Emu 116(2), 100–110
doi: 10.1071/MU15045_AC
© BirdLife Australia 2016
Supplementary material
Shorebirds along the Yellow Sea coast of China face an uncertain future – a review of
threats
David S. MelvilleA,C, Ying ChenB and Zhijun MaB
A
1261 Dovedale Road, RD 2 Wakefield, Nelson 7096, New Zealand.
B
Ministry of Education Key Laboratory for Biodiversity Science and Ecological Engineering, Institute
of Biodiversity Science, Fudan University, Shanghai 200438, China.
C
Corresponding author. Email: [email protected]
Page 1 of 53 The Yellow Sea coast
Fig. S1. The Yellow Sea. This image, taken on 8 October 1997, shows the influence of sediment discharge from
the Yellow and Yangtze Rivers on China’s Yellow Sea coast. The radiating banks of the Dongsha Shoals,
central coast of Jiangsu Province, mark where the Yellow River discharged before it changed course in 1855.
(Image provided by the SeaWiFS Project, NASA/Goddard Space Flight Center and ORBIMAGE,
http://eoimages.gsfc.nasa.gov/images/imagerecords/52000/52494/S1997281035430.png, accessed 5 January
2016.)
Page 2 of 53 Vegetation of the Yellow Sea coast
Fig. S2. Hypersaline flats vegetated with Suaeda sp., Laizhou Bay, Shandong Province, 2013. It is
likely that much of the Yellow Sea coast was like this before major land claim projects started.
(Photo: D. S. Melville.)
Page 3 of 53 Fig. S3. Fishermen drying their nets on saltmarsh, Yancheng National Nature Reserve, Jiangsu Province, 1993.
Note the low height of the vegetation right to the edge of the saltmarsh, which included some small areas of
low-growing Common Cordgrass (Spartina anglica). (Photo: D. S. Melville.)
Page 4 of 53 Fig. S4. (a) A high-zoned flat vegetated with Suaeda salsa, Yancheng National Nature Reserve, Jiangsu
Province, 1993. Note the open nature of the habitat and the Saunders’ Gull (Larus saundersi) nest in the
foreground. (b) Smooth Cordgrass (Spartina alterniflora) growing at Chongming Dongtan National Nature
Reserve, Shanghai, 2013. The person stands 1.83 m tall. (Photos: D. S. Melville.)
(a)
(b)
The original saltmarsh vegetation around China’s Yellow Sea coast was probably largely Suaeda
spp. but would also have included Artemisia, Limonium, Salicornia and Nitraria and, around river
mouths, Scirpus, as well as grasses such as Zoysia macrostachya, Aeluropus sinensis and Imperata
cylindrica. Wang (1983) noted that the zone of Suaeda flats on the northern Jiangsu coast was 4–5 km
wide. In 1993 outside the seawall at Yancheng there was still at least 1 km of Suaeda flat that
extended to the barren tidal flats (D. S. Melville, personal observation). Some Suaeda flats remain,
but they are now separated from the tidal flats by several kilometres of exotic Smooth Cordgrass
(Spartina alterniflora) (Li et al. 2010; Zhang et al. 2011). Spartina alterniflora now covers hundreds
of square kilometres of the coast of Jiangsu Province, and is spreading around the Bohai. Growing >2m tall it makes intertidal areas totally unsuitable for shorebirds.
A large eradication project at Chongming Dongtan National Nature Reserve, Shanghai has
impounded ~25 km2 of Smooth Cordgrass marsh with a seawall and the plants are being killed by
cutting and flooding. However, it will not be possible to re-establish tidal flats as the sediment
elevation is now too high, so the area will be managed as a non-tidal brackish wetland. Limited trials
using herbicides (broad-spectrum glyphosate and the grass-selective haloxyfop) have been started at
Page 5 of 53 several sites, including Chongming Dongtan, by both shellfishers and the management of the nature
reserve; initial results are very encouraging, with good killing rates, but recolonisation is a continuing
problem (D. S. Melville, unpubl. data).
Spartina appears not yet to be present on the Korean Peninsula and it is important that it does not
become established if the remaining tidal flats, especially in North Korea, are to remain accessible to
shorebirds. Eradication in the Bohai is probably achievable by ground spraying, whereas in Jiangsu
Province, aerial spraying may be required owing to the very large areas. However, current land claim
in Jiangsu Province means that on some areas of coast Spartina is now absent, seawalls having
extended beyond the immersion depth that the plant will tolerate.
Zostera spp. occurs on some open tidal flats in Liaoning Province and around the Bohai (Guo et al.
2010) but seagrasses have been little studied in China (Shi et al. 2010a), and their potential
significance to shorebirds is not known. Seagrass beds are threatened as a result of developments in
the coastal zone and Zostera apparently has disappeared from Yalujiang National Nature Reserve,
Liaoning Province (D. S. Melville, unpubl. obs.) and at least parts of the Yellow River Delta,
Shandong Province (Soissons 2013).
Coastal development policies
In 1988, Chinese leader Deng Xiaoping stated:
The coastal areas, which comprise a vast region with a population of 200 millions, should accelerate
opening-up to the outside world and develop rapidly first so as to bring along the development of the
interior areas afterwards. The development of the coastal areas is of overriding importance, and the
interior areas should subordinate themselves to it. When the coastal areas have developed to a certain
extent, they will be required to give more help to the interior areas. (Tian 2001)
This statement laid the foundation for the dramatic coastal development that has occurred over the
past 25 years. Li (2006) notes that:
since there was no standard and effective management system for sea-use activities at the time these
developments arose, there was a rise in the disorderly, excessive and free use of the sea and intense use
conflicts (later referred to as the ‘three no’s’ namely ‘no order’ in marine development, ‘no control’ on
the extent of marine development and ‘no fee’ paid for any sea-use activity). As a result of this, the
marine resource base was seriously abused, marine environmental quality deteriorated, and the
property rights of the State and the legitimate rights of investors were not properly protected.
The Law on the Management of Sea Use entered into effect on 1 January 2002. Under this
legislation, land-use applications are to be approved by either provincial or central government.
Chapter III Application for, and Examination and Approval of, the Use of Sea Areas
Article 18. Use of sea areas for the following projects shall be subject to examination and approval by
the State Council:
1. a project that involves filling more than 50 ha of sea area;
Page 6 of 53 2. a project that involves enclosure of more than 100 ha of sea area;
3. a project that involves the use of more than 700 ha of sea area without altering the natural
attributes of the area;
4. major national construction projects; and
5. other projects specified by the State Council.
The authority for examination and approval of the use of sea areas for projects other than those
specified in the preceding paragraph shall, with the authorization of the State Council, be defined by
the people’s governments of provinces, autonomous regions and municipalities directly under the
Central Government.
Changes to laws governing land tenure and use have allowed local governments to sell land-use
rights and retain 60–70% of the revenue, providing a major source of income for local government,
but these changes have also resulted in an oversupply of land, with only ~2% of land in development
districts fully developed (Ding 2003). These factors have further contributed to the growth in
extensive land claim in tidal areas. Meanwhile, the issue of ownership of intertidal areas remains
complex. The Chinese constitution states (Article 9) that beaches are ‘owned by the State, that is, by
the whole people, with the exception of … beaches owned by collectives in accordance with the law’
(Anon. 2015a), and provisions for land-use for aquaculture give little security to promote sustainable
management (Liu 2007). Furthermore, administrative oversight of activities in the intertidal is highly
fragmented among many different agencies, often with competing interest (Ma et al. 2014) and
national and provincial regulations are often contradictory and promote reclamation (Hua 2014).
Table S1. Areas proposed for land claim and those approved by the Chinese State Council to
2020 (after Wang et al. 2014)
Region
Liaoning Province
Hebei Province
Tianjin Municipality
Shandong Province
Jiangsu Province
Shanghai Municipality
Period in which claim
planned
Area planned for claim
(km2)
–
2005–20
2006–20
2009–20
2009–20
2011–20
–
452
215
520
1800
400
Page 7 of 53 Area claimed and
planned for claim
(2011–20) and approved
by State Council (km2)
253
149.5
92
345
264.5
23
Fig. S5. This sign, erected by the Forest Bureau of Yingkou City, Liaoning Province, states ‘Protect wetland,
Protect birds’; ~200 m along the seawall a new pond is being constructed on the tidal flats, almost certainly
illegally. (Photo: D. S. Melville.)
Land claim
Currently many land claims are done using a core of geo-textile tubes that are pumped full of
slurry, allowed to consolidate on site, and then are covered by rock or concrete (Beemsterboer et al.
2012). This is a very rapid method of reclamation (e.g. ~20 km of geotextile tube seawall was
constructed at Chongming Dongtan, Shanghai, in c. 2.5 months in 2013).
The Code for Design of Sea Dike Project was issued by the Central Government in 2008, before
which local governments were largely responsible for setting standards (Xie et al. 2010). Along some
parts of the coast, seawalls are in a poor state of repair and will require strengthening, increases in
height or replacing, especially in response to land subsidence or rises in sea level. The risk is that
rather than simply remediating the existing walls it will be decided to build new walls further
offshore, thus complying with the design standard but at the cost of further loss of intertidal habitat.
Tidal energy budgets are affected by tidal flats, which both store and dissipate tidal energy. The
narrowing of the intertidal and shallow subtidal zones through land claim reduces hydraulic drag and
thereby increases the energy reaching the coast, with potential for damage to seawalls and other
infrastructure. Furthermore, although land claim may affect tidal range locally, modelling suggests
that land claim along the Jiangsu coast may affect the western coast of the Korean Peninsula and vice
versa (Song et al. 2013). As there is large-scale land claim taking place on the Chinese and South
Korean coasts of the Yellow Sea, increased tidal energy can be expected, with potential effects on
Page 8 of 53 patterns of sediment deposition and erosion. Already there is evidence that land claim has resulted in
an increase in sea level, especially in the Bohai (Bi et al. 2013).
Land subsidence is also a major problem around much of the Yellow Sea coast (Table S3). One
study of part of the Yellow River Delta reports land levels dropping by 250 mm per annum (p.a.)
(Higgins et al. 2013).
Fig. S6. (a–b) Bar-tailed Godwits (Limosa lapponica) roosting on an active dredge-dumping site. The material
was being excavated from a channel to improve access to the Donggang Fishing Port, Liaoning Province. (c–d)
The infilled area is planned to be part of an industrial park to be built on an area of intertidal mudflat that was
excised from the Yalujiang National Nature Reserve by a boundary adjustment in 2012 (see Fig. S39). (Photos:
D. S. Melville.)
(a)
(c)
(b)
(d)
Page 9 of 53 Fig. S7. Geotextile tube seawall, Rudong, Jiangsu Province, 2013. (Photos: D. S. Melville.)
Fig. S8. Seawall construction techniques vary greatly along the Yellow Sea coast. (a) Geotextile tube,
Yancheng, Jiangsu Province, 2013. The tube has not been covered and the fabric is decaying. There is an area of
Spartina at the top of the beach, which may reduce wave action. Note the power station in the background; this
area was formerly within the Yancheng National Nature Reserve but was excised. (b) Rock-faced earthen
seawall, Liaoning Province. An additional wall of rock has been placed on top of the dyke to increase the height.
Coastal land subsidence is widespread, especially around the Bohai coast, and together with sea-level rise and
increased storm surges there is a growing need to raise the height of seawalls on many parts of the coast. (c, d)
Structures for dissipating wave energy. (Photos: D. S. Melville.)
(a)
(b)
Page 10 of 53 (c)
(d)
Table S2. Length of seawall in Yellow Sea provinces and municipalities (after Luo et al. 2015)
Length of coastline
(km)
Length of seawall (km)
Proportion of coastline
that is seawall (%)
Liaoning
Province
Hebei
Province
Tianjin
Municipality
Shandong
Province
Jiangsu
Province
Shanghai
Municipality
2178
487
155
3124
1039
167
1300
59.7
400
82.1
140
90.3
400
12.8
780
75.1
110
65.9
Table S3. Predicted rises in sea level and areas inundated for Yellow Sea coastal plains in 2050
(after Cai et al. 2009)
Region
Yellow River Delta
Western coastal
plain of Bohai
Northern Jiangsu
coastal plain
Yangtze River
Delta
Rate of increase in
sea level 1980s/90s
(mm per year)
Predicted rate of
increase in sea level
by 2050 (mm per
year)
Area potentially
subject to
inundation by 2050
(ha)
4.8
2.1
6.4–6.9
11.0–11.5
35–40
65–70
39 000
21 000
2.2
6.8–7.3
40–45
38 000–89 000
6.6
7.9–8.4
45–50
7000–11 000
Page 11 of 53 Predicted rise in sea
level by 2050 (cm)
Fig. S9. Aquaculture ponds (principally for production of sea cucumbers) at Jinzhou, Liaoning Province, 20
May 2015. On image: 1 – development of ponds has extended beyond the low-tide line; 2 – land claim for
Jinzhou Port; 3 – ponds have been developed on tidal flats adjacent to the Shaungatizihekou National Nature
Reserve. (Landsat image: US Geological Survey, http://landsatlook.usgs.gov/viewer.html, accessed 19 July
2015).
Port development
Port development is taking place along much of the Yellow Sea and Bohai coasts, often with
extensive reclamation far offshore.
Two major ports are being rapidly developed in southern Bohai Bay, ~20 km apart but,
importantly, in different provinces (Hebei and Shandong). They are being aggressively marketed by
their respective local governments, for example ‘Cangzhou’s great resource advantage is land, there
are … 307 sq.km. tidal flat and 1051 sq.km. shallow sea’ (Anon. 2015b). The Cangzhou port
development extends ~22 km from shore, that at Binzhou only ~15 km.
An indication of the scale of infrastructure development and other construction work across China
is demonstrated by the fact that China used more cement in the 3 years 2011–13 than the United
States did in the entire 20th Century (BBC 2015).
Page 12 of 53 Fig. S10. Port development can be rapid. Dandong Port (one of the points of Liaoning Province’s ‘Five Points,
One Line’ coastal development strategy), at the mouth of the Yalu River, on the border with North Korea,
extends ~10 km out to sea: (a) 21 November 2009; (b) 17 November 2013; (c) 31 May 2015. (Landsat images:
US Geological Survey, http://landsatlook.usgs.gov/viewer.html, accessed 16 July 2015).
(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig. S11. Billboard depicting Liaoning Province’s ‘Five Points, One Line’ coastal development strategy,
launched in 2007. This strategy will add ~600 km to the ~1800-km urban corridor linking Hangzhou Bay, in
Zhejiang Province, to Shenyang, in Liaoning Province, and promote large-scale port and industrial development
covering nearly 500 km2 (Song 2007). (Photo: D. S. Melville.)
Page 13 of 53 Fig. S12. Location of Cangzhou and Binzhou Ports in southern Bohai Bay. The white line shows the Zhangwei
Xin River, which is the boundary between Hebei (to the west) and Shandong (to the east) Provinces. (Landsat
image: US Geological Survey, http://landsatlook.usgs.gov/viewer.html, accessed 17 June 2015).
Page 14 of 53 Fig. S13. The ambitious reclamation plan for Jiangsu Province includes the development of the Dongsha Shoals,
in the former delta of the Yellow River. (a) Landsat image of Dongsha Shaols. (Image from US Geological
Survey, http://landsatlook.usgs.gov/viewer.html, accessed 25 June 2015). (b) Billboard on Jiangsu coast (March
2013) showing outline of proposed development of Dongsha Shoals. (Photo: D.S. Melville.)
(a)
(b)
Salt industry
China is the largest producer of salt in the world, yet is a net importer. Demand for brine, especially
for use in the chlor-alkali industry, which produces sodium hydroxide (caustic soda), chlorine and
hydrogen and which are in turn used in a wide variety of industries, such as manufacture of polyvinyl
chloride (PVC). Demand for salt is expected to grow at nearly 5% p.a. until 2018 (Roskill 2014). The
largest areas of salt production are around the Bohai (Table S4).
The chlor-alkali process formerly used a mercury cell for electrolysis, which resulted in emission of
mercury to the environment via air, water, other wastes and in the products themselves (Jiang et al.
2006), but other methods that do not require mercury are increasingly being adopted (Streets et al.
2005).
The Weifang Binhai Economic Development Zone, in Shandong Province, produces 2.5 × 106 t of
crude salt, 850 000 t of soda ash, 25 000 t of bromine, 20 000 t of potassium sulphate, and 60 000 t of
sodium chloride annually (Shandong Business 2015), whereas Jiangsu produces 2.34 × 106 t of crude
salt (Wang and Wall 2010).
Page 15 of 53 Commercial harvesting of brine shrimp and rotifers occurs in saltfarms in some areas (Dhert et al.
1997), the cysts in particular being an important resource for aquaculture, and there was a proposal to
introduce a new variety of Artemia to the Tanggu Saltworks, Hebei Province, to increase production
(Tackart and Sorgeloos 1991). The impact, if any, of such management activities on shorebirds is not
known.
The numbers of Curlew Sandpipers (Calidris ferruginea) at the Tangshan saltponds have increased
at a time when saltponds elsewhere in Tianjin and in Hebei Province have been lost to development.
Saltponds also support internationally important breeding populations of Kentish Plover (Charadrius
alexandrinus) (Que et al. 2015).
Table S4. Salt production (area under production and annual output) around the Yellow Sea
coast in 1999 (after Yuan et al. 2001)
Note that the areas under production and output will have changed since 1999; in particular, Tianjin
now has less area under production than given below (see Fig. S15) because the Tianjin EconomicTechnological Development Area was developed on former saltponds (Shi et al. 2010b)
Region
Liaoning Province
Hebei Province
Tianjin Municipality
Shandong Province
Jiangsu Province
Total area of salt pan
(×10 000 ha)
5.78
8.17
3.89
11.81
8.75
Area of salt pan under
production (×10 000 ha)
5.31
7.86
3.75
9.22
5.71
Page 16 of 53 Annual output (×10 000
t)
284.7
395.7
242.7
763.6
216.6
Fig. S14. Saltponds at Nanpu, Hebei Province. (Image from US Geological Survey,
http://landsatlook.usgs.gov/viewer.html, accessed 19 July 2015).
Fig. S15. Loss of saltpans at Tianjin and Tanggu, Hebei Province. More than 100 km2 of saltponds have been
lost since Barter et al. (2000) identified the international importance of this area for shorebirds. (a) Landsat
image 23 April 2000; the red line indicates saltpond areas subsequently lost to infilling; (b) Landsat image 19
May 2015. (Landsat images from US Geological Survey, http://landsatlook.usgs.gov/viewer.html, accessed 19
July 2015).
(a)
Page 17 of 53 (b)
Energy
Oil
Fig. S16. Oiled White-winged Scoter (Melanitta deglandi), Liaoning Province. (Photo: D. S. Melville.)
Oil and gas extraction facilities in the Bohai discharged 2.46 × 106 t of oily water and 540 000 t of
oil in 2000 (Li and Daler 2004). Small-scale leaks and spills of oil are not uncommon (CCICED
2010) and there have been occasional blow-outs and pipeline breaks that have resulted in extensive
oil-spills. A pipeline break in Dalian, Liaoning Province, in 2010 affected a sea area of 366 km2
(Anon. 2010), whereas a blow-out at the Pengli oilfield in 2011 affected a sea area of 5500 km2 and
seriously contaminated 870 km2 (Watts 2010; Anon. 2011). An explosion at Qingdao, Shandong
Province, in 2013 resulted in 55 human fatalities but apparently little oil entered the sea (Anon.
2013a). There are very few reports of oiled birds in China, and none of shorebirds (see Fig. S16).
The Chinese Maritime Safety Administration has the mandate to investigate and respond to marine
pollution incidents in Chinese waters, but clean-up is generally undertaken by an approved ship
pollution response organisation (ITOPF 2013). Administrative responsibility for handling spills is
fragmented, and although oil-spill response equipment is stockpiled at six sites on the coast of the
Yellow Sea (Dalian, Qinhuangdao, Yantai, Qingdao, Lianyungang, and Shanghai), this is only
suitable for small-scale spills (Xiong et al. 2015). There appear to be no national or provincial plans
for responding to oiled wildlife incidents (Sea Alarm 2009; Shangao Xiong, in litt; Qingquan Bai, in
litt.).
There is little information on the immediate impacts of oil-spills on shorebirds, with most studies
being conducted some time after the actual spill (Larsen and Richardson 1990). Evans et al. (1993)
suggested that waders that were not killed outright probably responded to spills during the1991 Gulf
Page 18 of 53 War by moving from contaminated areas because foraging would have been compromised in the area
affected by the spills. In the region of the Gulf War, birds with >10% of their body plumage
contaminated with oil had lower body mass than unoiled birds such that they were considered unlikely
to be able to migrate successfully (Evans and Keijl 1993). Although the potential risk of a serious spill
affecting the Nanpu coast, in Hebei Province, remains low, the impact if one were to occur during
northward migration could be catastrophic, especially for Red Knots (Calidris canutus).
Natural gas
China is the third largest importer of natural gas in the world, and growing imports are being
facilitated through large terminal developments. Liquefied natural gas (LNG) is used both
domestically and for the petrochemical industry. Currently there are seven terminals on the coast of
the Yellow Sea (Dalian, in Liaoning Province; Caofeidian, Hebei Province; in Tianjin Municipality;
Qingdao, Shandong Province; Rudong and Nantong, in Jiangsu Province; and in Shanghai) and others
are planned in the Bohai and along the Jiangsu coast (Anon. 2012a). LNG terminals form part of large
onshore port developments, for example at Caofeidian (see above), a floating terminal at Tianjin, and
a 12.4-km long bridge at Rudong, Jiangsu Province.
Wind
Although the direct impact of intertidal windfarms is confined to the turbine footprint, in some
areas (e.g. Xingianhu in Shandong Province) windfarms are being developed in conjunction with land
claim for aquaculture resulting in the total loss of intertidal areas. On 13 September 2015, more than
400 wind turbines (both intertidal and terrestrial) could be seen from one site on a seawall at Tiaozini,
at Rudong in Jiangsu Province (D. S. Melville, unpubl. data). Such sites could, however, be dwarfed
by potential development of the ‘Offshore Three Gorges’ on the Dongsha Shaols, which Fung et al.
(2009) suggest could accommodate 40 000 wind turbines, more than six times the total number of
operational turbines in the United Kingdom (UKWED 2015).
There is little information on the effects of wind turbines on waders away from their breeding
grounds. Disturbance effects on foraging and roosting Eurasian Oystercatchers (Haematopus
ostralegus) and European Golden Plovers (Pluvialis apricaria) have been reported, and disturbance of
Eurasian Curlews (Numenius arquata) extended up to 500 m from turbines (Langston and Pullan
2003). The spacing of the intertidal turbines at Rudong could be such as to effectively make the whole
site unattractive to Eurasian Curlews and possibly other species.
Because most wind turbines are located in coastal areas around the Yellow Sea, waders flying
inland to roost as a result of claim of the upper intertidal zone means that they may have to cross one
or more lines of turbines four times a day. At Rudong, the turbines along the seawall are ~500 m
apart, compared with ~700–1000 m in the intertidal, so the risk of collision would appear to be
increased for flights to and from roosts.
Page 19 of 53 Coal
There is an increasing number of coal-fired power stations along the Yellow Sea coast. Additional
coal-handling ports are also being developed, ranging in size from modest (3.6 × 106 t p.a. at Dafeng,
Jiangsu Province) (Anon. 2011) to massive (200 × 106 tp.a. at Caofeidian, Hebei Province) (Anon.
2014a).
Nuclear
There are presently two nuclear power plants along the Yellow Sea coast, at Lianyungang, Jiangsu
Province, and Donggangzhen, at Dalian in Liaoning Province. However, nuclear power plants are also
under construction or planned for Shandong. In December 2014 the National Development and
Reform Commission announced a resumption of construction of an unspecified number of plants
along the eastern seaboard (Anon. 2014b). Development of power plants in low-lying coastal areas
has raised concerns regarding safety, especially following the damage to the Fukushima plant in Japan
caused by a tsunami in 2011 (Lu et al. 2014).
Tidal energy
Tidal power generation is little developed in China at present, with only three operational power
stations, one of which, commissioned in 1978, is in the Bai Sha estuary, Ru Shan, Shandong Province
(Wang et al. 2011). Parts of the Yellow Sea coast have potential for development of tidal power (Liu
et al. 2011), in particular north-eastern Liaoning Province where, in 2004, Tidal Electric announced
plans to develop a 300 MW offshore, tidal lagoon power-generation facility near the mouth of the
Yalu River (tidal range ~7 m) (Anon. 2004). If constructed it would be the largest tidal power plant in
the world but there has been no further action to date. The development of tidal lagoons could result
in loss of intertidal areas, but also might provide high-tide roosting sites, depending on the location of
the facility.
Solar
Solar farms are being developed on reclaimed land in some areas along the Jiangsu coast. There is
a 100 MW plant at Xiangshui, Jiangsu Province, developed with aquaculture facilities (Anon. 2014c).
Biofuels
It has been suggested that halophytes could provide a source of biofuels (alcohol, biodiesel) (Liu et
al. 2012), but the current rate of land claim would suggest that such developments are highly unlikely
unless associated with harvesting of Spartina.
Page 20 of 53 Fig. S17. (a) There are very large windfarm developments on much of the Yellow Sea coast, including in areas
where shorebirds are utilising aquaculture production and saltfarms. (Photo: D. S. Melville.) (b) The world’s
first intertidal windfarm has been developed at Rudong, Jiangsu Province, in the area that supports much of the
global population of the critically endangered Spoon-billed Sandpiper (Calidris pygmaea) during both its
northward and southward migration. (Photo: D. S. Melville.) (c) Spacing between wind turbines is ~500 m
along the seawall, whereas in the intertidal turbines are spaced ~700–1000 m apart. (Image: Google Earth,
accessed 12 May 2014.)
(a)
(b)
(c)
Page 21 of 53 Aquaculture
Initially pond aquaculture of sea cucumbers was largely restricted to Shandong and Liaoning
Provinces, where the area of ponds was 62 673 ha and 105 903 ha, respectively, in 2012 (Zhang et al.
2015). Since 2008, the industry has expanded southwards as far as Guangdong and Guangxi (Liu et
al. 2015a). The industry is currently valued at about $US 5.65 billion dollars, and although only
accounting for ~1.04% of China’s total aquaculture output, it accounts for 16.09% of the total value
(Zhang et al. 2015). In view of this profitability it is not surprising that there has been rapid and
extensive development of new ponds, which, in some areas, such as the northern Bohai, are now
extending to the low-tide mark and are thus destroying the entire intertidal area (Y. Chen and D. S.
Melville, unpubl. data) (also see Fig. S9).
Sea cucumbers are causing a new gold rush for intertidal areas. The intertidal area adjacent to
Shuangtaizihekou National Nature Reserve, Liaoning Province, has lost >50 km2 to development of
aquaculture ponds in the 12 years to 2015, and current land claim to the west of the reserve, towards
Jinzhou, is expected to result in >200 km2 of ponds, mostly for production of sea cucumbers. Whereas
earlier aquaculture development for prawns was driven by exports, the current sea cucumber industry
is driven by domestic demand, highlighting how the overall economy of China has changed over the
past 30 years. Sea cucumbers are a high-risk business. High infrastructure costs mean a high initial
investment, whereas changes in salinity (e.g. from heavy rainfall), potentially cause mortality or
adversely affect growth rates, and hence profitability. Reductions in market prices are already being
reported owing to increased supply, yet new ponds continued to be developed.
Sea cucumbers require clear, not turbid, water and so the banks of pond are usually covered in
concrete (sometimes just geotextile sheet). The bottom of the ponds are also modified with the
construction of artificial reefs, such as piles of rocks or bricks, cloth supported by bamboo, and so on,
which provide shelter for the sea cucumbers and also promote growth of benthic diatoms upon which
they feed. The result is that sea cucumber aquaculture ponds are unsuitable for use by shorebirds,
apart from the embankments on which birds may roost.
The clam Potamocorbula laevis is the main prey for both Red and Great (Calidris tenuirostris)
Knots, as well as being important prey for Bar-tailed Godwits (Limosa lapponica) and Far Eastern
Oystercatchers (Choi 2014). There is little information on the breeding biology of this species, and
what there is is potentially contradictory (Wei 1984; Wei and Guan 1985a, 1985b; Liu and She 2003).
The effects of commercial harvesting on populations and stocks available for shorebirds are not
known. There is a need for research to better understand these relationships and potential effects on
shorebirds
Page 22 of 53 Fig. S18. Aquaculture ponds in the Yalujiang National Nature Reserve, Liaoning Province. (a) When ponds
were used mainly for production of prawns (Penaeus spp.) they were drained in the spring, providing roosting
sites for shorebirds (image 24 April 1990). (b) When used mainly for production of sea cucumbers
(Apostichopus japonicus), the ponds remain flooded through winter and spring (image 6 May 2015). In such
situations shorebirds can only roost on the banks of ponds (Fig. S19). (Landsat images: US Geological Survey,
http://landsatlook.usgs.gov/viewer.html, accessed 17 June 2015).
(a)
(b)
Page 23 of 53 Fig. S19. (a) Bar-tailed Godwits (Limosa lapponica) roosting on the bank of an aquaculture pond, Yalujiang
National Nature Reserve, Liaoning Province. (b) Bar-tailed Godwits and Grey Plovers (Pluvialis squatarola)
roosting on bank of an aquaculture pond, Hebei Province. (Photos: D. S. Melville.)
(a)
(b)
Fig. S20. Farming of sea cucumbers (Apostichopus japonicas) has expanded greatly since the early 2000s.
(Photo: D. S. Melville.)
Page 24 of 53 Fig. S21. Sea cucumber aquaculture ponds have artificial reefs that provide sheleter and food, but make the
ponds unsuitable for shorebirds when they are drained. (Photos: D. S. Melville.)
Fig. S22. Juvenile Potamocorbula laevis are harvested in large quantities to be used as feed for prawns. (Photo:
D. S. Melville.)
Page 25 of 53 Fig. S23. Harvesting of clams: (a–b) by hand; or (c) using suction pumps, which may be mounted on small
floating rafts, or on fishing vessels. Collateral damage to benthic organisms from use of pumps is thought to be
extensive, but is unstudied. (Photos: D. S. Melville.)
(a)
(b)
(c)
Fig S24. Examples of commercially harvested molluscs: (a) Mactra veneriformis, (b) Sinonovacula constricta,
and (c) Bullacta exarata. (Photos: D. S. Melville.)
(a)
(b)
(c)
Page 26 of 53 Spat of bivalves such as Mactra veneriformis, Meretrix meretrix, razor clam (Sinonovacula
constrica), and Ruditapes [Venerupis] philippinarum (Fig. S24) are reared industrially in heated
nursery houses and then seeded on tidal flats. Spat may travel long distances between hatchery and
tidal flat, for example S. constricta from Zhejiang being seeded on flats in Liaoning Province, a
distance of >1000 km. China has introduced 93 coastal and marine plant species and 89 animal
species (Tang et al. 2013). Some of these are now of significant economic importance (e.g. Bay
Scallops (Argopecten irradians)). Others, however, have become problems. The mud snail Bullacta
exarata, although native to southern and eastern China, was introduced to Laizhou Bay, Shandong
Province, where it now occurs in very high densities (>160 individuals m–2) (Du et al. 2010) and
reportedly has replaced Umbonium thomasi and Mactra veneriformis (Tang et al. 2013), the latter
being an important prey species for some shorebirds, and of commercial importance.
Before seeding tidal flats, the areas may be cleared of unwanted organisms, such as potential
predators, through spraying with the organophosphorus pesticide triazophos (Lin and Yuan 2005; Fig.
S25). This practice apparently started in Zhejiang Province (X. J. Wen, pers. comm.) but has been
spreading and is now known from some areas within the Yellow Sea. Triazophos has been reported
causing gross and serum biochemical changes in birds (Ghaffar et al. 2015) but it is not known
whether shorebirds are directly affected by poisoning. However, they may be affected by reduced
prey stocks following poisoning of tidal flats and the killing of burrowing organisms may affect
sediment characteristics, with potential trophic cascade effects.
S. constricta are seeded in the spring, at a density of 1000–1500 kg ha–1 (MacAlister Elliott and
Partners Ltd 2000), and Rutipaes [Venerupis] philippinarum at a density of 3000–4000 individuals per
square metre (Zhang and Yan 2006). Spat sown on tidal flats provide potential food for shorebirds, in
particular Great Knots. However, people are often employed to scare birds away from seeded areas
using firecrackers until the spat have settled (this may be several weeks).
Subtidal artificial reefs, using rocks and oyster shells in polyethylene mesh bags, have been created
in some areas, such as Jiaozhou Bay, Shandong Province, for production of sea cucumbers (Zhang et
al. 2015) but the effect, if any, of such farming practices on intertidal habitats is not known.
Page 27 of 53 Fig. S25. Workers heading out to the tidal flats near Rudong, Jiangsu Province, to spray pesticide on the
mudflat, particularly to kill glycerid polychaetes. More than 20 people did this for at least 6 h over the low tide
on 27 April 2015 (T. Piersma, in litt.). (Photo: © T. Piersma.)
Fig. S26. Harvesting of polychaetes, at Dongying, Shandong Province. (a) Buses bring harvesters
to the coast. (b) Intertidal flats are dug over. (c) The harvest is weighed. (d) Worms ready for export.
(Photos: D. S. Melville.)
(a)
(b)
Page 28 of 53 (c)
(d)
In some areas polychaetes are harvested by hand, digging on the higher tidal flats, in some cases
including areas with Spartina. The worms are exported to Japan for use as fishing bait and to Europe
for use in aquaculture. European imports in 2003 were valued at $US 716 000 (E Costa et al. 2006).
Details of such harvesting are sketchy, but at Dongying, Shandong Province, only large worms were
taken, and the smaller ones left. We estimated that, in May 2014, one person harvested about 50 kg
per day, so the 181 people on the mudflat would have taken ~900 kg per -day. Melville (1997)
reported that some 60 t of worms were harvested annually from the core area of the Yancheng
National Nature Reserve, Jiangsu Province. These worms are taken by species such as Eurasian and
Far Eastern Curlews (Numenius madagascariensis).
In Canada, commercial harvesting of the polychaete Glycera was found to reduce populations of
the amphipod Corophium and reduce foraging efficiency of Semipalmated Sandpipers (Calidris
semipalmatus) (Shepherd and Boates 1999). There are now controls on the worm harvest, although
recent data suggest increased numbers of Corophium in harvested areas (Fisheries and Oceans Canada
2009). In Europe reported impacts have varied between species and localities (Blake 1979; Beukema
1995; de Carvalho et al. 2013) but are of sufficient concern that management guidelines have been
prepared (Fowler 1999). The effects of worm harvesting in China have not been studied.
Disturbance of shorebirds by harvesters has been reported in the Netherlands (van den Heiligenberg
1987), although Fearnley et al. (2013) found little effect in England. Large numbers of people
(hundreds) are often involved in coastal areas in China and disturbance effects may increase in future
as intertidal areas become smaller as a result of land claim, and birds and people increasingly compete
for both space and resources. This a topic requiring further research.
Page 29 of 53 Fig. S27. Nets for culturing the seaweed Pophrya yezoensis, Jiangsu Province. (Photo: D. S. Melville.)
The red alga Porphyra yezoensis (nori) is grown extensively on fixed nets and semi-floating raft
frames in the coastal area of Jiangsu Province. Fixed nets in intertidal areas are often preferred
because the regular exposure to air reduces problems with competitive algal species and reduces the
incidence of disease (Chen and Xu 2005). The area used for culturing Porphyra increased from 9460
ha in 2003 to 22 974 ha in 2008 (Liu et al. 2009), and 38 260 ha in 2010 (Li 2013), with the industry
centred around Yancheng (10 000 ha) but extending from Nantong in the south (8667 ha) to
Lianyungang in the north (4307 ha) (Liu et al. 2010; Huo et al. 2015). At Yancheng, nori rafts extend
for up to 11 km offshore, and individual lines of racks are ~100 m long, with ~7 m between lines; one
series of such lines of racks may extend >1 km with 50–60 m open spaces between them (Fig. S28).
The racks are seeded in October and harvest occurs in May, thus overlapping with the northward
migration of shorebirds.
Previous studies of the effects of racks for culturing oysters (Crassostrea gigas and C. virginica )
on shorebirds (Kelly et al. 1996; Hilgerloh et al. 2001; Burger et al. 2015) have surveyed much
smaller extents of racks than those currently found in China. In these studies, the response of
shorebirds to the presence of oyster racks varied between species, but the interpretation of results was
potentially confounded by environmental variables, such as changes in patterns of sedimentation and
erosion around racks, which affected the benthos. Both Kelly et al. (1996) and Burger et al. (2015)
noted that the landscape structural effects of racks might make sites less attractive to shorebirds,
especially larger species, by reducing the field of view and compromising escape in the event of
predator attack. It seems likely that the very large areas of Porphyra racks are reducing the numbers
of shorebirds using parts of the Chinese coast, but study is required to determine the extent of effects,
if any.
Page 30 of 53 Non-commercial seaweeds also grow on the rafts and are removed at the time of harvest, being
discarded to the sea where they have created massive green algal blooms, dominated by Ulva
prolifera (Zhou et al. 2015). These have become a feature of the southern Yellow Sea in early
summer since 2007; in 2012, algal blooms affected an area of 36 450 km2 (Liu et al. 2015b). The
increase in frequency of and area covered by such blooms is also probably associated with worsening
water quality along the Jiangsu coast resulting from increased nutrient loads (Xing et al. 2015).
Farmers reported cleaning racks using sulphuric and nitric acid to kill algal spores and disease
organisms (Y. Chen and D. S. Melville, unpubl. data); the waste material falling to the tidal flat where
it is likely to affect invertebrates.
Page 31 of 53 Fig. S28. Lines of Porphyra (nori) nets or racks, ~11 km offshore of the Jiangsu coast, 28 November 2013.
(Image: Google Earth, dated 28 November 2013, accessed 12 May 2015.)
Fig. S29. Biofilm collected from the margins of a tidal channel dries in the sun, Shuangtaizihekou National
Nature Reserve, Liaoning Province. This dried biofilm is used as probiotic for aquaculture. (Photos: D. S.
Melville.)
Page 32 of 53 Pollution
A project is underway to find an alternative to Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT) for use in
anti-fouling paint, and one factory in Tianjin apparently closed in 2011 (UNDP 2011). Persistent
organic pollutants occur in high concentrations in coastal waters, especially in Bohai (Bao et al.
2012), are widespread in bivalves around the Bohai and northern Yellow Sea (Jin et al. 2008; Zhang
et al. 2009), and potentially pose a threat to shorebirds.
Mercury pollution is of concern, especially methylmercury which biomagnifies in the food chain
(Eisler 1987). China is responsible for ~40% of global by-product emissions of mercury to the
atmosphere, much coming from coal-fired power stations (Pacyna et al. 2010). Luo et al. (2012) noted
increased mercury levels associated with chlor-alkali facilities and Huang et al. (2008) recorded
elevated mercury levels in sediments adjacent to a salt industry facility in northern Jiangsu. Mercury
occurs in biota at levels that are considered to be unsafe for human consumption (Luo et al. 2012) and
levels are likely to increase as a result of emissions from the growing number of coal-fired power
stations and a variety of industries. Upgrading chlor-alkali facilities, however, should remove this
source of pollution.
Pollution from aquaculture facilities, including uneaten feed, nutrients, disinfectants and various
other chemicals are a matter of concern. Shrimp-ponds around the Bohai and Yellow Seas were
estimated to have discharged 1.03 × 108 m3 of waste water daily in 2002, with the total amount of
uneaten feed discharged amounting to more than 1.2 × 105 t (Cao et al. 2007). Discharged water from
shrimp-ponds also contains elevated levels of nitrogen and phosphorous (Table S5).
Antibiotics have been widely misused in aquaculture in China. The European Union prohibited
import of shrimps from China owing to high levels of chloramphenicol (Xie & Yu 2007), and the
main source of sulfonamides, antibiotic-resistant bacteria and antibiotic-resistant genes in Escherichia
coli was from aquaculture and wastewater treatment plants (Na et al. 2014). Rico et al. (2012) report
that 17 different antibiotics have been used in aquaculture in China, and that ~75% of antibiotics
administered as feed subsequently enter the wider environment. However, it appears that there is
scope for changing behaviour of farmers to adopt more benign methods of aquaculture in return for
certification that would enable them to achieve higher prices (Ortega et al. 2014). Antibiotics are also
discharged to the coastal environment from sewage treatment plants. Antibiotics may affect
shorebirds as a result of impacts on microalgae working through the food chain. A wide range of
antibiotics has been reported from bivalves in the Bohai, with levels exceeding maximum residue
limits (Li et al. 2012), and tetracycline-resistant bacteria have been found in Jiaozhou Bay, Shandong
Province (Dang et al. 2008). Antibiotic-resistant bacteria have been reported from a variety of
shorebirds (Veldman et al. 2013) and there is a possibility that shorebirds may spread such organisms
along their migratory routes (Santos et al. 2012). The study of the gastro-intestinal microbiota of
Page 33 of 53 shorebirds is only just starting (Grand et al. 2015) and the potential effect of antibiotic-resistant
bacteria on shorebirds is unstudied.
Microplastics, which were identified by Sutherland et al. (2012) as a possible future threat to
shorebirds through food-chain effects, are known from the Yangtze River estuary (Zhao et al. 2014)
and are probably widespread (Qiu et al. 2015).
Fig. S30. (a) Wooden fishing boats are treated with anti-fouling paint containing DDT. In 2010, 250 t of DDT
were used in paint manufacture. A United Nations Development Programme-funded project is researching
alternatives. (b, c) Large quantities of ‘medicines’ are often used in aquaculture ponds and there is concern
regarding the potential effects of treated water is discharged to tidal areas. (Photos: D. S. Melville.)
(a)
(b)
(c)
Table S5. Amount of discharge of wastes from shrimp aquaculture around the Bohai and
Yellow Seas in 2002 (after Cao et al. 2007)
N, nitrogen; P, phosphorous; COD, chemical oxygen demand
Region
Liaoning Province
Hebei Province
Tianjin Municipality
Shandong Province
Jiangsu Province
Total
Area under
aquaculture (ha)
39 258
20 755
2960
60 428
14 073
180 833
Wastewater
discharge (m3)
35.3 × 108
18.7 × 108
2.7 × 108
50.4 × 108
12.7 × 108
141.91 × 108
Page 34 of 53 N (t)
P (t)
COD (t)
353
187
27
504
127
1334.8
35.3
18.7
2.7
50.4
12.7
183.8
7060
3740
540
10 080
2540
28 847.5
Tourism
Development of tourist attractions is a growing business, especially near large population centres.
Tianjin (population 14 million) is only 120 km (a 29-min high-speed train journey) from Beijing
(population 21 million) and is currently undergoing extensive development of tourist attractions in the
Binhai Tourism Zone, which covers 45 km2 of land and 74 km2 of ‘water’ (Anon. 2010). Tianjin’s
current coastal attractions include the Binhai Aircraft Carrier Theme Park and the Tin Hau/Mazu
Cultural Park, which is due to open in 2016. The entire park is on reclaimed land (Liu 2015), part of a
30-km2 reclamation site that included subtidal areas. Much of the remaining tidal area around Tianjin,
which continues to support internationally important populations of 11 species of shorebirds (Bai et
al. 2015), as well as most of the world population of Relict Gull (Larus relictus) (Townsend 2015), is
likely to be lost to further reclamation, including for marina and housing development.
Beach nourishing is increasingly being used to maintain sandy beaches subject to erosion, as at
Beidaihe, Hebei Province, or to create new sandy beaches for tourism in areas where the natural
shoreline is silt or mud, such as at Tianjin (Luo et al. 2015), and Jinzhou, Liaoning Province. High
levels of human disturbance at created sand beaches are likely to deter birds, and prey may be reduced
by deposition of sand (Peterson et al. 2006).
Ecotourism is seen as a major growth industry in China, and many nature reserves have developed
tourist attractions that often include displays of captive birds. Coastal reserves often display Redcrowned Cranes (Grus japonensis), which are large, culturally significant, and fairly easy to maintain
in captivity, whereas shorebirds are very seldom seen. Emphasis is often on entertainment rather than
education or increasing public awareness.
At Panjin, Liaoning Province, the ‘red sea’ of Suaeda growing on the upper tidal flats is an
important tourist attraction. A tourist highway toll road has been constructed along the coast and
visitors can view the tidal flats from specially constructed walkways and platforms, thus giving value
to the naturally occurring saltmarsh and tidal flats. In contrast, exotic Spartina was deliberately
planted at Rudong, Jiangsu Province, to create a ‘yellow sea of grass’ on the Yellow Sea coast as a
tourist attraction but the Spartina is now spreading rapidly and encroaching on intertidal areas where
Spoon-billed Sandpipers stage on both northward and southward migration.
At Gao Sha Ling, in Tianjin, access to the coast is controlled by the local community and tourists
can pay to collect shellfish (10 renminbi per person), as well as hiring rubber boots and buckets. We
were advised that ~1000 people visited daily in the off season but that up to 10 000 people may be
present daily in the busy season. This section of coast continues to support important shorebird
populations, at least at times when fewer tourists are using the beach (Y. Chen and D. S. Melville,
unpubl. data).The ‘Disco on the Sea’ at Rudong, Jiangsu Province, is another clam-harvesting
attraction (Nantong Travel Bureau 2015).
Page 35 of 53 Along much of the Yellow Sea coast, waders are difficult to see, with roosting and foraging sites
often not readily accessible. However, at Yalu Jiang Estuary National Nature Reserve, Liaoning
Province, large flocks of waders often roost close to the seawall and attract many bird photographers,
although these can also cause disturbance, for example using firecrackers to make the birds fly to
obtain more spectacular photographs. The Dandong Birding Festival, held at Yalu Jiang Estuary
National Nature Reserve, organised by the Dandong Tourism Bureau, attracted large numbers in May
2014, and a new visitor centre and bird watching houses were constructed for the event (Woodley
2014).
Fig. S31. Tourism development in coastal Tianjin. (Image: Google Earth, dated 15 March 2015, accessed 12
May 2015.)
Page 36 of 53 Fig. S32. The 42.3-m tall statue of Mazu/Tian Hau, the Chinese goddess of the sea, is the centrepiece of the
Tianjin Mazu Cultural Park, and situated ~6 km offshore on a newly reclaimed site. (Photo: D. S. Melville.)
Fig. S33. Artist’s impression of the Sino Australia Royal Yacht City, Tianjin, which is being developed in the
area of Bohai Bay where most of the world population of Relict Gull (Larus relictus) stages on migration. The
area is also important for shorebirds such as Asian Dowitcher (Limnodromus semipalmatus). (Image: China
Daily USA (Li 2011), Photo: D. S. Melville.)
Page 37 of 53 Fig. S34. A ‘red sea’ of Suaeda is an important tourist attraction in Panjin, Liaoning. (Photos: D.S. Melville.)
Fig. S35. Tourists gather shellfish at Gao Sha Ling, Tianjin. (Photo: D. S. Melville.)
Page 38 of 53 Hunting
Commercial hunting of shorebirds has long been practised on China’s coasts. Markets in the late
1800s and early 1900s had a variety of species for sale (La Touche 1931–34) and Cheng (1963)
reported on the economic importance of several species of shorebird noting, for example, that the
flesh of the Common Redshank (Tringa totanus) was edible, whereas that of Eurasian Curlew was
‘very tasty’, and that both species were often hunted for food. In 1985 a container load of frozen
waders was imported to Hong Kong but sales of birds was poor (Parrish & Melville 1985) and
apparently no further imports were made (D. S. Melville, unpubl. data).
Apart from an indication that one market in Shanghai sold 36 000 ‘snipe’ a year (Wade 1910), it
was not until the late 1980s and early 1990s that any attempt was made to determine the size of
commercial harvests in China. Tang & Wang (1995) estimated that harvests around the Shanghai area
accounted for 6800–10 000 birds on southward migration, the most commonly caught species being
Red-necked Stints (Calidris ruficollis) (15.5%), Dunlin (Calidris alpina) (10.7%), Bar-tailed Godwits
(10.1%) and Common Greenshanks (Tringa nebularia) (9.2%). On northward migration harvests
were much larger, estimated at 32 200–52 700 birds, with the most frequently caught species being
Great Knot (42.4%), Sharp-tailed Sandpiper (Calidris acuminata) (9.3%), Red Knot (8.6%) and
Whimbrel (Numenius phaeopus) (8.0%). Birds were caught using clap nets with live decoys. By the
mid-1990s commercial harvesting of waders around Shanghai had largely ceased due to a
combination of legal protection and changing economic conditions; several of the highly skilled
trappers are now employed by Chongming Dongtan National Nature Reserve to catch birds for
banding (Tang et al. 2011).
Sport hunting of snipes (Gallinago spp.) was common in the marshlands, for example around
Shanghai (Styan 1910) and Hong Kong (Aymas 1930). Sport hunting was starting to happen by the
mid-1980s, including on nature reserves (D. S. Melville, unpubl. data), but the ban on owning
firearms that was implemented in 1996 has greatly reduced recreational hunting, although it still
occurs to some extent (Ma et al. 2012) and its impact on shorebirds is likely to be small.
The most commonly used poison for waterfowl is the carbamate pesticide carbofuran mixed with
grain. Interviews with fishermen in Shandong revealed that a pesticide known locally as ‘666’ (the
organochloride pesticide hexachlorocyclohexane) is mixed with small crabs, which are spread on tidal
flats to catch ‘curlews’ (Y. Chen and D. S. Melville, unpubl. data). It is likely that bycatch of such
waterfowl hunting includes other species that feed on crabs, notably Saunders’ Gull, which has been
found dead in the Yellow River Delta (Y. Chen and D. S. Melville, unpubl. data). At Rudong, Jiangsu
Province, poisoned shrimps are placed at roosting and feeding sites and a variety of waders killed
(Clark et al. 2015). In some instances it remains unclear whether apparent poisoning is deliberate or
may result from the use of triazophos in aquaculture activities (see section on Aquaculture, above).
Page 39 of 53 In addition to intentional hunting, birds are also accidentally caught in nets set for fish and mantis
shrimp (Oratosquilla oratoria) exposed at low tide, and in funnel traps set for crab and fish. Such
birds drown on the next high tide if they are not taken by fishermen. Ruddy Turnstones (Arenaria
interpres) seem to be particularly prone to capture in crab traps at Yalujiang, Liaoning Province (D. S.
Melville, personal observation), whereas at Nanpu, Hebei Province, birds caught in nets included
Common Greenshanks (Tringa nebularia), Marsh Sandpipers (Tringa stagnatilis) and Terek
Sandpipers (Xenus cinereus) (Anon. 2012b). The number of such fatalities is not known, but up to 25
birds a day were reported caught at Nanpu (Anon. 2013b), and 71 were recorded in ~350 m of net at
Rudong, Jiangsu Province, in September 2015, including one Spoon-billed Sandpiper (G. Anderson,
personal communication). This suggests that over the course of the northward migration potentially
tens of thousands of birds are killed along the coast.
Fig. S36. Birds found dead ~5 km inland at Rudong, Jiangsu Province. These birds were among many
apparently deliberately poisoned in a grassland area; there were also mist-nets and loudspeaker systems at the
location. The dead birds shown are a Whimbrel (Numenius phaeopus), Little Whimbrel (Numenius minutus),
Pacific Golden Plover (Pluvialis fulva), Yellow Wagtails (Motacilla flava), and a Yellow-billed Grosbeak
(Eophona migratoria). The Little Whimbrel is one of only three shorebirds protected in China. (Photo: © Hannu
Jännes.)
Page 40 of 53 Fig. S37. Weiguo Jin, a former bird hunter, now uses his Wilsternetting skills to catch waders for banding at
Chongming Dongtan National Nature Reserve, Shanghai. (Photo: D. S. Melville.)
Page 41 of 53 Fig S38. (a) Fish traps, which often extend for >1 km across tidal flats, are a common feature of the coast but
pose no threat to shorebirds other than offering a perch for an occasional hunting Peregrine Falcon (Falco
peregrinus). (b) Fish and crab traps do, however, catch shorebirds, such as Ruddy Turnstones (Arenaria
interpres). (c–e) Monofilament nets set for (c) mantis shrimps Oratosquilla oratoria catch species such as (d)
Bar-tailed Godwits (Limosa lapponica) and (e) Great Knots (Calidris tenuirostris).
(a)
(c)
(b)
(d)
(e)
Nature reserves
Zheng et al. (2012) report a 20% reduction in the area of coastal wetland reserves (compared with
8% wetland reserve reduction nationally) in the period 1978–2008, noting that ‘This is because
coastal wetland reserves are often located in developed areas with heavy population pressure, where
land use often changes as a result of government policy’. They also found that ‘poor’ reserves were
located in Tianjin, the northern Shandong coast and Jiangsu Province.
Page 42 of 53 Fig. S39. Changes to the boundary of Yalujiang National Nature Reserve, Liaoning Province. (a) In 2007 the
reserve boundary was changed to facilitate the expansion of Dandong Port to the east of the reserve. (b) A
further boundary change was implemented in 2012, which significantly reduced the Experimental Area on the
western and eastern sides of the Reserve, but resulted in an increase in the core area. Red, core area; Yellow,
buffer area; Green, experimental area.
(a)
(b)
Table S6. Changes in area of Yalujiang National Nature Reserve, Liaoning Province, 1997–2013
(also see Fig. S39)
Core area
Buffer area
Experimental area
Total
2013
16 000
20 000
45 430
81 430
2007
14 082
24 674
62 244
101 000
Page 43 of 53 1997
14 642
71 057
22 358
108 057
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