items and
indicate the frequency with which they would wear these items for class time,
leisure time, casual date, special date and job interview using and adoption of the
sensuous clothing measure originally developed by Cressman (1972). One of the
findings on chi-square analysis indicated that both groups reported in frequent use
of clothing items they perceived to be sexually attractive and therefore sexually
attraction is not the primary motive that influences a female’s clothing usage. A
more recent similar study is urgently needed in Nigeria universities.
Clothing and attribution concerning sexual Harassment was studied by
Kim, and Jane (1972). Different photographs shown on 98 male and 102 females
students illustrated provocative versus non provocative clothing on both men and
women. The findings revealed that subjects rated provocative clothing more likely
to induce sexual harassment. It also shows that females who had not experience
harassment rate those wearing non provocative clothing unlikely to be harassed.
This study is also necessary in Nigeria universities to investigate if clothing of the
60
female undergraduates contributes to their sexual harassment and rape on
campuses.
In another survey on “Dressing and costume and the use of alcohol,
marijuana and other Drugs by college students”. Miller and others (1993)
compared behaviour of college students who wear costumes on Halloween with
those who did not. Finding from 805 female and 448 male surveyed over 5 years
period revealed significant association between dressing in costume and drinking
of alcohol and between masquerading with group and using Marijuana and other
drugs. This study also needs local investigation in Nigeria Universities.
Humphrey et al (1971) using Maslow’s framework investigated the
relationship between striving for satisfaction of basic needs and common ways
which college girls used clothing. It was observed that five of the eight needs
related positively to some clothing used and negatively to others. An analysis of
the relationship indicates the variable closely resembling aesthetic concerns,
conformity attention seeking, modesty in clothes could be made a means of selfexpression when a need was satisfied but a means to an end when a need was
relatively unsatisfied. The finding of the study seems to support the proportion that
clothing is used both as a means of self-expression since the boys and girls with
the same clothing used were concerned with high instability at a point in time.
In a more recent survey by Arkhurst (2001), an investigation was made on
“university of Nigeria. Nsukka Undergraduates (students) perception of good
grooming; “challenges for Home Economist”. The population for the study
61
complete set of all undergraduates of university with random sample of 250
undergraduates from different departments. A four point Likert scale
questionnaires and open ended questions elicited information on variable that
constituted the purpose of study. On means analysis of the open ended questions
on what male students don’t like about female students’ dressing/grooming. One
of the finding indicated that some female students dress like ‘call girls’. Such
dressing was described as disgusting, outrageous and tempting the male populace
on the campuses to sin. The study did not do in dept study of the female
undergraduates awareness of clothing motivation and problems they are likely to
encounter as a result of the bad clothing habits. This study is limited to only the
three universities in Benue State. The generalization based on the findings is
limited.
Summary of Literature Review
The reviewed related literature reveals that clothing is a very important
component of physical appearance. It is also worn for safety, comfort, modesty
and to reflect religious, cultural and social meaning. People wear different type of
clothing to motivate their behaviour toward achieving common goals. Four
theories that underlie peoples clothing choice and decisions were identified. Such
theories include: modesty, immodesty, protection and adornment theories. This
means that clothing helps to form impression about an individual; people make
assumptions and judgements about others and themselves (observer and the
wearer). People adorn themselves in various ways via clothing motivations and
62
practices. Two theoretical perceptive explained motivation through clothing
symbolic interaction theory and impression formation theories. Both theories
stressed the importance of clothing as a symbol that motivates clothing practices to
human interaction situations and aids in establishment of self identity and others.
Stanley’s person perception motivation model consisting of four components the
environment, the sender, the wearer and social context illustrated how clothing
motivates the behaviour of the undergraduates.
Clothing motivation can sometimes be misinterpreted and falsified. It is
also observed that clothing motivates about 90 per cent of the individual’s
qualities with which he/she is judged by others. Such attributes as personality
traits, attitudes, values, life style, mood temperament, cultural background, age,
sex etc are motivated through clothing. How clothing is perceived depend on the
point of view or frame of reference of persons making the judgement.
Factors that influence the female undergraduate clothing decision and
choices are categorized into two. The internal and external factors. The internal
factors are age, personality, values, attitudes, lifestyle, figure, sex etc. The external
factors such as cultural and cultural contacts, geographical location, group
membership/peer group pressure, mass media, economic factors, fashion in vogue
etc, also have great impact on peoples’ clothing choices and decisions of the
female undergraduates.
Some problems associated with poor clothing include assaults, humiliation,
poor academic performance, sexual harassment, rape, health problem such as
63
cold/catarrh from body exposure, lack of free movement and circulation of blood,
rejection in interpersonal relationship, termination in job area or lack of promotion
etc.
In enhancing the clothing motivations and behaviour of the undergraduates
a desirable clothing norm is also expected to be maintained by the individuals in
their clothing practices. Individuals are all expected to be well-packaged through
their clothing choices and decisions so as to attract respect and dignity in their
daily activities.
In conclusion, careful look on the related study indicated that many studies
have been conducted in relation to clothing motivations and behaviours in the
United States of America (USA). Great Britain and Ghana among others. From
indication a similar study has been carried out in the Eastern part of Nigeria but
none in Benue State. This situation provides justification for the present study
which is an attempt to investigate the clothing motivations and behaviour of
female undergraduates in Benue States.
64
CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY
This chapter focuses on the procedures used for the study. The procedures
are discussed under the following sub-headings: design of the study, area of the
study, population of the study, sample of the study, instrument of data collection,
validation of the instruments, reliability of the instrument, method of data
collection, and method of data analysis.
Design of the Study
In order to achieve the purpose of the study, the survey research design was
employed. The survey study employs questionnaire and interview to determine
opinions, preferences, motivations, attitude and perceptions of people on a sample
of population and based on the findings of the sample, generalization about the
population can be inferred.
The survey research method is considered by Ejifugba (1998) as one of the
best available design to a researcher who is interested on collecting an original
data for the purpose of describing a population that is fairly large. A survey study
is generally more suitable in educational research because data can be gathered
from a relatively large number of cases (Best and Kahn, 1995). Nworgu
considered survey design useful for studying a variety of problems involving data
collection for either testing hypotheses or answering questions concerning the
present status of subjects under study. Explaining further, Nworgu (1991) stated
that the survey design permits the description of conditions as they are in their
65
natural settings. The survey research design therefore was considered appropriate
for use in the study which describes the clothing motivations and behaviour of
female undergraduates in universities in Benue State.
Area of the Study
The study was conducted in Benue State of Nigeria. The State is located in
the North Central part of Nigeria and has three major universities namely: The
Federal University of Agriculture Makurdi, Benue State University Makurdi, and a
privately owned university Mkar (Gboko) by a missionary organization.
Population for the Study
The population for the study consisted of female undergraduates in the
three universities in Benue State; namely: The Federal University of Agriculture
Makurdi, Benue State University Makurdi, and NKST University Mkar.
Population Distribution Table of Female Undergraduates in Universities in
Benue State
Names of University
The Federal University of Agriculture Makurdi
Population of Female
Undergraduates
2147
Benue State University Makurdi
3472
NKST University Mkar (Gboko)
1000
Total
6619
Source: Data collected from the Academic Office of the three Universities in
Benue State from 2006/2007 as in the table above.
Sampling and Sampling Techniques
In respect to the proportionate sampling size Ogbazi and Okpala (1994)
stated that where the population is large 10-30% of the population could be used
66
as sample size while Nwana (1982) explained that when the population is in few
thousand 10% or less of the population will serve as the sample size and when the
population is in thousands, 5% or less of the population could be used as the
sample. For this study 10% of the female undergraduates were used as the sample
size. This ensured a good representative sample for the universities selected for the
research.
The Sample Distribution of the Female Undergraduates in Universities in
Benue State
Names of Universities
University of
Agriculture, Makurdi
Benue State University,
Makurdi
NKST University Mkar
(Gboko)
Total
Population of
Sample size of the
Percentage
Data
Undergraduate undergraduate
collected %
females
females
2147
215
215
33
3472
347
344
52
100
100
100
15
6619
662
659
100
Instrument for Data Collection
Six part structure questionnaire was designed to collect data to answer the
research question and for testing of hypotheses formulated for the study. The
sections are as follows: Section A contained information on personal data. Section
B contained information on the motivating factors underlying the selection and
wearing of clothing by female undergraduates. Section C contained information
regarding the type of clothing items that are selected and worn by female
undergraduates in Benue state universities while Section D elicited information on
guidelines for wearing clothing items by the female undergraduate. Section E
67
elicited information on the problems encountered by the female undergraduates in
their choice of clothing. Section F, contains information on the ways of solving
problems encountered by undergraduates in clothing themselves.
All the statement from B – F had each 5 responses alternative, Strongly
Agree (SA), Agree (A), Undecided (UD), Disagree (D) and Strongly Disagree
(SD), scored as follows: for positive statement items, 5 points is assigned to
Strongly Agree (SA), 4 points for Agree (A), 3 points for Undecided (UD), 4
points for Disagree (D) and 5 points for Strongly Disagree (SD). This means the
higher the aggregate score in the likert type of scale the more accepted the clothing
motivations and behaviours of the female undergraduates in universities.
The instrument was developed and constructed by the researcher based on
the intensive literature reviewed and the research question for the study.
Validation of the Instrument
In order to ensure that the instrument gets relevant information required, it
was subjected to face validity. The face validation measured the appropriateness of
the items by mere looking at the appearance whether it measure what it sets out to
measure for instance, appropriateness of language, relevance of suitability of the
items and extent of coverage. The instrument was validated and certified by two
professional lecturers from the Department of Vocational Teachers Education
(VTE) of the University of Nigeria, Nsukka. One from Home Economics Unit,
while the other from Agricultural Education Unit of the same Department. The
experts were given a draft copy of the instrument. They critically examined the
68
instrument and made useful suggestions that helped to improve the quality of the
instruments and made useful suggestion.
Reliability of the Instrument
To check the reliability of the instrument, a Cronbach Alpha method was
employed to test the internal consistency of the instrument. To achieve this, the
instrument was subjected to a trial testing on twenty female undergraduates in
National Open University of Nigeria in Benue State who were not part of the study
sample. The reliability coefficient was 0.60 and this showed that the instrument
was used.
Method of Data Collection
The researcher administered the instruments on the undergraduate female
students in the three universities through personal contact and with the help of two
research assistants. The research assistants were given instructions on how to
administer the questionnaire on the female students in Benue State University,
Makurdi and University of Agriculture, Makurdi, while the researcher
administered the instrument to the female undergraduates in the private
University, Mkar. The copies of the questionnaire were collected back a week later
by the researcher assistants and researcher. Hundred percent return rates were
anticipated.
Method of Data Analysis
The five research questions were answered using Mean, while the Analysis
of Variance (ANOVA) was used to test the null hypotheses at 0.05 level of
69
significance and at relevant degree of freedom. Based on the five points Likert
scales, any items with Mean of 3.50 or above will be regarded as Agree, while any
item with Mean below 3.50 will be regarded as Disagree. A null hypothesis was
accepted when a f – calculated value is less than the Table T – value. Also the null
hypothesis was rejected when the Table T – value is less than f – calculated value.
70
CHAPTER FOUR
ANALYSIS AND PRESENTATION OF DATA
This Chapter deals with presentation and analysis collected in line with the
research questions and hypotheses formulated.
Research Question 1
What are the motivating factors underlying the selection and wearing of
clothing by female undergraduates in universities in Benue State?
The data for answering research questions 1 are presented in Table 1
Table 1
Mean Responses to the Respondents on the Motivating Factors Underlying
the Selection and Wearing of Clothing by Female Undergraduates in
Universities in Benue State
N = 659
S/N Item statements
Mean S.D
Remarks
1
Life style
3.61
0.88 Agree
2
Personality characteristics
3.59
0.84 Agree
3
Age bracket
3.72
0.95 Agree
4
Value
3.59
0.86 Agree
5
Body colour and figure
3.69
0.91 Agree
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
The cost of the clothes
Friends clothes and styles
Clothing items in vogue
The reigning style on campus
Our cultural dress style
Clothing worn by TV stars
Fashion in the catalogue, magazine or
news paper
Fashion/styles displayed in house
The activities of occasion
Fashion show (modeling)
3.64
4.01
3.77
3.52
3.61
3.59
0.86
0. 98
0.81
0.83
0.83
0.80
Agree
Agree
Agree
Agree
Agree
Agree
3.70
3.66
3.58
3.72
0.92
0.48
0.91
0.88
Agree
Agree
Agree
Agree
71
Key:
X
=
Mean
SD
=
Standard Deviation
A
=
Agree
Table 1 shows that the respondents agreed to all the factors listed in the
questionnaire items
Research Questions 2
What are the types of clothing items that are selected and worn by female
undergraduates in universities in Benue State?
The data for answering Research Question 2 are presented in Table 2
72
Table 2
Mean Responses of the Respondents on the Type of Clothing Items that are
Selected and Worn by Female Undergraduates in Universities in Benue State
N = 659
S/N
Item statements
Mean
S.D
Remarks
1
2
3
Short skirts, blouses and gowns
Very tight trousers./ Jeans with very short blouse
Hot pants/Leggings and Tight strap/Spagathetti and
sleeveless top and gown.
Long narrow skirts. Or short skirts with very long slits at
center back, front or side.
Body hug (clinging), clothes
Well-fitted tailored suit –skirts and blouses with length
below kneel level.
Three quarter gored skirts (2,4,6, or 8 pieces skirt)
Flared skirts, blouses or gowns
Blouses and gown with high neckline
Blouse and gown with very low neck lines
Clothes with cutouts or revealing holes, or show you
breast and show back blouses gown
Traditional wears such as buboos, long skirts and blouse
with head ties
Fashion/styles displayed in houses
The activities of occasion
Fashion show (modeling)
Well fitted tailored suit-short/long sleeves shirt and
trouser
Patched jeans trousers or jeans short knickers with loose
edges sleeves vest with low neckline.
Traditional wears such as jumper and trouser short/long
sleeves shirts with head tier/caps
Bare shoulder blouses with low revealing neckline
3.89
3.58
3.82
0.88
0.79
0.95
Agree
Agree
Agree
3.59
3.68
0.86
0.90
Agree
Agree
3.50
3.51
3.72
3.79
2.31
3.54
0.86
0.80
0.79
0.79
0.85
0.82
Agree
Agree
Agree
Agree
Agree
Agree
3.72
0.90
Agree
3.61
3.54
3.78
0.81
0.93
1.01
Agree
Agree
Agree
3.56
3.04
0.79
0.88
Agree
3.33
0.89
Disagree
3.09
0.92
Disagree
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
Disagree
Data presented in Table 2 revealed that items number 1 – 9, 11 – 16 had
Mean value ranging from 3.50 – 3.89 and based on the average accepted Mean it
means that the respondents agreed with the items listed. They also disagreed with
10, 17 – 19.
73
Research Question 3
What are the guidelines for wearing clothing items by female
undergraduates in the Universities in Benue State?
The data for answering Research Question 3 are presented in Table 3
Table 3
Mean Responses of the Respondents on the guidelines for Wearing Clothing
Items by Female Undergraduates in the Universities in Benue State.
N = 659
S/N
Item Statements
Mean S.D Remark
1
Comfort and confidence
3.99
0.88 Agree
2
Befitting to body type
3.58
0.79 Agree
3
Personality
3.92
0.95 Agree
4
Posture
3.76
0.96 Agree
5
Well pressed
3.68
0.93 Agree
6
Right size
3.74
0.86 Agree
7
Appropriateness
3.80
0.89 Agree
8
Grooming
3.77
0.78 Agree
9
Self image
3.72
0.79 Agree
10 Money available
3.89
0.85 Agree
11 Quality of fabric
3.55
0.86 Agree
12 Peer group pressure
3.79
0.92 Agree
13 Weather
3.81
0.90 Agree
14 Complexion
3.56
0.82 Agree
15 Activity or work
3.71
0.79 Agree
16 Wash ability
3.69
0.81 Agree
17 Clothing and relationship
3.82
0.99 Agree
18 Figure
3.78
0.85 Agree
Table 3 indicated that the responses of the respondents were not divergent
from one another in their responses. All the items listed were agreed upon.
74
Research Question 4
What are the problems encountered by the female undergraduates in their
choice of clothing?
The data for answering Research Question 4 are presented in table 4.
Table 4
Mean Responses of the Respondents on the Problems encountered by the
Female Undergraduates in their Choice of Clothing
N = 659
S/N
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
Item Statements
Finding the right size and style in ready to wear garment
Too many design
Not knowing how to identify and select good quality
clothing
Copying fashion blindly
Dress code restrict your clothing
Deciding and wearing the appropriate clothing
accessories
Cost items
Crave for foreign made clothing items
Major changes in size due to physical development
Deciding what to wear on each occasion
Deciding on the type of cloth to buy
Not being able to identify the fabric content of clothing
Lack of care labels on clothing items
Not reading and following care instructions and
directions on labels
Lack of knowledge of fabric construction process and
finishes
Verbal rebuke from my parent, other women or people
Humiliation by male students and lecturers
My skirt used to roll up while sitting down in class
Sexual harassment by male students
My tight skirt restricts free movement during lectures
Mockery and insults from people on the campus, street
or market
My skirt slit suddenly tore at the back
Mean
3.87
3.58
S.D
0.88
0.78
Remark
Agree
Agree
3.82
3.66
3.69
3.81
0.95
0.66
0.89
0.86
Agree
Agree
Agree
Agree
3.88
3.67
3.73
3.81
3.59
3.79
3.85
3.80
0.89
0.91
0.73
0.85
0.76
0.80
0.79
0.79
Agree
Agree
Agree
Agree
Agree
Agree
Agree
Agree
3.67
0.83
Agree
3.55
3.59
3.65
3.82
3.78
3.90
0.81
0.79
0.88
0.86
0.77
0.99
Agree
Agree
Agree
Agree
Agree
Agree
3.67
0.94
Agree
75
Data presented in Table 4 on problems encounter indicated that the female
undergraduates agreed on all the 16 items. The problem attracted high Mean
responses from the respondents based on the criterion Mean 3.50.
Research Question 5
What are the ways of solving the problems encountered by female
undergraduates towards clothing themselves?
The data for answering Research Question 5 are presented in Table 5.
Table 5
Mean Responses of the Respondents on the Ways of Solving the Problems
encountered by Female Undergraduates towards Clothing themselves.
S/N
Item Statements
1
Length and size of clothes should be appropriate
for the student’s size and height.
2
Clothes should not be too tight to reveal the
contours of the body.
3
Clothes should be free enough to allow for
movement during school work, practical lessons
as well as free circulation of blood.
4
Clothes should suit individual’s colour tone.
5
Wear clothes that will present good impression
and image of the person.
6
Wear appropriate clothes for body figure.
7
Clothes should be suitable for students personal
characteristics.
8
Wear suitable clothes for the mental, moral,
emotional and psychological characteristics.
9
Wear appropriate clothes for a given activities
10
Clothes should suit the type of the occasion one
set out for.
11
Engage in home sewing
12
Availability of pattern
13
Buying multipurpose clothing items
Mean
S.D
Remarks
3.90
0.81
Agree
3.59
0.94
Agree
3.82
3.96
0.85
0.80
Agree
Agree
3.63
3.74
0.92
0.86
Agree
Agree
3.99
0.89
Agree
3.78
3.79
0.79
0.73
Agree
Agree
3.70
3.54
3.72
3.86
0.85
0.88
0.69
0.89
Agree
Agree
Agree
Agree
76
The data presented in Table 5 showed that the respondents accepted all the
items based on the average accepted Mean.
Testing of Hypotheses
Hypothesis 1
There is no significant difference in the Mean responses of female
undergraduate students in Federal, State and Private Universities on the motivating
factors underlying the selection and wearing of clothing.
Table 6
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) of the Mean Response of the Respondents on
the Motivating Factors Underlying the Selection and Wearing of Clothing
Sources of Sum of Df
Mean
F-cal
F-tab
Remarks
Variance
Squares
Square
Between
5.202
2
2.601
2.137
3.00
NS
Group
Within
798.114 656
1.217
Group
Total
803.316 685
P
=
0.05
SG
=
Significance
NS
=
Significant
The result in Table 6 indicated that calculated F-value = 2.137 was less than
the Table F ratio 3.00 and 0.05 level of significance and degree of freedom 2 and
656. This indicated that there was no significance difference in the Mean
responses of female undergraduate students in Federal, State and Private
Universities on the motivating factors underlying the selection and wearing of
clothing. Therefore, the null hypothesis of no significant difference in the Mean
77
responses of female undergraduate students in Federal, State and Private
Universities on the motivating factors underlying the selection and wearing of
clothing was upheld.
Hypothesis 2
There is no significant difference in the Mean response of female students
in Federal, State and Private Universities on the guidelines for wearing clothing
items.
Table 7
Analysis of Variance (ANOVA) of the Mean Response of the Respondents on
the Guidelines for Wearing Clothing Items
Sources of
Variance
Between
Group
Within
Group
Total
Sum of Df
Squares
4.207
2
Mean
Square
2.103
788.576
656
1.202
792.283
658
F-cal
F-tab
Remarks
1.749
3.00
NS
The result in Table 7 indicated that calculated F-value 1.749 was less than
the Table F ratio of 3.00 at 0.05 level of significance and degree of freedom 2 and
656. This indicated that there was no significant difference in the Mean responses
of female undergraduate students in Federal, State and Private Universities on the
guideline for wearing clothing items. Therefore, the null hypothesis of no
significant in the Mean response of female undergraduate students in Federal,
State and Private Universities on the guidelines for wearing clothing items was
upheld.
78
Findings of the Study
The following findings emerged from the study:
A.
The following are the Motivating Factors Underlying the Selection and
Wearing of Clothing by Female Undergraduates in Universities in
Benue State
1.
Internal factors
2.
Life style
3.
Personality characteristic
4.
Age bracket
5.
Value
6.
Figure
7.
Body colour and figure
8.
The cost of the clothes
9.
Friends clothes and styles
10.
Clothing items in vogue
11.
The reigning style on campus
12.
Our cultural dress styles
13.
Clothes worn by TV stars
14.
Fashion in the catalogue, magazine or newspapers
15.
Fashion/style displayed in houses
16.
The activities of occasion
17.
Fashion show (modeling)
79
B.
The following are the types of Clothing Items that are Selected and
Worn by Female Undergraduates in Benue State:
1.
Short skirt, blouses and gowns
2.
Very tight trousers./ Jeans with very short blouses
3.
Hot pants/leggings and tights strap/Spagathetti and sleeveless top and
gown.
4.
Long narrow skirts, or short skirts with very long slits at center back, front
or side.
5.
Body hug (clinging), clothes
6.
Well-fitted tailored suit – skirts and blouses with length below kneel level.
7.
Three quarter gored skirts (2, 4, 6, or 8 pieces skirt)
8.
Flared skirts, blouses or gowns
9.
Blouses and gowns with high neck line
10.
Blouse and gown with very low neck lines
11.
Clothes with cutouts or revealing holes, or show your breast and show back
blouses gown.
12.
Traditional wears such as buboos, long skirts and blouses with head ties.
13.
Fashion/styles displayed in houses
14.
The activities of occasion
15.
Fashion show (modeling)
16.
Well fitted tailored suit-short/long sleeves shirt and trouser
80
C.
The following are the Guidelines for Wearing Clothing Items by
Female Undergraduates in the Universities in Benue State:
1.
Comfort and confidence
2.
Befitting to body type
3.
Personality
4.
Posture
5.
Well pressed
6.
Right size
7.
Appropriateness
8.
Grooming
9.
Self image
10.
Money available
11.
Peer group pressure
12.
Weather
13.
Complexion
14.
Activity or work
15.
Wash ability
16.
Clothing and relationship
17.
Figure
D.
The following are the Problems encountered by the Female
Undergraduate in their Choice of Clothing:
1.
Finding the right size and style in ready to wear garment
81
2.
Too many design
3.
Not knowing how to identify and select good quality clothing
4.
Copying fashion blindly
5.
Dress code restrict your clothing
6.
Deciding and clothing the appropriate accessories
7.
Cost items
8.
Crave for foreign made clothing items
9.
Major changes in size due to physical development
10.
Deciding what to wear on each occasion
11.
Deciding on the type of cloth to buy
12.
Not being able to identify the fabric content of clothing
13.
Lack of care labels on clothing items
14.
Not reading the following care instructions and directions on labels
15.
Lack of knowledge of fabric construction process and finishes
16.
Verbal rebuke from my parent, other women or people
17.
Humiliation by male students and lecturers
18.
My skirt used to roll up while sitting down in class
19.
Sexual harassment by male students
20.
My tight skirt restricts free movement during lectures
21.
Mockery and insults from people on the campus, streets and market
22.
My skirt slit suddenly tore at the back
82
E.
The following are the Ways of Solving the Problems encountered by
Female Undergraduates towards Clothing themselves:
1.
Length and size of clothes should be appropriate for the student size and
height
2.
Clothes should not be too tight to reveal the contours of the body
3.
Clothes should be free enough to allow for movement during school work,
practical lessons as well as free circulation of blood.
4.
Clothes should suit individual’s colour tone.
5.
Wear clothes that will present good impression and image of the person.
6.
Wear appropriate clothes for body figure.
7.
Clothes should be suitable for students personal characteristics.
8.
Wear suitable clothes for the mental, moral, emotional and psychological
characteristics.
9.
Wear appropriate clothes for a given activities
10.
Clothes should suit the type of the occasion one set out for.
11.
Engage in home sewing
12.
Availability of pattern
13.
Buying multipurpose clothing items
There was no significant difference in the Mean responses of female
undergraduate students in Federal, State and Private Universities on the motivating
factors underlying the selection and wearing of clothing.
83
There was no significant difference in the Mean response of female
students in Federal, State and Private Universities on the guidelines for wearing
clothing items.
Discussion of Findings
The findings of the study revealed that 15 motivating factors underlying the
selection and wearing of clothing by female undergraduates in universities in
Benue State. These motivating factors include: Life style, Personality
characteristic, Age bracket, My value, Body colour and figure, The cost of the
clothes, Friends clothes and style, Clothing items in vogue, The reigning style on
campus, Fashion in the catalogue, magazine or news paper, Fashion/styles
displayed in house, The activities of occasion, Fashion show (modeling) and
cultural dress style. These finding were in agreement with the opinion of
Vanderhoff (1989) who attributes clothing motivations and behaviour to one’s
lifestyles, occupation, community standards, values and climatic conditions. The
author added that university female undergraduates are prone to exhibiting such
variables. These findings were also in line with the opinion of Johnson and Foster
(1990) that clothing motivation is also used as a symbol for expression of ideas,
thoughts or opinion. Vanderhoff (1988) also confirmed that clothing as a
nonverbal communicator motivates the wearer to be observed by the observer who
they are and the observer from impression of the wearer based on their clothing
symbols.
84
The findings of this study revealed 16 types of clothing items that are
selected and worn by female undergraduates in universities in Benue State. These
clothes include: short skirts, blouses and gowns, very high trousers/jeans with very
short blouses, hot pants/leggings and tights strap/spagathetti and sleeveless top and
gown, long narrow skirts, or short skirts with very long slits at centre back, front
or side, body hug (clinging), clothes, well-fitted tailored suit-skirts and blouses
with length below kneel level, three quarter gored skirts (2, 4, 6, or 8 pieces skirt),
flared skirts, blouses or gowns blouses and gowns with high neckline, blouse and
gown with very low necklines, clothes with cutouts or revealing holes, or show
you breast and show back blouses gown, traditional wears such as buboos, long
skirts and blouses with head ties and fashion/styles displayed in houses. These
findings were in consonance with the opinion of Onoyima (2003) who emphasized
that female students like wearing short skirt, blouse, and gowns, very tight
trousers/jeans
with
very
short
blouses,
hot
pants/leggings
and
tights
strap/spagathetti and sleeveless top and gown. The author is seriously against the
type of dressing and warns students or individuals not to wear any of such clothes
in the society except on stages as customs. Some individuals and students who
dress irresponsibly use it as a tool for seduction, it is quite unfortunate that some
people who do this are innocent but do that just to join the bandwagon without
knowing the implication.
The findings of this study revealed 18 guideline for wearing clothing items
by female undergraduates in the universities in Benue state. The guidelines include
85
comfort and confidence, befitting to body type, personality, posture, right size,
appropriateness, grooming, self image and money available. The findings were in
agreement with the opinion of Marshal (2000) that befitting to body type and
personality of individuals are guideline for wearing clothing items by females.
The findings of this study revealed 22 problems encountered by the female
undergraduates in their choice of clothing. The problem include finding the right
size and style in ready to wear garment, too many designs, not knowing how to
identify and select good quality clothing, copying fashion blindly, dress code
restrict your clothing, deciding and the appropriate clothing accessories, cost item,
crave for foreign made clothing items, major changes in size due to physical
development, deciding what to wear on each occasion, deciding on the type of
cloth to buy, not being able to identify the fabric content of clothing, lack of care
labels. These finding were in line with the opinion of Weber (1990) that cost
items, crave for foreign made clothing items, major change in size due to physical
development, deciding what to wear on each occasion constitute a problem choice
of clothing by individuals. Similarly offer, (2002) lamented that problem that
accompanies the issue of indecent dressing (sex dress) is the case of not only rapes
which have become a day to day phenomenon in our society, but hampered socioethical standard in the society.
The finding of this study revealed 13 ways of solving the problems
encountered by female undergraduates towards clothing themselves. The solution
include appropriate length and size of clothes for the students size and height
86
clothes should not be too tight to reveal the contours of body, clothes should be
free enough to allow for movement during school work, practical lessons as well
as free circulation of blood, clothes should suit individual’s colour tone, wear
clothes that will present good impression and image of the person always, wear
appropriate clothes for body figure, clothes should be suitable for students
personal characteristics, wear suitable clothes for the mental, moral, emotional
and psychological characteristics, wear appropriate clothes for a given activities
and clothes should suit the type of occasion one set out for. These findings were in
agreement with the opinion of Nethery and smith (1988) who stated for the female
undergraduate to present good visual image; they must conform to the clothing
norms and code acceptable by the society. Also the findings were in line with the
opinion of Anyakoha and Eluwa (1991) that in enhancing clothing practices of the
female undergraduates, the choice of clothing made should suit the occasion or
activities which it is used.
There was no significant difference in the mean responses of female
undergraduate students in federal, state and private universities on the motivating
factors underlying the selection and wearing of clothing. The implication of the
finding is that the respondents are of the same opinion on each motivating factors
underling the selection and wearing of clothing.
87
There was no significant difference in the mean responses of female
students in federal, state and private universities on the guidelines for wearing
clothing item. The implication of the finding is that the respondents are of the
same opinion on each guideline for wearing clothing items.
88
CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY, CONCLUSION AND RECOMMENDATIONS
This chapter presents a summary of the statement of the problem, the major
findings. Conclusion based on the findings, the implication of the study,
recommendations and suggestions for further studies.
Restatement of Problem
The style and patterns of dressing are largely determined by variables like
groups dynamics cum peer relationship, weather event, ethical dressing code (e.g.
law and medical student) etc. despite these and other variable, certain type of
dressing by the ladies in particular tend to have disastrous effect on their male
counterparts, lecturers, and the society hence negative motives may be developed
generally through cursory looking.
Beside, most of the attitude and behaviour towards dressing, at time by the
female student does not conform to moral standard thereby, debasing the human
value, norm and standards. As a result, the cherished cultural norms and values are
highly abused and relegated to the background. According to Best (2002), the
negative trend in dressing is an indication of poor parental upbringing, low level of
cultural and religious values and practices.
In Nigeria universities, there are no established school uniforms or dressing
codes guiding students clothing on university campuses. Besides, there are
presently no basic clothing education for the undergraduates in Nigeria tertiary
89
institutions. Students are left to wear whatever clothing they chose because they
are expected to be adult. They are often predisposed to various forms of clothing
norms and practices.
This has in some cases led to orientation programmes for students on
clothing norms. From indication many undergraduates especially the girls
ignorantly copy and wear indecent, reckless and provocative clothing meant for
commercial sex hawkers (Olufuwa in Bimbo, 1997). Studies by Kim and Jone
(1990), showed that provocative, erotic or sexual attractive clothing induce sexual
harassment and disciplinary problem in schools. There is also significant
associated between dressing in costumes and drinking of alcohol, smoking
marijuana and take of other drugs by college students (Millers, 1993).
Some of the deviant behaviour cases reported in Nigeria Universities such
as sexual harassment, rape, ill-health examination malpractices etc have sometime
been attributed to the type of clothing selected, worn by the undergraduates
(Adelena, 2002 & Bakut, 1997). It therefore becomes questionable whether the
female undergraduates of Nigeria universities are actually aware that the
individuals clothing motivations and behaviours could affect the wearer in various
ways. This is a problem. It thus becomes necessary to investigate the clothing
motivations and behaviours of undergraduate in Universities in Benue state.
Specifically the study examined:
1.
The motivating factors underlying the selection and wearing of clothing by
female undergraduates in Universities in Benue state.
90
2.
The type of clothing items selected/worn by the female undergraduates in
universities in Benue state.
3.
Guideline for wearing clothing items by the female undergraduates in
Benue state.
4.
The problems that are encountered by the female undergraduates in their
clothing selection and wearing.
5.
The ways of solving problems encountered by undergraduates in clothing
themselves.
Summary of Procedures Used
The study was a survey research design. The population of the study
consisted of 6619 respondents which include 2147 female undergraduates in
federal university of Agriculture, 3472 female undergraduate in Benue state
university and 1000 female undergraduate in NKST University Gboko. From the
entire population. 659 female undergraduates were obtained through proportionate
stratified sampling technique. A questionnaire consisting of 87 items was
developed and used for data collection.
The questionnaire was face validated by three lecturers from Department of
Vocational Teacher Education, University of Nigeria, Nsukka. In order to ensure
that the right instrument is used for the collection of data, each of the validates was
served with a copy of the instrument and was requested to identity ambiguities and
proffer suggestion for improving the instrument towards meeting the objective of
the study. The experts’ suggestions were incorporated into the final draft of the
91
instrument. Cronbach alpha method was used to estimate the reliability coefficient.
A total of 659 copies of the questionnaire were administered on the respondents in
their universities by the researcher and with the aid of three trained research
assistants. The completed copies of the questionnaires were collected analyzed
using mean for answering the five research questions while analysis of variance
(ANOVA) was used to test two null hypotheses at 0.05 level of significance.
Principle Findings of the study
Based on data collected and analyzed, the following major findings were
made:
1.
Fifteen motivating factors
underlying the selection
and wearing of
clothing by female undergraduates in universities in Benue State were
identified
2.
Nineteen types of clothing items were selected
and worn by female
undergraduates in universities in Benue State
3.
Eighteen guidelines for wearing clothing items by female undergraduates in
the universities of Benue State were determined
4.
Twenty two problems were encountered by female undergraduates in their
choice of clothing
5.
Thirteen ways of solving the problems encountered by female
undergraduates towards clothing themselves were identified
92
Conclusion
Based on the findings of this study, the following conclusions are dawn:
The styles and patterns of dressing are largely determined by variables like
groups dynamics cum peer group relationship, weather, event, ethical dressing
code etc. despite these and other variable, certain type of dressing by female
undergraduates in particular tent to have disastrous effect on their male
counterparts, lecturers, and the society hence negative motives may be developed
generally through cursory looking. Besides most of the attitude and behaviour
towards dressing, at times by the female undergraduate students does not conform
to moral standard thereby, debasing the human value, norm and standards. As a
result, the cherished cultural norms and values are highly abused and relegated to
the background. They are often predisposed to various forms of clothing norms
and practices. Many female undergraduate ignorantly copy and wear indecent,
reckless and provocative clothing meant for commercial sex hawkers. This also
indicated provocative, erotic or sexual attractive clothing induce sexual
harassment and disciplinary problem in universities. There are motivating factors
underlying the selection and wearing of clothing by female undergraduates in
universities in Benue State. Types of clothing items selected and worn by female
undergraduates in universities are indecent. There are some guidelines for wearing
clothing
items
by
female
undergraduates
in
the
universities.
Female
undergraduates undergone some problems in their choice of clothing and some
solutions were prescribed.
93
Implications of the Study
This study has some implications for universities administrations, religious
institutions, Home Economics lecturers and the female students. From the result of
the study it implies that: administration of each university will device means of
reducing indecent dressing among undergraduate female students. It could be by
making law or policy against indecent dressing or organizing public talks within
university community. Churches and Mosques within university communities or
where each university is sited will be forced to preach against indecent dressing
among female students. The study also has implication for lecturers of Home
Economics as they will be encouraged to write textbooks, pamphlets or handbooks
on dressing codes for university female students.
Recommendations
The following recommendations were made based on the finding of the
study;
1.
The university administrations should incorporate element of good clothing
worn into the orientation programmes of the first year undergraduates.
2.
Good clothing for females should be incorporated into the programme of
Nigerian universities as compulsory course to be taken by female
undergraduates.
3.
Disciplinary committee should be established or set up in each university to
look into issues of indecent dressing among female undergraduates.
94
4.
There should be enlightenment programmes on television or radio by
nongovernmental
organization
(NGOs),
religious
bodies
or
even
individuals on good dressing and consequences of indecent among youths.
5.
Clothing motivations and behaviour should form the focus of some
conferences, workshops or seminars organized by women organization
such as religious women and NGOs.
6.
Home economics lecturers in Nigerian universities should develop the
orientation and awareness programme that will embodies guidelines for
wearing clothing items by female undergraduates in the universities.
Suggestions for Further Research
The following topics are suggested for further studies:
1.
Similar studies should be conducted in each state of the federation where
the study had not been done
2.
Development of clothing education package for female undergraduate
students in Nigerian tertiary institutions
3.
A comparative study of clothing motivations and behaviour of female
undergraduate students in the universities in Benue State.
95
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APPENDIX A
LETTER TO THE RESPONDENTS
Dear Respondents,
This study is an attempt to investigate into: Clothing Motivations and
Behaviour of female undergraduates in Universities in Benue State in partial
fulfillment for the award of Masters Degree in Education by the School of Post
Graduate Studies of University of Nigeria Nsukka, your university has been
selected to be one of those Universities under study. As an undergraduate your
sincere response is needed for the purpose of this study. All responses will be
treated confidentially.
Thanks in anticipation.
Yours sincerely,
Ejila, Esther E.
PG/M.Ed/03/34909
100
APPENDIX B
QUESTIONNAIRE
SECTION A: PERSONAL DATA
1.
Age:
15-19
2.
20 – 25
26 – 30
31 years and above
Name of University: ________________________________________
_________________________________________________________
3.
Level of school:
a. One hundred level
b. Two hundred level
c. Three hundred level
d. Four hundred level
101
SECTION B
S/N
Internal factor
1
Life style
2
Personality characteristics
3
Age
4
Value
5
Body colour
6
Figure type
External factor
1
The cost of the clothes
2
Friends clothes and styles
3
Clothing items in vogue
4
Culture
5
TV Stars
6
Fashion in the catalogue, magazine or newspaper
7
Fashion/styles displayed in houses
8
The activities or occasion for which clothes are used
9
Fashion shows (modeling)
10
Others Please specify
Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Undecided
The following are factors underlying selection
and wearing of clothes:
Strongly
Agree
Agree
What are the motivating factors underlying your selection and Wearing of
Clothes?
102
SECTION C
1
Short skirts, blouses and gowns
2
Very tight trousers./ Jeans with very short blouse
3
Hot pants/Leggings and Tight strap/ Spagathetti and
sleeveless top and gown.
Long narrow skirts. Or short skirts with very long
slits at center back, front or side.
4
5
Body hug (clinging), clothes
6
Well-fitted tailored suit –skirts and blouses with
length below kneel level.
7
Three quarter gored skirts (2,4,6, or 8 pieces skirt)
8
Flared skirts, blouses or gowns
9
Blouses and gown with high neckline
10
Blouse and gown with very low neck lines
11
Clothes with cutouts or revealing holes, or show you
breast and show back blouses gown
Tradition wears such as buboos, long skirts and
blouse with head ties
Well fitted tailored suit-short, long sleeves shirt and
trouser
Patched jeans trousers or jeans short knickers with
loose edges sleeves vest with low neckline.
Traditional wears such as jumper and trouser
short/long sleeves shirts with head tier/caps
12
13
14
15
16
Bare shoulder blouses with low revealing neckline
Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
The following are types of clothes and styles worn
by female undergraduates:
Strongly
Agree
Agree
SN
Undecided
Which type of clothes and style do you like to wear?
103
1
Comfort and confidence
2
Befitting to body type (fit)
3
Personality
4
Posture
5
Well pressed
6
Right size
7
Appropriateness
8
Grooming
9
Self image
10
Money available
11
Quality of fabric
12
Peer group pressure
13
Weather
14
Complexion
15
Activity or work
16
Wash ability
17
Clothing and relationship
18
Figure
Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Undecided
The following are guidelines for wearing clothing
items by female undergraduates:
Strongly
Agree
Agree
SECTION D
What are the guidelines for wearing clothing items by the female
undergraduates?
S/N
104
1
2
3
Finding the right size and style in ready to wear
garments
Too many design
4
Not knowing how to identify and select good quality
clothing
Copying fashion blindly
5
Dress code restrict your clothing
6
7
Deciding and clothing the appropriate clothing
accessories
Cost items
8
Crave for foreign made clothing items
9
Major changes in size due to physical development
10
Deciding what to wear on each occasion
11
Deciding on the type of clothes to buy
12
Not being able to identify the fabric content of
clothing
Lack of care labels on clothing items
13
14
16
Not reading and following care instructions and
directions on labels
Lack of knowledge of fabric construction process
and finishes
Habits and attitudes
17
Others please specify
15
Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
The following are problems encountered in
selecting and wearing clothing:
Undecided
S/N
Strongly
Agree
Agree
SECTION E
What are the problems you encountered in selection and wearing of clothing?
105
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
Length and size of clothes should be appropriate for
the students size and height.
Clothes should not be too tight to reveal the contours
of the body.
Cloths should be free enough to allow for movement
during school work, practical lessons as well as free
circulation of blood.
Clothes should suit individual’s colour tone.
Clothes should present good impression and image
of the person they represent
Clothes should be appropriate for the body figure.
11
Clothes should be suitable for students personal
characteristics.
Clothes should be suitable for the mental, moral,
emotional and psychological characteristics of the
wearer.
Clothes should suit the type of activities or work one
does
Clothes should suit the type of the occasion one set
out for.
Engaging in home sewing
12
Availability of pattern
13
Others Please specify
8
9
10
Disagree
Strongly
Disagree
Undecided
Strongly
Agree
Agree
SECTION F
Ways of solving problems encountered by female undergraduates in clothing
themselves.
S/N
The following are ways of solving problems
encountered by female undergraduates in
clothing themselves: