Energy Storage

Energy Storage - SETIS

THEMATIC RESEARCH SUMMARY
Energy
Storage
Manuscript completed in September 2014
© European Union 2014
Reproduction is authorised provided the source is acknowledged.
Photo credits: iStockphoto
This publication was produced by the Energy Research Knowledge
Centre (ERKC), funded by the European Commission, to support its
Information System for the Strategic Energy Technology Plan (SETIS).
It represents the consortium’s views on the subject matter. These views
have not been adopted or approved by the European Commission and
should not be taken as a statement of the views of the European
Commission.
The manuscript was produced by the European Institute for Energy
Research (EIFER). We would like to thank Agostino Iacobazzi and Mario
Conte from the Italian National Agency for New Technologies, Energy
and Sustainable Economic Development (ENEA) for their review of the
manuscript and their support.
While the information contained in this brochure is correct to the best of
our knowledge, neither the consortium nor the European Commission
can be held responsible for any inaccuracy, or accept responsibility for
any use made thereof.
Additional information on energy research programmes and related
projects, as well as on other technical and policy publications is
available on the Energy Research Knowledge Centre (ERKC) portal at:
setis.ec.europa.eu/energy-research
1
Energy Storage
Executive Summary
Key messages
Energy storage technologies will play a key role in the development of future
integrated energy systems based on renewable energy sources. Current R&D
activities focus on electrochemical, mechanical and thermochemical storage –
mainly batteries (lithium-ion and redox flow), CAES, thermal storage (especially
PCMs), and integration of energy storage technologies in energy systems.
Efficiency and cost optimisation are the biggest issues.
This report has been produced as part of the activities of the Energy
Research Knowledge Centre (ERKC). The ERKC project aims to collect,
organise and disseminate validated, referenced information on energy
research programmes and projects and their results from across the EU
and beyond. The Thematic Research Summaries (TRS) are designed
to analyse the results of energy research projects identified by the
Energy Research Knowledge Centre (ERKC). The rationale behind
the TRS is to identify the most novel and innovative contributions to
research questions that have been addressed by (but not limited to)
European research projects on a specific theme. The present Thematic
Research Summary (TRS) includes energy storage associated with
hydropower, in the form of pumped storage, as well as hydroelectricity
in general. The first part of this TRS briefly describes the scope of the
themes covered, and shows the relevant policy framework at EU level.
The following chapters summarise the research findings of nearly 70
selected projects, at national and European levels, covering research,
development or demonstration (R&DD). These projects have focused
on energy storage technologies including thermal, electrochemical,
electrical, mechanical and chemical storage, for large, medium
and small applications, plus issues concerning hydropower and the
integration of these technologies into energy systems. The main
outcomes of this TRS are based on project results and technology
reviews from the period 2009-2014. The broad conclusions are:
•C
urrent RD&D activities in energy storage focus clearly on battery
development. In countries outside the EU, according to the
IEA (2013), these projects are funded mainly by national R&D
budgets. Notable are Japan (EUR 72 million in 2011) and the US
(EUR 37 million in 2011) – figures that considerably exceed the
corresponding budgets of individual EU countries.
•R
D&D in thermal energy storage
limited support from both EU and
However, this area is important for
Thermal energy storage takes two
2
has received comparatively
national budgets up to now.
a wide range of applications.
main forms. One is low- and
medium-temperature heat storage for space heating and hot
water, and cold storage for cooling, in residential buildings and
the service sector. The other is high-temperature heat storage
for energy-intensive industrial processes and concentrating solar
power (CSP).
3
Energy Storage
4
Table of contents
EXECUTIVE SUMMARY
��
LIST OF TABLES AND FIGURES
1 INTRODUCTION
2
��
4
��
7
2 SCOPE OF THE THEME
2.1 General definitions
��
9
��
9
2.1.1 E
nergy storage
��
2.1.2 Pumped hydroelectric storage and hydropower
9
��
10
��
20
2.2 D
efinition of sub-themes
3 POLICY CONTEXT
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9
��
20
��
24
��
26
3.1 European policies and research initiatives
3.2 National research initiatives in Europe
4 RESEARCH FINDINGS
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26
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27
4.1 Overview of projects selected for results analysis
4.2 Project results by sub-theme
4.2.1 Sub-theme 1: Thermal storage
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27
��
32
4.2.3 Sub-theme 3: Chemical storage
��
36
4.2.4 Sub-theme 4: Electrical storage
��
38
4.2.2 Sub-theme 2: Electrochemical storage
4.2.5 S
ub-theme 5: Mechanical storage
��
4.2.6 S
ub-theme 6: Hydropower and PHES
��
45
��
52
5 INTERNATIONAL DEVELOPMENTS
��
58
��
62
��
67
6 TECHNOLOGY MAPPING
7 CAPACITIES MAPPING
8 CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
��
69
��
71
��
75
REFERENCES
ANNEXES
42
��
4.2.7 Sub-theme 7: Energy storage integration in energy systems
4.3 Implications for future research
40
Annex 1: Acronyms and abbreviations used in the TRS
��
Annex 2: Complete list of projects relevant to the theme
��
75
76
5
Energy Storage
List of tables and
figures
Table 1: Classification structure of R&D areas adopted by the ERKC
Table 2: E
nergy storage sub-themes
��
��
Table 3: Technical and economic characteristics of energy storage options
��
Table 4: EU policy documents relevant for energy storage and hydropower
8
10
19
��
20
��
26
Table 6: S
elected projects in sub-theme 1
��
31
Table 7: S
elected projects in sub-theme 2
��
35
Table 8: S
elected projects in sub-theme 3
��
37
Table 9: S
elected projects in sub-theme 4
��
40
Table 5: O
verview of selected projects by sub-theme
Table 10: S
elected projects in sub-theme 5
��
42
Table 11: S
elected projects in sub-theme 6
��
45
Table 12: S
elected projects in sub-theme 7
��
52
Table 13: S
ET-Plan Key Performance Indicators for energy storage R&D,
by sub-theme �� 64
Table 14: S
ET-Plan Synergies for energy storage R&D, by sub-theme
��
64
Figure 1: O
verview of the characteristics of energy storage technologies
��
18
Figure 2: O
verview of the characteristics of electricity storage technologies
��
18
��
29
��
30
Figure 3: T
hermochemical storage (TCS) unit integrated into a CSP plant
Figure 4: H
ESTOR project structure
Figure 5: T
he Energy Membrane project provided experience for a future
full-scale underground pumped hydro plant �� 44
Figure 6: H
eat, electricity and gas storage by integration of RES power
in integrated smart energy grids �� 47
Figure 7: S
wiss2G project: home components and features
��
Figure 8: C
osts and maturity of electricity storage technologies
��
49
65
Figure 9: T
he main business opportunities for bulk electricity storage
in a partly deregulated power system �� 66
Figure 10: N
ational R&D spending on energy storage in 2011
��
67
Figure 11: T
hermal energy storage: national R&D spending in
2010 and 2011 �� 68
6
1 Introduction
This publication has been produced as part of the activities of the
ERKC (Energy Research Knowledge Centre), funded by the European
Commission to support its Information System of the Strategic Energy
Technology Plan (SETIS).
The ERKC collects, organises and analyses validated, referenced
information on energy research programmes and projects, including
results and analyses from across the EU and beyond. Access to energy
research knowledge is vastly improved through the ERKC, allowing it
to be exploited in a timely manner and used all over the EU, thus also
increasing the pace of further innovation. The ERKC therefore has a
key role in gathering and analysing data to monitor progress towards
the objectives of the European Strategic Energy Technology Plan (SETPlan). It also brings important added value to data monitoring by
analysing trends in energy research at national and European levels
and deriving thematic analyses and policy recommendations from the
aggregated project results.
The approach to assessing and disseminating energy research results
used by the ERKC team includes the following three levels of analysis:
•P
roject analysis, providing information on research background,
objectives, results, and technical and policy implications on a
project-by-project basis;
•T
hematic analysis, which pools research findings according to
a classification scheme structured by priority and research focus.
This analysis results in the production of a set of Thematic
Research Summaries (TRS);
• Policy analysis, which pools research findings on a specific topic,
with emphasis on the policy implications of results and pathways
to future research. This analysis results in the compilation of
Policy Brochures (PB).
The Thematic Research Summaries are designed to provide an overview
of innovative research results that are relevant to the themes, which
have been identified as of particular interest to policy-makers and
researchers. The classification structure adopted by the ERKC team
comprises 45 themes divided into nine priority areas. Definitions of
each theme can be found on the ERKC portal at:
setis.ec.europa.eu/energy-research
7
Energy Storage
Table 1: ERKC priority areas and themes
 Priority area 1: Low-carbon heat and power suplly
Bioenergy / Geothermal / Ocean energy / Photovoltaics / Concetrated solar power / Wind
/ Hydropower / Advanced fossil fuel power generation / Fossil fuel with CCS / Nuclear
fission / Nuclear fusion / Cogeneration / Heating and cooling from renewable sources
 Priority area 2: Alternative fuels and energy sources for transport
Biofuels / Hydrogen and fuel cells / Other alternative transport fuels
 Priority area 3: Smart cities and communities
Smart electricity grids / Behavioural aspects - SCC / Small scale electricity storage /
Energy savings in buildings / ITS in energy / Smart district heating and cooling grids demand / Energy savings in appliances / Building energy system integration
 Priority area 4: Smart grids
Transnission / Distribution / Storage / Smart district heating and cooling grids - supply
 Priority area 5: Energy efficiency in industry
Process efficiency / Ancillary equipment
 Priority area 6: New knowledge and technologies
Basic research / Materials
 Priority area 7: Energy innovation and market uptake
Techno-economic assessment / Life-cycle assessment Cost-benefit analysis / (Market-)
decision support tools / Security-of-supply studies / Private investment assessment
 Priority area 8: Socio-economic analysis
Public acceptability / User participation / Behavioural aspects
 Priority area 9: Policy studies
Market uptake support / Modeling and scenarios / Enviromental impacts / International
cooperation
The purpose of the Thematic Research Summaries is to identify and
trace the development of technologies in the context of energy policy
and exploitation. The aim is to identify drivers of policy that will create
a demand for ‘products’ that are likely to impact on policy in the coming
years especially technological acceleration, innovation, sustainable
development, employment policy and international cooperation and
social cohesion. The TRS are intended for policy makers as well as any
interested reader from other stakeholders and from the academic and
research communities. This TRS is designed to provide an overview of
innovative research results relevant to the research fields of energy
storage, small-scale electricity storage, and hydropower, which are
allocated to their respective priority areas of the ERKC structure (see Table
1 above). This TRS focuses on research activities carried out in Europe
either at EU level or as part of nationally-funded programmes. The main
information sources used for this TRS are R&D project results from the
EU’s CORDIS and Intelligent Energy-Europe (IEE) databases and from
other available national project databases. For policy background, the
source was the EU’s database of legal documents, which includes current
directives, roadmaps and communications on the development of energy
storage and hydropower. Documents produced by European Technology
Platforms, particularly the relevant Strategic Research Agendas and Key
Innovations have also been considered, as well as further information
from SETIS, JRC, the IEA and relevant scientific papers.
8
2 Scope of the theme
2.1 General definitions
2.1.1 Energy storage
According to the ERKC’s classification of energy research areas, energy
storage is addressed by the fourth and third R&D priority areas, and
to some extent by the second priority area (see Table 1). As defined in
the ERKC Compendium, energy storage refers generally to the ability
to use thermal, electrochemical, chemical, electrical or mechanical
principles to store energy when it is abundant and recover it for use
at a later time. This TRS covers the storage of electricity and heat at
small, medium and large scales.
The main large-scale storage technologies include well-established
pumped hydroelectric storage (PHES), compressed air energy storage
(CAES), hydrogen-based energy storage, secondary batteries,
flywheels, thermal storage, and gas storage. This TRS focuses on heat
and power storage. Gas storage is not discussed further.
The main drivers for installing storage facilities in a power system are
the variable character of the demand and the intermittent character of
renewable sources like wind and solar power. Gas storage facilities play
an equally important role in balancing seasonal supply and demand to
support the EU’s goals of energy market integration and security of
supply.
Many storage technologies, including the well-established pumped
hydroelectric storage, have existed for more than a century, though
some of these – such as batteries and flywheels – have not historically
been important in power system planning. Other storage technologies
are currently under development or are now being applied in the first
generation of demonstration applications. Thermal energy storage
(TES) technologies are well-established in small-scale solutions for hot
water supply, but only a few TES technologies are proven at medium
or large scales and for longer periods of time, such as seasonal heat
storage in solar-supported district heating systems.
2.1.2 Pumped hydroelectric storage and hydropower
In the context of this TRS, pumped hydroelectric storage will be
discussed together with R&D on hydropower in general, the latter being
allocated to the first R&D priority area (low-carbon heat and power) of
the ERKC classification (see Table 1). The ERKC compendium defines
‘modern hydropower’ as a multi-stage energy transformation process
using the potential energy of water stored in an elevated reservoir. This
potential energy is converted first into kinetic energy as running water,
9
Energy Storage
then by a turbine into mechanical energy, and finally by a generator
into electrical energy. One type of hydropower technology is known
as ‘run-of-river’; here the water is not stored, but instead part of a
river’s normal flow is diverted to a canal feeding a low-head turbine.
R&D activities also covered by this TRS, include mini hydroelectric
installations of this type.
2.2 Definition of sub-themes
The scope of this TRS covers several areas at the intersection of different
R&D fields. These include engineering and materials science in the
creation of new storage materials and components, the development
of heat and power storage technologies, and the interaction of storage
with the different parts of the energy system. In addition, this TRS
addresses research in hydropower with an emphasis on pumped
hydroelectric energy storage. This TRS discusses energy storage R&D
subdivided into seven sub-themes (Table 2). Under the headings
below we describe the main characteristics of each sub-theme and the
current stage of R&D.
Table 2: Energy storage sub-themes
Sub-theme
Description
1
Thermal storage
2
Electrochemical storage
3
Chemical storage (hydrogen, SNG)
4
Electrical storage (capacitors, SMES)
5
Mechanical storage
(including CAES, A-CAES, CES and flywheels)
6
Pumped hydroelectric storage (including hydropower)
7
Integration of energy storage in energy systems
The main sources used for this TRS are R&D projects focusing on
energy storage, including hydropower, that are carried out in Europe,
both at EU level and as part of nationally funded programmes.
Sub-theme 1: Thermal storage
Thermal energy storage (TES) covers the storage of heat or cold using
thermally active components. As well as simple materials like earth
and water, thermal storage can be based on advanced materials such
as high-temperature fluids (HTFs), phase change materials (PCMs),
and thermochemical heat storage (Kousksou et al.2014). Solutions
can be divided into low-temperature thermal energy storage (LTTES),
which operates below 200°C and is mainly applied to heating and
cooling of buildings and by district heating and cooling (DHC) using
waste heat from different sources - there under from the coupled heat
and power (CHP) generation. A high-temperature thermal energy
storage (HTTES) plays an important role in the integration of renewable
10
energy sources, first of all the concentrated solar power (CSP) in the
energy systems and in the recovery of high-temperature waste heat
from industry. According to the length of time for which the thermal
energy must be stored, systems can also be divided into ‘short-term’
(seconds-minutes) and ‘long-term’ (hours-seasons) energy storage
(IEA 2014a).
We can distinguish several different principles through which thermal
energy may be stored: thermochemical (using the collected heat to
excite a reversible endothermic chemical reaction), sensible heat (in
which the thermal medium does not change phase during the storage
process), and latent heat (with change of phase). For latent heat
storage, the phase of the energy storage material can change from
solid to liquid (and back again) or from liquid to gas (and back again)
(Kousksou et al. 2014). Sensible heat can be stored in both liquid
media (such as water, oil-based fluids, and molten salts) and solid
media (such as rocks, sand, and metal).
Ice provides an example of latent heat storage based on the transition
between solid and liquid. When water freezes, it releases latent heat,
and when the resulting ice melts, it absorbs latent heat. Another
example is a salt that is solid at room temperature but which melts
and re-freezes – with exchange of latent heat – at some higher
working temperature. Molten salts are frequently used to store heat
in concentrating solar power (CSP) facilities, for subsequent use in
generating electricity. The worldwide installed capacity of molten salt
energy storage amounts currently 170 MW (SBC 2013, p.44).
Underground thermal energy storage (UTES) systems use subterranean
reservoirs into which heated or cooled water can be pumped for later
recovery. The reservoirs include natural aquifers, artificial boreholes,
and caverns (IEA 2014a).
Sub-theme 2: Electrochemical storage
Electrochemical storage is a way to store electricity based on a reversible
chemical reaction in an electrochemical cell, commonly known as
a battery. The essential components of an electrochemical storage
system are a container, one or more pairs of electrodes (cathode and
anode), and an electrolyte. Charging the battery transforms electrical
energy into chemical energy, while during discharge this chemical
energy is turned back into electricity by reversing the chemical
reaction. Conventional batteries are of two standard types: lead-acid
or nickel-based. Advanced batteries (such as those based on lithium or
sodium) are more flexible in operation and have higher performance
(SBC 2013 p. 34).
Lead-acid batteries are the most mature and the cheapest (USD 300600/kWh or EUR 237-474/kWh) of all the battery technologies available
(Ferreira et al. 2013). They have high reliability and efficiency (70–90%)
(SBC 2013). These batteries are based on chemical reactions involving
lead dioxide (as the cathode), lead (as the anode), and sulphuric acid
(as the electrolyte). There are two major types of lead–acid batteries,
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Energy Storage
of which the commonest is known as flooded-electrolyte. The other
type, known as valve-regulated, is the subject of extensive R&D.
The nickel-based batteries are mainly nickel–cadmium (NiCd), nickelmetal hydride (NiMH), and nickel-zinc (NiZn). Nickel–cadmium
batteries compete with lead–acid batteries due to their higher energy
density, longer cycle of life (more than 3,500 cycles) and lower
maintenance requirements (SBC 2013, p. 34). However, they are
10 times more expensive, have lower energy efficiency, and contain
cadmium, a toxic heavy metal that creates health risks. Nickel-metal
hydride (NiMH) batteries are a feasible alternative to NiCd batteries,
with improved performance and freedom from toxic substances
(Kousksou et al. 2014).
Lithium-ion (Li-ion) batteries, with an efficiency of 85-98% (SBC
2013), are currently the most advanced rechargeable battery systems
commercially available. They are used in a wide field of applications,
mainly small and medium-size: currently 85-90% of the market for
small portable devices (Conte 2014, Avicenne, 2013), including portable
electronics and power tools, use Li-ion batteries1. Li-ion batteries
have recently been deployed in several demonstration projects in
electric vehicles and stationary energy storage applications2. Li-ion
batteries are a very promising technology to enable the electrification
of transport, to improve management of energy in the European grid,
and to facilitate the penetration of renewable energy sources (RES)
in the energy mix. However, for large-scale Li-ion batteries systems,
the main challenge is the high cost of more than USD 600/kWh (EUR
470/kWh) due to internal overcharge protection circuits and special
packaging patterns (Kousksou et al. 2014). The worldwide installed
capacity currently amounts to about 139MW (SBC 2013, p.36).
Sodium-sulphur (NaS) batteries are one of several novel energy storage
technologies now under research. They show high-energy efficiency
(85%) and energy density (151 kWh/m3), have very low maintenance
requirements, and are 99% recyclable. NaS batteries for power
systems have been demonstrated in more than 20 projects in Japan
and elsewhere since the 1980s (Kousksou et al. 2014). The worldwide
installed capacity amounts currently to 441MW (SBC 2013, p.35).
Sodium-nickel chloride (Na-NiCl2) batteries3 operate maintenancefree without the need for air conditioning. They show high energy
densities (328 kWh/m3 and 142 kWh/ton at the cell level; 170 kWh/
m3 and 120 kWh/ton at the complete battery level). They have a long
life-cycle (2,000 cycles to 80% discharge), a long calendar life (more
than 15 years), zero emissions and high recyclability.
1
2
3
12
ccording to the Avicenne Market Survey 2013.
A
www.energystorageexchange.org
Called ZEBRA: Zero Emission Battery Research Activities.
Commercialised since the middle of the 1990s, Na-NiCl2 batteries have
found application in electric cars and hybrid electric vehicles (HEVs)
including buses, trucks and vans. The use of Na-NiCl2 batteries in
stationary applications is just beginning. Demonstration systems
of Na-NiCl2 batteries combined with distributed renewable power
generators (large photovoltaic (PV) plants and micro wind turbines),
and for grid support at voltages up to 600 V, have been designed and
are now being field-tested4.
Metal-air batteries, which use metal as a fuel to supply electricity, are
another very promising technology. Their rechargeability, however,
still needs development, and there are other barriers in terms of low
efficiency and low power output. The most developed are zinc-air
batteries, followed by lithium-air systems. The environmental impact
of this technology is its biggest advantage, as it uses non-toxic and
recyclable materials (Lopes et al. 2013).
Both conventional and advanced batteries use the same physical
volume for both energy conversion and energy storage. A different
approach is taken by another electrochemical energy storage device
known as a flow battery or redox flow battery. A flow battery is a
relatively new technology that stores its chemical energy in the form
of two liquid electrolytes. The electrolytes are stored in separate tanks
whose volume determines the capacity (kWh) of the flow battery. To
produce electricity, the electrolytes are pumped through a reaction
chamber whose size determines the power (kW) of the flow battery
(Kousksou et al. 2014). This is an important research field. Flow
battery types now being investigated include vanadium-based and
zinc-bromine.
Sub-theme 3: Chemical storage
Chemical storage focuses mainly on generating hydrogen through
electrolysis, also called ‘power-to-gas’ (P2G) technology. Excess
electricity from renewable sources (but not only from there) can be
used to split water into its components: hydrogen (H2) and oxygen
(O2). Hydrogen generation and P2G technologies are covered in the
TRS Fuel Cells and Hydrogen.
Power and gas grids can be linked in two ways. The first is blending,
which involves injecting hydrogen into the gas grid. The second is
methanation: the conversion of hydrogen and carbon dioxide (CO2)
into methane, otherwise known as synthetic natural gas (syngas), with
the help of special catalysts (SBC, 2014). The CO2 could be obtained
via carbon capture technologies from power plants burning fossil fuels.
P2G technology was conceived as a way to use the existing gas grid
to store renewable electricity. Benefits of P2G also include ‘greening’
the end-uses of natural gas, such as heat generation. P2G improves
the flexibility of the energy system by pooling the gas and power
infrastructures.
4
www.eurobat.org/battery-technologies
13
Energy Storage
Sub-theme 4: Electrical storage
Superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES) is a
technology that allows energy to be stored within the magnetic field
of a coil of superconducting wire, with near-instantaneous charging
and discharging. A typical SMES consists of two parts: a cryogenically
cooled superconducting coil and a power conditioning system. The
coil is cooled to a temperature below the temperature needed for
superconductivity that makes it possible to store energy in the magnetic
field created by the flow of direct current in the coil. Once energy is
stored, the current will not degrade and energy can be stored until it
is needed - as long as the refrigeration is operational (Sandia 2010).
‘Round-trip’ energy efficiency is in the range 85-99%. However, due
to their complexity and the energy requirement of the cooling system,
SMESs cannot be built cost-effectively for low power outputs.
Moreover, SMESs are grid-enabling devices that can store and
discharge large quantities of power within a fraction of an alternating
current cycle. This allows them to provide what network engineers
call ‘dynamic compensation’ as well as simple energy storage. The
injection of brief bursts of power can play a crucial role in maintaining
grid reliability. This is especially important with today’s increasingly
congested power lines and large shares of fluctuating renewable
electricity. At longer timescales, modular SMESs can store energy for
periods of several hours, helping to level the loads on the grid.
Several SMES installations have been deployed so far worldwide,
mainly in the US, Japan, South Korea and Germany. SMES technology
is moving towards high-temperature (HT) superconducting materials.
Compared to more conventional low-temperature (LT) superconductors,
this will cut costs and increase energy efficiency and reliability.
Capacitors store electrical energy between two charged plates
(electrodes) made from metal or other conductive material and
separated by an insulating material (the dielectric). Energy is stored
in the electric field between the electrodes. The capacitors are wellsuited especially for high-power applications that require short or very
short discharge times (Sandia 2010). Supercapacitors (SCs) work
in the same way, except that the dielectric that is replaced by an
electrolyte – an ionic conductor – and the two electrodes are made
from materials with very large specific surface areas. Supercapacitors
are often classified as electrochemical storage devices because of
the active part played by the electrolyte. Compared to traditional
capacitors, supercapacitors can provide extremely high power density,
though at very low voltage per unit. They can be used in combination
with or instead of batteries, depending on the application. They can be
connected together to provide large capacities. The largest SC plant
for stationary applications is rated at 7 kW for 1 minute (about 450
kWh), and was built in Palmdale, US, in 2006 (SBC 2013).
14
Sub-theme 4: Mechanical storage
Mechanical energy storage technologies include compressed air energy
storage (CAES), cryogenic energy storage (CES) – including liquid air
energy storage (LAES) – and flywheels. Mechanical energy storage
also covers pumped hydroelectric storage (PHES), which is described
in a separate sub-theme devoted to hydropower.
In compressed-air energy storage (CAES), energy is stored by
compressing air within a reservoir, using a compressor powered by
electric energy. To recover energy, the compressed air is allowed to
flow back out of the reservoir and is expanded through a turbine. A
special clutch allows the same equipment to work as both a motor/
compressor and a generator/turbine, according to the operating
mode. Three reservoir types could generally be applied: naturally
occurring aquifers (as for natural gas storage), solution-mined salt
caverns, and mechanically formed reservoirs in rock formations. The
two existing CAES (IEA 2014a) are actually using salt caverns, further
demonstrations are currently under construction5.
Capital costs for CAES depend on the underground storage conditions,
and are typically in the range USD 400–800/kW (EUR 316-632/kW). As
the self-discharge rate of CAES is very low, this is considered to be the
only technology that can currently compete with pumped hydroelectric
storage (PHS) for long-term and large-scale applications (Kousksou et
al. 2014). There are currently two CAES installations worldwide, with
a total capacity of 0.4 GW (IEA 2014a).
Two main CAES technologies are in development:
• diabatic compressed air energy storage (CAES); and
• adiabatic compressed air energy storage (A-CAES).
‘Traditional’ (diabatic) CAES is a tried-and-tested technology, but it
has one big drawback: the round-trip efficiency of existing plants is
below 55%. This is because the heat produced in compressing the
air is wasted. As a result, the discharge part of the cycle requires
natural gas to be burned to replace this lost energy. A-CAES promises
to improve efficiency and cut gas consumption by storing the heat
of compression. Especially adiabatic CAES, if developed to maturity,
could offer a financially interesting path for more efficiency in energy
systems, assuming high natural gas prices and prices for emission
rights.
Cryogenic energy storage (CES), including liquid air energy
storage (LAES), uses electricity to drive a Claude thermodynamic
cycle that cools air or nitrogen to the temperature at which it liquefies
(around –196°C). The resulting liquid takes up just one-thousandth of
the original volume of the gas, and can be stored in a large vacuum
flask at atmospheric pressure. At times of high demand for electricity,
the liquid air or nitrogen is pumped at high pressure into a heat
5
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15
Energy Storage
exchanger, which acts as a boiler. Air from the atmosphere at ambient
temperature, or industrial waste heat in the form of hot water, heats the
liquid and turns it back into a gas. The massive increase in volume and
pressure as the liquid vaporises is used to drive a turbine to generate
electricity. Moreover, R&D on CAES currently focuses on small aboveground pressurised tanks (micro CAES) and also submarine containers
of various sizes, either rigid or flexible like balloons.
Flywheel energy storage is based on accelerating a cylindrical rotor
assembly that converts electrical energy into rotating kinetic energy
and stores it in this form. Flywheels have high efficiency – up to 95%
– and very fast response time. They can be used in a wide variety of
applications, from smoothing the effects of clouds in solar PV projects
to providing frequency regulation, frequency response, reserves and
reactive power for grid management. The installed capacity worldwide
amounts currently to 45 MW (SBC 2013, p.32). They can be installed
at the transmission or distribution level, and even in remote areas and
isolated grids. However flywheels typically do not store energy over a
very long time so they are typically used for frequency control but not
for shifting energy from one hour to another.
Automotive flywheels, which have been developed primarily for
hybrid cars, have different properties from flywheels typically used for
stationary storage. Their reaction times are 100–1000 times faster,
with lifetimes (in terms of operating cycles) to match, but their capacity
is much lower. They were successfully tested by the automotive
industry in 2009-2013 in Formula 1 and other races with zero failures,
despite being involved in crashes6. Automotive flywheels may be
used for stationary storage as well, especially when hybridised with
other technologies. They also have potential to penetrate the energy
market for frequency or voltage control, while being complementary
to batteries and supercapacitors.
Sub-theme 5: Pumped hydroelectric storage and hydropower
Hydropower uses the potential energy of water stored in an elevated
reservoir, converting this first into kinetic energy as running water,
then by a turbine into mechanical energy, and finally by a generator
into electrical energy (IEA 2012). Most hydropower today is generated
this way in large, reservoir-based hydro power plants (HPPs).
In a different form of hydro-power known as ‘run-of-river’, the water
is not stored; instead part of a river’s normal flow is diverted to a
canal that feeds a low-head turbine. Micro- hydro installations (up
to 100 kW) working in this way have been developed in Europe and
are currently deployed in developing countries. These might also be
connected to lower voltage levels like PV and most on-shore wind.
Micro-hydro is a term used for devices that are developed due to a
subsidised market mainly, but also profitable small hydro installations
exist (Bard, 2013).
6
16
http://thewptformula.com/2014/03/26/analysis-a-brief-study-of-the-kinetic-energyrecovery-system-mgu-k/
As well as electricity, large reservoir-based HPPs may also provide
seasonal or inter-seasonal energy storage. A variation much used for
short-term energy storage, known as pumped hydroelectric storage
(PHS), uses two reservoirs at different levels. To generate power,
water falls from the upper reservoir to the lower (which may be a
river), passing through turbines on the way. To store power, electric
pumps return the water to the upper reservoir.
Both reservoir HPPs and PHSs store potential energy in the form
of water at high level, allowing them to generate on demand. The
difference is that PHSs use electricity from the grid to lift the water up,
and then recover most of this power later. With a round-trip efficiency
of 70–85%, PHS is a net consumer of electricity. It does, however,
provide effective energy storage: more than 127 GW of PHS capacity
is currently installed worldwide (SBC 2013, p.28), accounting for 99%
of grid-based electricity storage (IEA 2014a, p.19).
More than 7,000 MW of new and proposed PHS developments have
been reported in China, Japan, the US and Europe (IEA, 2012). A
wide variation in capital costs was reported as well. The long-term
trend reflects the growth of hydropower capacity worldwide, with an
increase of 52% from 1990 to 2009, and particularly rapid growth in
China (694 TWh in 2010 (IEA 2012)).
Sub-theme 6: Integration of energy storage in energy systems
The transformation of energy systems increasingly requires the
integration of appropriate energy storage solutions at different levels:
generation, transmission, distribution and end-use. Very different needs
must be covered. The residential sector requires thermal storage of
low-temperature heat for space heating and hot water. Industry needs
medium- or high-temperature process heat via various heat carriers
(water, steam, high-temperature fluids or phase change materials) to
drive its processes, and in turn produces low-temperature waste heat
that can be used elsewhere. Renewable electricity generation can be
used on a large scale if enough flexible storage capacity is integrated
into either the generating plants themselves (as with CSP) or the
transmission or distribution grids (for wind or PV power) (Lund 2014).
The first of these integrated schemes to be tested have been thermal
storage installations for industrial processes and CSP; these have
relatively low capacities and high costs. Next, integration of electricity
storage in smart grids is crucial for system stability and security of
supply. Figure 1, below, shows several key energy storage technologies
in terms of their capital cost, technology risk and current phase of
development, followed by a summary of further characteristics. Further
information on smart grids can be found in the TRS Smart Electricity
Grids and ICT in Energy.
17
Energy Storage
Overview of energy storage technology characteristics
Figures 1 and 2, and Table 3, give an overview of the state of development
and the costs of different energy storage technologies. For electricity
storage, a wide range of technologies is under development and at
the demonstration stage, covering many different requirements for
charge and discharge time, power capacity and efficiency.
Figure 1: Overview
technologies
of
the
characteristics
of
energy
storage
Source: SBC 2013, Kousksou et al. 2014
Figure 2: Overview of the characteristics of electricity storage
technologies
Source: SBC 2013
18
Table 3: Technical and economic characteristics of energy storage
options
Supercap
Pb-acid
NiCd
Li-ion
NaS
NaNiCl
ZEBRA
VRB
ZnBr
100
300
SMES
100
5000
Flow
batteries
Flywheel
CAES
Power rating,
MW
PHS
Storage
technology
Advanced
batteries
Hydrogen
Conventional
batteries
0.001
50
0.002
20
0.01
10
0.01
1
0.001
50
0.001
40
0.001
0.1
0.5
50
0.001
1
0.03
7
0.05
2
15s
-
ms5min
ms1h
s-3h
s-h
min-h
shours
min-h
s-10h
s-10h
ms
ms
75
60
80
1
1
24h+
24h+
-
s24h+
Response time
s-min
5-15
min
min
s
ms
ms
Energy density
Wh/kg
0.5
1.5
30
60
800
104
5
130
0.5
5
0.115
30
50
40
60
75
250
150
240
125
500+
400
1600
500
2000
0.1
10
75
300
150
300
150
315
90
230
130
160
300
350
300
0
40
Energy Rating
-
Power density
W/kg
15min
Self-discharge
(%/day)
~0
~0
0.5-2
20
100
Round-trip
efficiency
75
85
42
54
20
50
50
100
25
40
Cycles
2*104
5*104
Power cost
€/kW
Lifetime
(years)
Energy cost €/
kwh
-40
+85
-20
+40
Operating
temp. (°C)
50
150
40
-
0.3
0.2
0.6
0.1
0.3
20
15
0
10
1
95
85
98
60
95
60
91
85
100
85
90
90
85
70
75
20+
20
20+
3
15
15
20
5
15
10
15
10
14
5
20
5
10
103+
105
107
104
104
108
100
1000
1000
3000
103
104+
2000
4500
2500+
104+
2000+
400
1150
550
1600
100
300
100
400
100
400
200
650
350
1000
700
3000
700
2000
100
200
2500
500
1800
10
120
1
15
1000
3500
700
7000
300
4000
50
300
200
1000
200
1800
200
900
70
150
100
1000
100
700
10
2
0.1
15
85
95
5-15
5*103
2*104
500
3600
80
150
-
-
Note: The power price reported for hydrogen relates to gas turbine based generator. The
power price for fuel cells is in range of 2000-6000 €/kW.
Sources: Schoenung and Hassenzahl, 2003; Chen et al., 2009; Beaudin et al., 2010; EERA,
2011; BNEF, 2011b; Nakharnkin, 2008
Source: DG ENER Working Paper (2013): The future role and challenges of Energy Storage;
http://ec.europa.eu/energy/infrastructure/doc/energy-storage/2013/energy_storage.pdf
19
Energy Storage
3 Policy context
3.1 European policies and research
initiatives
The current EU policies relevant to R&D on energy storage and
hydropower cover a wide range of technologies and applications
at large, medium and small scales. They include regulations and
communications on energy infrastructure, smart grids, and the
increasing use of renewable energy sources supporting European
climate and energy targets. Table 4 provides a non-comprehensive list
of relevant EU policy documents.
Table 4: EU policy documents relevant for energy storage and hydropower
EU Policy Documents
20
Abbreviation
Title
COM/2013/0169 final
Green Paper. A 2030 framework for
climate and energy policies
COM/2014/15
On a policy framework for climate and
energy in the period from 2020 to 2030
COM/2010/677
Energy infrastructure priorities for
2020 and beyond: a blueprint for an
integrated European energy network
COM/2011/658
Guidelines for trans-European energy infrastructure
COM/2011/665
Establishing the Connecting Europe Facility
Directive 2009/28/EC
On the promotion of the use of energy from
renewable sources (Renewable Energy Directive)
Directive 2009/72/EC
Concerning common rules for the
internal market in electricity and
repealing Directive 2003/54/EC
Directive 2009/72/EC
Concerning common rules for the
internal market in natural gas and
repealing Directive 2003/55/EC
Directive 2006/66/EC
On batteries and accumulators and waste
batteries and accumulators, amended
by 2008/12/EC and 2008/103/EC
Directive 2000/60/EC
Water Framework Directive (WFD)
amended by Directive 2008/32/EC
COM/2011/885/2
Energy Roadmap 2050
COM/2007/723/EC
On European Strategic Energy
Technology Plan (SET-Plan)
COM/2009/519 and
SEC/2011/1609 final
Materials Roadmap (and EC Staff Working
Paper ‘Materials Roadmap Enabling
Low Carbon Energy Technologies’)
In January 2014 the European Commission proposed energy and
climate objectives to be met by 2030 (COM/2014/15): A reduction
in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions by 40% below the 1990 level, an
EU-wide binding target for renewable energy of at least 27%, renewed
ambitions for energy efficiency policies, a new governance system,
and a set of new indicators to ensure a competitive and secure energy
system. This framework was prepared by the Green Paper ‘A 2030
framework for climate and energy policies’ (COM/2013/0169 final).
The EU communication COM/2010/677 (point 2.3) outlines energy
infrastructure priorities for 2020 and beyond, towards efficient
networks. In October 2011, the Commission adopted two relevant
proposals for regulations that would together create an energy
infrastructure package. The first of these proposals, COM/2011/658
‘Guidelines for trans-European energy infrastructure’, identified 12
priorities covering transport networks for electricity, gas, oil and carbon
dioxide; it aims to ensure that strategic energy networks and storage
facilities are completed by 2020. Energy storage has a prominent
position in the proposed regulation, and is always mentioned together
with transmission. However, incentives for pumped hydro, the most
mature storage technology, are specifically excluded.
The second complementary communication, COM/2011/665
‘Establishing the Connecting Europe Facility’, sets out provisions for a
proposed integrated instrument to invest in EU infrastructure priorities
in transport, energy and telecommunications, known as the Connecting
Europe Facility (CEF).
Member States have agreed to complete the internal electricity market
by 2014 (COM/2012/663 ‘Making the internal energy market work’).
The third energy market package (Directives 2009/72/EC and
2009/73/EC) is the cornerstone of the integration of the gas
and electricity markets. This package, adopted by the European
Parliament and the Council in July 2009, is complemented by several
communications. Communication COM/2012/663 specifically
addresses the progress of the internal energy market and highlights
the importance of storage. It also states that price signals are the
tool for ‘encouraging flexibility on the supply side, from storage or
from generation capacity that can be quickly ramped up or down’. It
states clearly that the EC intends to tackle any regulatory issues in the
integration of storage.
The EC Roadmap 2050 (COM/2011/885/2, adopted in 2011) sets
out the vision of a competitive low-carbon economy by 2050. With
the ongoing expansion of renewable generation, the Roadmap has
re-focused attention on energy storage as a means to accommodate
higher shares of power from RESs: ‘Storage technologies remain
critical. Storage is currently often more expensive than additional
transmission capacity [or] gas backup generation capacity, while
conventional storage based on hydro is limited’ (p. 10). It also recognises
that: ‘One challenge is the need for flexible resources in the power
21
Energy Storage
system (e.g. flexible generation, storage, demand management) as
the contribution of intermittent renewable generation increases’. In
particular, the Roadmap stipulates that a new sense of urgency and
collective responsibility must be brought to bear on the development of
new energy infrastructure and storage capacities across Europe.
Communication COM/2007/723/EC on a European Strategic Energy
Technology Plan (SET-Plan) promotes the development of integrated
energy networks and storage as key technology challenges to be
tackled on the way to a low carbon energy system.
The ‘Materials Roadmap’ COM/2009/519 addresses the technology
agenda of the SET-Plan by proposing a comprehensive European
programme on materials research and innovation. The EC Staff Working
Paper ‘Materials Roadmap Enabling Low Carbon Energy Technologies’
SEC/2011/1609 has proposed technical and economic targets for
materials and related storage technologies.
In 2006 the Commission issued a Directive on batteries and
accumulators (2006/66/EC). This aims to minimise the environmental
impact of batteries and improve their overall environmental
performance. This was followed by secondary legislation on batteries,
including Directives 2008/12/EC and 2008/103/EC amending the
Battery Directive, Decision 2009/603/EC establishing requirements
for the registration of battery producers, and Regulation 2010/103
establishing rules for capacity labelling of portable secondary
(rechargeable) and automotive batteries and accumulators.
The SET-Plan includes eight European Industrial Initiatives (EIIs),
but no specific initiative related to electricity storage technologies.
Nonetheless, storage is mentioned in the documents relevant to
the SET-Plan’s European Electricity Grid initiative (see below), the
Solar Initiative and the Wind Power Initiative. In December 2012
the European Parliament included an amendment on energy storage
in its Horizon 2020 legislation. This amendment acknowledges the
importance of research related to energy storage in meeting the SETPlan objectives.
The European Electricity Grid Initiative (EEGI) is one of the
European Industrial Initiatives under the SET-Plan. It proposes
a nine-year European research, development and demonstration
(RD&D) programme to accelerate innovation and development for
future electricity networks in Europe. The EEGI’s target is to create
a cost-effective and reliable pan-European network, with up to 35%
of all electricity supplied from renewable sources by 2020. This also
takes into consideration new developments such as electrification of
transport and integration of energy storage technologies.
The European Energy Research Alliance (EERA) in 2011 launched
a joint programme on energy storage, with sub-programmes covering
electrochemical, chemical, thermal, mechanical, and superconducting
22
magnetic energy storage7. The programme has defined individual
work packages and milestones based on the research and technology
requirements of the different energy storage methods.
The Working Paper on the future role and challenges of Energy
Storage was published by the Commission’s DG Energy in January
2013. It identified the need for a European strategy to advance the
development and deployment of energy storage. With this document
the Commission aimed to give more attention to the issues around
energy storage with a view to addressing these more effectively in EU
energy policy.
Further important stakeholders with influence on policies relevant to
energy storage R&D are the European Association for Storage
of Energy (EASE), founded in 2011; the Association of European
Battery Manufacturers (EUROBAT), and the Electricity Storage
Association (ESA).
Hydropower
Concerning the development of hydropower, critical issues are the
need to reduce environmental damage and the progressive silting
of reservoirs which reduces long-term performance. In Europe, the
Water Framework Directive (WFD) (2000/60/EC) requires the use
of integrated water resource management (IWRM) and addresses other
relevant issues (such as the need to operate with large load variations
with the increased penetration of renewable energy implying stresses
on materials).
Obstacles for further development of hydropower in terms of the
transformation of existing hydropower plants into pumped hydro
electrical storage installations, include the statement of Renewable
Energy Directive (2009/28/EC, point 30), excluding the electricity
generated in such installations from the definition of renewable
sources, formulated in this Directive.
7
www.eera-set.eu/index.php?index=79
23
Energy Storage
3.2 National research initiatives in
Europe
A Europe-wide mapping exercise on energy storage research, carried
out in the context of the European Grid+ project (Geth et al. 2013),
identified a tendency towards regional specialisation. This trend is
most visible in southern Europe, which focuses strongly on battery
storage. Mechanical storage (mostly CAES and pumped hydro) is
further developed in some parts of northern and central Europe (mostly
Norway, Austria and Denmark). There are interesting developments in
chemical storage (such as power-to-gas) in countries like Germany
and Spain. Most demonstration and pre-commercial projects were
found in countries in which R&D is financed from grid tariffs (Italy,
Norway, and the UK). The report also noted a contrast between the
EU-15 and the newer Member States.
Italy has introduced several research programmes, including the
Research on Electricity System Programme [Ricerca di Sistema Elettrico
(RdS)]8, which covers work at national research centres as well as
industrial research by the total budget of EUR 600 million. The most
recent RdS three-year plan also supports research activities in various
storage technologies (Li-ion batteries, vanadium redox flow batteries,
high-temperature sodium-based thermal storage, supercapacitors,
hydrogen, SMES, PHS, and CAES). The programme’s open calls cover
themes such as advanced materials for electrochemical energy storage
and advanced energy storage systems.
In 2010 in Germany, an ‘Energy Storage Funding Initiative’ as part of
the current 6th Energy Research Programme of the German Federal
Government was launched. In the first phase of the programme (20122014), German ministries - the German Federal Ministry of Economic
Affairs and Energy (BMWi), the Federal Ministry for the Environment,
Nature Conservation, Building and Nuclear Safety (BMUB) and the
Federal Ministry for Education and Research (BMBF)- have set aside
around EUR 200 million for 60 research projects with the aim of
further developing a wide range of storage technologies for electricity
(including hydrogen generation), heat and other energy sources.
The preceding Innovation Alliance Lithium-Ion Batteries LIB 2015
(2007-2014), initiated by the Federal Ministry for Education and
Research (BMBF), focused on new scientific concepts for lithium-ion
batteries to promote scale-up and applications in vehicles and the energy
sector. This initiative emerged jointly from the funding programmes
WING (for innovations in materials science), Mikrosystem technik
(microsystems technology) and Grundlagenforschung Energie
2020+ (basic research for energy technologies). Together these
programmes supplied EUR 60 m, while industry provided an additional
EUR 360 m.9
8
9
24
www.ricercadisistema.it
www.lib2015.de/lib_2015.php
With regard to power-to-gas (P2G) technology, the German national
strategy platform led by the energy agency DENA in 2011 formulated a
roadmap for P2G technology development. The target is a cumulative
P2G plants capacity of 1,000 MW by 202210.
In Denmark, since 2012 a number of energy research programmes
have focused on areas including smart grids and energy storage.
Research activities run in the framework of the programmes of the
Danish National Advanced Technology Foundation, DSF, ForskEL,
ELforsk, and EUDP.
Recent developments in the United Kingdom energy storage RD&D
are accessible through the Energy Research Partnership (ERP)11. In
2013 the UK government announced a GBP 30 million initiative to
create dedicated R&D facilities to develop and test new grid-scale
storage technologies.
10
11
www.dena.de/en/projects/renewables/power-to-gas-strategy-platform.html
www.energyresearchpartnership.org.uk/ESresearchdevelopments
25
Energy Storage
4 Research findings
4.1 Overview of projects selected for
results analysis
The projects selected for this TRS reflect the wide spectrum of R&D
activities in storage technologies, ranging from basic research to the
demonstration of mobile and stationary applications. The selection was
made to reflect technological developments and cannot be exhaustive
with regard to either projects (national, EU FP7 and some previous
programmes) or potential applications. Projects mainly focusing on
transport or material issues are not included here. The selected projects
have end dates from 2009 onwards, so they cannot reflect the extensive
work on energy storage that began at the end of 1970s and the real
extent of the budget dedicated in years since to this R&D area12.
Finally, since many of the projects on innovative storage technologies
were launched only recently, their final results are not yet available.
In spite of that, their objectives and interim results are presented
together with the results of already completed projects, to give a more
comprehensive picture of current R&D.
Table 5 summarises this selection, which includes both EU-funded and
national projects.
Table 5: Overview of selected projects by sub-theme
1
2
3
4
5
6
12
26
Sub-theme
Thermal storage
Projects Acronyms/ Description
HESTOR, COMTES, MERITIS, SOTHERCO,
MESSIB, StoRRe, TCSPOWER, STARS,
E-HUB, TcET, HeHo, NEOTHERM, HD-HGV
Electrochemical
STALLION, HI-C, POWAIR, APPLES, HELION,
storage
SunStore4, SOTHERCO, STABALID, alphaLaion, LithoRec II, ProTrak, Ricerca di Sistema
Chemical storage GREENGAS, P2G projects (Germany, Denmark)
Electrical storage NEST, Super-Kon, IES, Nova Cap, ENREKON
Mechanical
MESSIB, ADELE, ADELE-ING, Highview
storage
LAES (UK), CAES (NL and Switzerland)
PHES
HYDROACTION, HYLOW, STENSEA (Germany),
(including
Energy membrane (DK), JRC and IEA
hydropower)
potential studies for transformation to PHES
It is well known that most of the know-how incorporated in current commercial Li-ion
batteries, produced outside EU, was generated in EU countries with significant EC funding
(Conte 2014b).
7
Integration of
energy storage
in energy
systems
MESSIB, stoRE, E-HUB, SmartPowerFlow,
Hybrid Urban Storage, eStorage, GRID+, Nice
Grid, SV2G, READY, EnergyPLAN, IMAGES
Further information on these projects is available in Annex 2
4.2 Project results by sub-theme
Below, the project results are summarised for each sub-theme. Each
section includes an analysis of general trends in research and a
synthesis of research results, including implications for EU policy goals.
The allocation of projects to the various Key Performance Indicators
(KPIs) of ERKC can be found in Chapter 6.
4.2.1 Sub-theme 1: Thermal storage
General research trends
There are three major types of heat storage: sensible heat storage (e.g.
boilers), latent heat storage [e.g. Phase Change Materials (PCMs)], and
thermochemical heat storage. Low Temperature Thermal Energy Storage
(LTTES) systems have been extensively investigated, with a focus mainly
on efficiency and integration into buildings. High Temperature Thermal
Energy Storage (HTTES) systems demonstrated so far in industry and
solar thermal power plants have relatively limited capacity (storage time
of a few hours for sensible heat systems with energy densities of 50-100
kWh/m3). They are also characterised by possible environmental and
safety hazards (flammable and toxic thermal oils and corrosive molten
salts) and relatively high costs (EUR 40-50 /kWh for latent heat storage
systems). Current R&D activities focus on long-term and high-density
thermal storage to provide compact seasonal heat storage, to ensure
continuous production from the next generation of solar thermal power
plants, and to increase the energy efficiency of industrial processes.
More details of research on concentrating solar power can be found in
the TRS dedicated to that topic.
Research results
The EU-funded MERITS project13 (2012-2016) is developing,
demonstrating and evaluating a compact seasonal storage system
based on novel high-density materials for thermochemical storage.
The aim is to supply heating, cooling and Domestic Hot Water (DHW)
from up to 100% renewable energy sources. The demonstration
includes solar collectors, development of materials and components
including system integration, and control strategies for charging and
discharging. The key development issues are:
•d
elivery of heat at different temperatures for heating, cooling
and hot water;
13
www.merits.eu
27
Energy Storage
• tailoring the system to the requirements of individual dwellings;
• design and development of a dedicated solar collector; and
• integrated design of the different components and enhanced
thermochemical materials, including the control system.
The EU-funded project COMTES (2012-2016)14 covers three thermal
energy storage technologies in parallel: solid sorption, liquid sorption and
super-cooling PCMs. The project started by defining system boundary
conditions and target applications, and investigating the best available
storage materials. Numerical modelling of the physical processes, backed
by experimental validation, will improve component design. Full-scale
prototypes are simulated, constructed and tested in the laboratory in
order to optimise process design. One year of monitored operation in
demonstration buildings is planned, followed by an integrated evaluation
of the systems and their implementation potential.
The EU FP7 funded project MESSIB (Multi-source Energy Storage
System Integrated in Buildings15 2009-2013) designed, simulated and
tested four different energy storage systems for buildings integration,
of which two concerned thermal storage. One of these developed PCMs
based on a paraffin mixture with a melting range matched to the use
of heat pumps. The main achievement was to incorporate these PCMs,
in micro-encapsulated form, into fluids with viscosities suitable for
circulation in traditional heating and cooling equipment. Incorporated
into the building envelope, these fluids can then be used to heat or
cool floors, ceilings and walls. In parallel, MESSIB worked on a thermal
ground storage (GS) system based on new lower-cost tube materials
and new soil material with improved thermal properties. This resulted
in a ground heat exchanger (GHEX) with new geometry and enhanced
thermal characteristics, and a conductive fluid material (CFM) that can
be injected in the soil around heat exchanger to improve the thermal
conductivity of the ground.
The ongoing TCSPower project16 (2011-2015) focuses on technological
development of thermochemical storage (TCS) for use in concentrating
solar power (CSP) plants (Figure 4). The work covers three areas:
chemical reaction systems and storage materials; TCS reactor design,
taking into account heat and mass transfer in combination with reaction
kinetics; and integration of TCS into CSP plants17. A simulation tool
for the design of TCS reactors with improved heat and mass transfer
characteristics will be used to identify suitable reactor concepts for two
reaction systems: one based on calcium hydroxide and the other on
redox systems of manganese oxides. Both types will be evaluated in
the laboratory, and the most promising system will be scaled up to
10 kW. The project envisages the development of calcium hydroxide
and manganese oxide materials with long-term stability and improved
properties in terms of reversible reaction kinetics and heat transfer.
14
15
16
28
w
ww.nachhaltigwirtschaften.at/iea_pdf/events/20120919_eces_wim_van_helden_shc_ii_1.pdf
www.messib.eu
www.tcs-power.eu
Figure 3: Thermochemical storage (TCS) unit integrated into a CSP plant
Note: Red and blue arrows indicate the flow direction of the heat transfer fluid during TCS
charge and discharge mode, respectively.
Source: TCSPower project
Based on the results obtained, two schemes for integrating TCS
systems into CSP plants will be developed. Finally, strategies for scaleup to commercial plants and a techno-economic evaluation of TCS are
envisaged.
The major objective of the EU-funded project SoTherCo18 (2012-2016)
is to install, monitor and assess an innovative, modular and compact
TCS system for seasonal storage of solar heat in buildings. The solar
heat-storage system (HSS) is based on a series of 1,000-litre heat
storage modules. It is intended to provide the flexibility needed for
space heating in low-energy buildings, from single-family dwellings up
to community buildings and district heating systems.
The French project STARS19 (2012-2016) is also developing thermal
storage solutions for CSP plants. Decoupling electricity production
from the availability of sunlight would allow a CSP plant to follow
demand more closely, increase plant availability, and minimise the
cost of electricity by allowing a smaller turbine to be used to produce
the same amount of electricity over a longer period of time.
The EU FP7 HESTOR project (2010-2012) aimed to model and
test the thermo-physical properties and phase change behaviour
of encapsulated hybrid PCMs (HPCMs) in thermal energy storage
units (TSUs). The PCMs used were commercial macro-encapsulated
materials with melting temperatures of 46°C and 10°C for heating and
cooling, respectively. Based on the results of simulations, two TSUs
were designed, constructed and coupled with an HVAC system. The
heating unit had a thermal capacity of 3.36 kWh and the cooling unit
had a capacity of 2.8 kWh. Even at the prototype stage, the use of
thermal storage cut peak power consumption by 40%. With a larger
storage tank and different temperature set-points the system had the
potential to cut peak power demand by up to 80–100%. With current
prices for PCMs, the HESTOR solution was projected to have a payback
time of 4.5–13.6 years, depending on the type of PCM used.
17
18
19
www.pre.ethz.ch/research/projects/?id=tcspower
http://cordis.europa.eu/project/rcn/107960_de.html
http://www.ademe.fr/sites/default/files/assets/documents/82736_stars.pdf
29
Energy Storage
Figure 4: HESTOR project structure
The main objective of the EU project StoRRe20 (2012-2015) is to
develop and quantify, at pilot scale, a TCS system based on the
dehydration of Ca(OH)2 with the following requirements: heat
storage ranging from mid-term (24 h to a few days) up to longterm (several months); high storage density (300-500 kWh/m3);
and high temperatures (300-550°C). The project aims to assess the
development potential of the technology at pre-industrial scale, with
the aim of ultimately using it in CSP plants.
The EU project E-HUB21 (2012-2014) designed and tested distributed
heat storage solutions for district energy systems based on both
water and TCMs. For the latter, the initial material of choice was MgCl2
because of its high thermal capacity. A prototype reactor containing a
20-l fixed bed of MgCl2•6H2O was built and tested using moist air as
the reacting medium and for heat transfer. However, detailed thermal
analysis revealed long-term instability for this salt. The project then
turned to zeolite as a substitute active material, building and testing
a heat storage system based on two 112 dm3 vessels each containing
75 kg of zeolite grains. For simplicity and low cost the prototype was
based on open sorption. The storage capacity was approximately 15
kWh and the thermal power measured during charging and discharging
was in the range 0.5-1 kW.
20
21
30
http://www.store-project.eu
www.e-hub.org
The newly started German project TcET22 (2014-2017) is focusing on
a thermochemical energy storage unit for thermal power plants and
industrial heat. The main objective here is to optimise the performance
and capacity of TCSs both with and without the use of fluidised beds
to transfer heat. The aim is to store large amounts of heat in the
temperature range between 300–600°C for considerable periods
of time, so as to increase the flexibility, efficiency and economy of
thermal power plants. Another project HD-HGV (2012-2015), running
in the framework of the German Energy Storage Initiative, aims at the
development of safe, sustainable and efficient thermochemical storage
of hydrogen by designing and testing new composite materials based
on graphite and metal hydrides (as chemical compounds of metals and
hydrogen).
The German NEOTHERM project (2013-2018) intends to develop,
characterise and assess micro-macro-porous composite materials for
TCS. The aim is to create sorption materials for water-based systems
that will give high storage densities and effective thermal transfer at
temperatures from well below 20°C to 500°C. The range of temperatures
chosen will allow the technology to be used for many different applications,
including storing solar energy and recycling process heat. The project
plans to develop substrates based on cellular materials, and to optimise
these in terms of their chemical, morphological and thermal properties.
In parallel, the project will work on the development and modification of
micro-porous crystalline compounds [metal organic frameworks (MOFs)
and zeolites] as the active components for thermal storage.
The Danish project HeHo (Heat Storage in Hot Aquifers)23 (2011-2015)
is focusing on the seasonal storage of heat from waste incineration by
injecting hot water into aquifers in Denmark’s geothermal reservoirs.
The main objective is to evaluate the technological potential by
considering the response of the reservoir to heat injection, including
flow tests, batch tests and geotechnical tests.
Table 6: Selected projects in sub-theme 1
Sub-theme 1: Thermal storage
Project
acronym
Project title
Budget
EUR million
MERITS
More Effective Use of Renewables
Including Compact Seasonal
Thermal Energy Storage
€6.3 m total
€4.6 m EU
COMTES
Combined development of compact
thermal energy storage technologies
€6.65 m total
€4.7 m EU
MESSIB
Multi-source Energy Storage System
Integrated in Buildings WP2
€8.5 m total
€5.99 m EU
22
23
www.es.mw.tum.de/index.php?id=322
www.staff.dtu.dk/ilfa/HeHo
31
Energy Storage
TCSPOWER
Thermochemical Energy Storage for
Concentrated Solar Power Plants
€4.25 m total
€2.85 m EU
SOTHERCO
Solar Thermochemical
Compact Storage System
€6.3 m total
€4.5 m EU
STARS
Stockage Thermique Appliqué à
l’extension de production d’énergie
Solaire thermodynamique
€16.3 m total
€6.7 m national
funding (France)
HESTOR
Development of Thermal Storage
Application for HVAC Solutions
Based on Phase Change Materials
€0.8 m total
€0.56 m EU
StoRRe
High temperature thermal
energy Storage by Reversible
Thermochemical Reaction
€3.08 m total
€2.2 m EU
E-HUB
Energy-Hub for residential and
commercial districts and transport
€11.6 m total
€7.99 m EU
TcET
Thermochemische Energiespeicher
für thermische Kraftwerke
und industrielle Wärme
€1.59 m
national funding
(Germany)
HD-HGV
Hochdynamische Thermochemische
Energiespeicher auf Basis von
Hybrid-Graphit-Verbundwerkstoffen
€1.18 m
national funding
(Germany)
NEOTHERM
Innovative Composite Materials for
Thermal-chemical Energy Storage
€5.5 m
national funding
(Germany)
HeHo
Heat Storage in Hot Aquifers
€1.95 m
national funding
(Denmark)
4.2.2 Sub-theme 2: Electrochemical storage
General trends in research on the sub-theme
Current R&D activities focus mainly on battery storage (especially
Li-ion batteries and vanadium redox flow batteries), with the aim of
increasing efficiency and reducing costs.
Research results
The EU FP7-funded STABALID project (Stationary Batteries Li-ion Safe
Deployment) (2012-2015) aims at the deployment of safe stationary
batteries with an energy content above 1 MWh and a cell size larger
than 10 Ah. Special focus within the framework of the project, is
a new safety testing procedure for stationary batteries, that can
become a new international standard for this type of energy storage.
This procedure, testing the safety during the whole life cycle of the
batteries, will be worked out based on a detailed risk analysis and
on the review of existing international standards regarding stationary
batteries. Moreover, the on-going R&D activities on Li-ion Batteries and
on electric vehicle charging at EU and national levels will be considered
as well. Additionally, a strategy and roadmap will be developed, to
establish a harmonized regulatory framework for safe implementation,
operation and end of life of large Li-ion batteries in grid applications.
32
The objectives of the EU FP7 project STALLION24 (2012-2015) are
to develop and validate a safety framework for large stationary Li-ion
batteries at all stages of their life cycle (commissioning, transport,
installation, operation, maintenance, repair, decommissioning,
recycling). It addresses every level of the battery system (material,
cell, module, pack, system). The results will lead to a handbook on
comprehensive and generic safety measures for large grid-connected
batteries, with contributions to the standardisation framework for
large-scale Li-ion battery testing and the faster and safer deployment
of Li-ion batteries in grid applications.
The EU FP7 project HI-C25 (2013-2017) aims to develop methodologies
for determining in detail the role of interface boundaries and interface
layers on transport properties and reactivity in lithium batteries, and
to use the knowledge gained to improve performance.
The EU FP7 project POWAIR26 (2010-2014) aimed to develop robust,
cheap and high-capacity zinc-air flow batteries suitable for integration
into power distribution grids. The battery system could be charged
directly from the grid, for peak shaving applications, or from renewable
energy installations, providing stability to the grid. In tandem with the
battery system, a novel distributed power converter will be developed
to enable ‘plug and play’ scale-up and hot-swapping of battery
modules. The final outcome is expected to be an integrated energy
storage system (10 kW power rating and up to 100 kWh capacity)
suitable for rapid commercialisation, with performance fully tested on
a grid simulator.
Lithium-Ion Battery Energy Storage System (ESS) - Kirkwall,
Orkney Islands27 is a current demonstration project run jointly by
some Scottish energy utilities and Japanese partners. The project
includes the design, construction and operation of a grid-connected
2 MW Li-ion battery on the Orkney islands in the UK. Orkney’s high
proportion of renewable energy generation, in the form of both wind
and more recently marine power, makes this project an ideal test case
for grid-connected energy storage and the integration of intermittent
renewable electricity production. Without energy storage, wind power
output would otherwise have to be reduced in windy weather because
of the limited capacity of submarine distribution cables between the
islands. The project is based around a 2 MW Li-ion battery housed
in two shipping containers. The two container units, each containing
about 2,000 Li-ion batteries, plus a separate power conditioning unit,
provides a maximum capacity of approximately 800 kWh, or 500 kWh
in normal usage. The system is installed at Kirkwall Power Station,
operated by Scottish Hydro Electric Power Distribution (SHEPD), and
started operation in August 201328.
24
25
26
27
28
www.stallion-project.eu
www.cordis.europa.eu/project/rcn/109252_de.html
www.powair.eu
www.mhi.co.jp/technology/review/pdf/e503/e503036.pdf
www.emea.mhps.com/news/20130801401
33
Energy Storage
The EU APPLES (Advanced, High Performance, Polymer Lithium
Batteries for Electrochemical Storage) project29 (2011-2014) aimed
to develop an industrial prototype of an advanced Li-ion battery for
electric vehicles. The battery anode is made from lithium and tincarbon (Sn-C) alloy, the cathode is a lithium nickel manganese
oxide (LiNi0.5Mn1.5O4), and the electrolyte is a gel-type membrane
containing ceramic. Compared with existing Li-ion batteries this should
provide improved performance in terms of energy density, cycle life,
cost, sustainability, and safety.
The EU FP7-funded project MESSIB (Multi-source Energy Storage
System Integrated in Buildings) (2009-2013) worked on vanadium
redox flow batteries (VRBs), with a focus on material screening for
membranes, electrodes and electrolytes. The aim was to create a
compact VRB for long-term electrical storage in buildings (Figure 6). For
a single cell, the project investigated flow rate, system configuration,
layout, energy density of the electrolyte, power electronic parts, safety
issues and housing. The result was a stack with a power output of 1.4
kW and a capacity of 6 kWh. A matching power electronic converter
was also designed and assembled.
During operation, however, the VRB stack showed irreparable leakage.
Building on this experience the team designed and built a new stack
with increased power (2.3 kW).
The EU-funded project E-STARS30 (2008-2011) aimed to develop
enhanced sensing and communication capability for an autonomous
smart micro system powered by a new high-capacity integrated
micro battery. The objective was to improve energy management
and autonomy performance while reducing the volume. Innovative
micro batteries designed around a 3-D architecture were envisaged
with better performance than traditional solutions: capacity increased
from 100 µAh/cm2 to 1 000 µAh/cm2, and power increased from 5
mW/cm2 to 50 mW/cm2. New deposition processes for the micro
battery layers – chemical vapour deposition (CVD), electrospraying
and electro-deposition – were investigated to obtain higher 3-D aspect
ratios. Electrospraying was used to produce thin dense layers of the
high-voltage spinel LiNi0.5Mn1.5O4, used as a cathode material, on
different substrates. Synthesis, deposition and film formation occur in
a single step. This promises to allow the cathode morphology to be
controlled by tuning the deposition parameters, allowing performance
to be optimised for a wide range of applications.
In Germany, the national database of RD&D projects shows intensive
activity in Li-ion batteries since 2009, mainly within the LIB2015
programme31.
29
30
31
34
www.applesproject.eu
www.estars-project.eu
www.lib2015.de/projekte.php
German projects to improve Li-ion batteries include LithoRec II
(2012-2014) for recycling issues; ProTrak (2012-2015), which deals
with manufacturing processes; and alpha-Laion (2012-2015), which
envisages energy densities above 250 Wh/kg to give compact electric
vehicles operating ranges of 250-300 km.
A demonstration project funded by the German government, focusing
on a prototype manufacturing line for Li-ion cells, started in 2012
at the Centre for Solar Energy and Hydrogen Research BadenWürttemberg (ZSW). Based on preliminary achievements in terms
of cycle stability – an important parameter in determining lifetime
– the high-performance cells now exceed the current international
standard, with more than 10 000 full cycles achieved so far. In terms
of other values, such as power density, the batteries are equivalent
to those produced by the leading Asian manufacturers. The active
materials for the batteries come exclusively from German companies.
ZSW has designed the cells, developed the manufacturing process and
produced a small sample series. The technology has created the basis
for manufacturing large cells in pouch and prismatic form.
Ongoing intensive battery research conducted in other EU countries
includes the Danish project Reversible Li Air Batteries31 (20122015), which aims to develop new high-capacity, reversible Li-air
batteries for use in a sustainable energy infrastructure. The project is
designing and synthesising novel electrode materials, characterising
electrode-electrolyte interfaces in situ, and identifying degradation
mechanism. It is also producing, testing and optimising Li-air cells
and building management systems (BMSs).
The Italian national research programme for the electricity
system (Ricerca di Sistema Elettrico) includes several projects on
electrochemical storage systems (2012-2015). Other projects are
under way in the same framework, within a specific R&D programme
on advanced materials – including graphene – for electrochemical
storage.
Table 7: Selected projects in sub-theme 2
Sub-theme 2: Electrochemical storage
Project
acronym
Project title
Budget
EUR million
STABALID
Stationary Batteries Li-ion
Safe Deployment
€2.1 m total
€1.5 m EU
STALLION
Safety Testing Approaches for Large
Lithium-Ion Battery Systems
€2.8 m total
€1.9 m EU
HI-C
Novel in situ and in operando
techniques for characterisation
of interfaces in electrochemical
storage systems
€6.3 m total
€4.6 m EU
32
www.reliable.dk
35
Energy Storage
ÂPPLES
Advanced, High Performance,
Polymer Lithium Batteries for
Electrochemical Storage
€4.6 m total
€3.3 m EU
POWAIR
Zinc-Air Flow Batteries for Electrical
Power Distribution Networks
€5.13 m total
€3.56 m EU
n/a
OFGEM (Low Carbon Networks Fund)
and New Energy and Industrial
Technology Development Organisation
(NEDO) - Kirkwall, Orkney Islands
n/a
E-STARS
Efficient Smart Systems With
Enhanced Energy Storage
€4.03 m total
€2.59 m EU
ProTrak
Production Technology for Li
Cells (Produktionstechnik für die
Herstellung von Lithium-Zellen)
€11.1 m total
€6.58 m
German funding
ZSW
Installation and test of a research
production line for optimised production
of Li-ion cells (Aufbau und Erprobung
einer Forschungs-produktionslinie
zur Erforschung und Optimierung
der Lithium-Ionen-Zellfertigung)
€23.44 m
German funding
LithoRec II
Recycling von Lithium-Ionen-Batterien
€5.47 m
German funding
ReLiable
Reversible Li Air Batteries
€3.58 m Danish
national funding
Ricerca di
Sistema
Projects in the framework of
the Programme Agreements on
advanced energy storage systems
€8.0 m Italian
national funding
Ricerca di
Sistema
Projects in the framework of open
calls for advanced materials for
electrochemical energy storage
€5.0 m
(graphene)
€3.0 m (other
materials) Italian
national funding
4.2.3 Sub-theme 3: Chemical storage
General trends in research on the sub-theme
Chemical storage R&DD is currently focusing on hydrogen generation
(e.g. through electrolysis), which is the subject of the dedicated ERKC
TRS Hydrogen and Fuel Cells. More details on technologies for the
generation of hydrogen can be found there. This chapter therefore
covers projects such as methane generation from surplus electricity,
also called ‘synthetic natural gas’ or ‘syngas’. Synthetic methane also
serves as a starting point for the preparation of liquid fuels. Powerto-gas (P2G) has synergies with the chemicals industry and with
transport fuels.
36
Research results
The EU FP7 project INGRID33 (2012-2016) will combine solid-state
high-density hydrogen storage systems and electrolysis with advanced
ICT technologies for monitoring and controlling smart distribution
grids. This will help to balance power supply and demand in grids
that have a high penetration of renewable energy. The consortium will
design, build, deploy and operate a 39 MWh energy storage facility
using hydrogen-based solid-state storage and electrolysis technology
in the Puglia region of Italy. The storage installation will be coupled
with a 1.2 MW water electrolyser and fuel cell system. The objective is
to achieve a round-trip energy efficiency of up to 50-60% to provide
smart balancing support for the local grid.
In Germany several ongoing power-to-gas projects34 are aiming
to store surplus RES power in the form of hydrogen or synthetic
methane. The objective is to further develop P2G technology in terms
of efficiency, run time, alternative CO2 sources (e.g. biogas), and
innovative grid connection concepts. The Smart Region Pellworm pilot
project (2012-2015) is one of the most advanced examples of these
projects (see Table 8).
The Danish BioCat project (2014-2015)35 uses an advanced 1 MW
alkaline electrolyser and an optimised biological methanation system
to generate renewable gas for direct injection into a local distribution
grid. The electrolyser is connected to the local power grid, from which
it draws electricity when prices are low. Due to its fast response time,
the electrolyser is able to provide frequency regulation services to
the local power grid. In the biological methanation system, hydrogen
from the electrolyser is combined with carbon dioxide, and this gas
mixture is then introduced to a liquid-phase methanation reactor.
Over the course of the project, two sources of carbon dioxide will
be used. The first is raw biogas from an adjacent anaerobic digester,
with a composition of approximately 60% methane and 40% CO2.
The second is a pure stream of CO2 supplied by an on-site biogas
upgrading system. The methane produced will be analysed to check its
quality before it is injected into the gas distribution grid.
Table 8: Selected projects in sub-theme 3
Sub-theme 3: Chemical storage
Project
acronym
INGRID
33
34
35
Project title
High-Capacity HydrogenBased Green-Energy Storage
Solutions for Grid Balancing
Budget
EUR million
€24.06 m total
€13.79 m EU
www.ingridproject.eu
www.powertogas.info/power-to-gas/interaktive-projektkarte.html
www.biocat-project.com
37
Energy Storage
Power
to Gas
Installation and operation of a research €3.97 m
facility for storing renewable electricity German funding
as renewable methane in the 250 kWe
scale (Errichtung und Betrieb einer
Forschungsanlage zur Speicherung von
erneuerbarem Strom als erneuerbares
Methan im 250 kWe Maßstab)
100%EE
durch PtG
100% renewable energy through
PTG; the power-to-gas process as
a means of energy storage in a
decentralised landscape of 100%
renewable, fluctuating energy sources
€1.36 m
German funding
Smart
Region
Pellworm
Collaborative demonstration of
a hybrid storage system for a
stable, cost-efficient and marketoriented electricity supply
based on renewable energy
€4.1 m
German funding
BioCat
Power-to-Gas via Biological
Catalysis (P2G-BioCat)
€6.7 m total
€3.7 m
Danish funding
Power2Gas
Systeemfunctie van Gas
€4.1 m Dutch
national funding
4.2.4 Sub-theme 4: Electrical storage
General trends in research
The R&D projects in this sub-theme focus on supercapacitors and
superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES), mainly to reduce
their costs and, in the case of supercapacitors, reduce the existing
high rates of self-discharge.
Traditionally capacitors have been used to provide high power densities.
Rechargeable batteries used for similar applications give up a lot of
their energy density, so a combination of batteries and supercapacitors
– using both electrical and electrochemical storage – is promising for
many applications.
Research results
As some of the listed projects only started recently, their interim
results are presented here.
The EU-funded NEST project36 (2012-2015) aims to demonstrate
and develop integrated supercapacitors of a new type known as
electrochemical capacitors (ECs), as well as novel ‘pseudocapacitor’
devices with significantly enhanced energy storage capacity. The
primary target of the project is to produce a micro-supercapacitor
with integrated electrodes that is compatible with the microelectronics
process and can withstand solder reflow (280°C for a few minutes).
36
38
www.project-nest.eu
The EU-funded research project STORAGE37 (2010-2013) (Composite
Structural Power Storage for Hybrid Vehicles) was set up to develop
new concepts for lightweight energy storage. The aim was to improve
the efficiency of hybrid vehicles by using parts of a car’s structure
as power sources. The resulting composite structural capacitors and
batteries would reduce the need for traditional batteries, allowing
vehicles to be made lighter and significantly improving their range. The
composite materials are able to store and discharge large amounts of
energy, and can be recharged by plugging a hybrid car into the driver’s
home power supply.
The goal of the German IES project38 (2012-2015) is to develop
innovative supercapacitors with energy densities above 10 Wh/kg,
high power, and cycle life comparable with existing devices. The
supercapacitors use electrolytes based on ionic liquids, carbonaceous
materials with high affinity for these electrolytes, and environmentally
friendly inert components.
Another German project, Super-Kon39 (2010-2012), aimed to develop
a novel capacitor module made from composite materials (0–3
composites) with performance comparable to that of existing doublelayer capacitors (supercapacitors), which have high energy density
but a limited range of applications. Preliminary work and theoretical
calculations showed that embedded composites can provide a huge
increase in storage capacity compared to the pure matrix material,
while the technical ability to process them remains comparable. Modular
construction based on a large number of small identical capacitors will
ensure that the capacitor systems are scalable. The advantages of this
approach are easier technical replicability and low maintenance costs.
The ENREKON project40 (2012-2017) (Development of ResourceEfficient Condensers for Short-Term Energy Storage) envisages a
synthesis between ionic liquids and transition metal oxides. The
project will analyse the physical and structural properties of the
resulting materials. Important capacitor-specific characteristics will
be determined using dielectric spectroscopy over a wide range of
temperatures and frequencies.
In the Italian Programme Agreements on advanced energy storage
systems (2013-2015), research is focusing on high-temperature (HT)
SMES materials and their use in grid applications.
37
38
39
40
www3.imperial.ac.uk/structuralpowerstorage
www.forschung-energiespeicher.info/en/projektschau/gesamtliste/projekteinzelansicht/95/Innovative_Superkondensatoren/
www.super-kon.uni-halle.de/index.php?idm=3
forschung-energiespeicher.info/en/projektschau/gesamtliste/projekt-einzelansicht/95/
Vom_Verteilnetz_zur_Grundlagenforschung/
39
Energy Storage
Table 9: Selected projects in sub-theme 4
Sub-theme 4: Electrical storage
Project
acronym
Project title
Budget
EUR million
NEST
Nanowires for Energy Storage
€3.3 m total
€2.3 m EU
STORAGE
Composite Structural Power
Storage for Hybrid Vehicles
€3.4 m total
€2.5 m EU
IES
Innovative Electrochemical
Supercapacitors
€1.7 m
German funding
Super-Kon
Novel Capacitors for Energy Storage
€1.6 m
German funding
ENREKON
Development of ResourceEfficient Condensers for ShortTerm Energy Storage
€1.6 m
German funding
Ricerca di
Sistema
Preliminary Analysis of HT
SMES Materials and Design
for Grid Applications
€0.2 m
Italian funding
4.2.5 Sub-theme 5: Mechanical storage
General trends in research on the sub-theme
The research objectives of recent projects in this sub-sector focus
mainly on compressed air energy storage (CAES) and flywheels,
with the aim of improving their efficiency and integrating them with
RESs. How to transform hydropower plants into pumped hydroelectric
storage plants is described in section 4.2.6.
Research results
The EU-funded project MESSIB (2009-2013) covers the development
and testing of an electrical energy storage system for buildings based
on flywheels and vanadium redox flow batteries. For flywheels, the
focus was on integrating them into energy storage systems composed
of rotor, magnetic guidance, vacuum system and power electronics.
All these parts were successfully integrated into a final prototype
providing a power output of 100 kW and an energy content of 2.5
MJ. After being tested for mechanical strength at full speed (50 000
rpm) in the TEKNIKER crash test lab, the unit was coupled to an
electrical load to assess its performance. The main innovation was
a new lightweight, high-strength flywheel made from orthotropic
composite material. Coupled with a new power electronic system, a
high-efficiency motor/generator, and a low-friction motor-rotor system
based on an evacuated cabinet and magnetic bearings41, this provided
improved kinetic energy storage and electrical performance for energy
management in buildings.
41
40
ww.messib.eu/assets/files/docs/MESSIB-Electrical%20energy%20storage%20using%20
w
flywheels-website.pdf
The German joint research project ADELE (2009-2013) focused on
adiabatic compressed air energy storage (A-CAES) for electricity
supply. The principle of A-CAES is that at times when electricity is
cheap or the power market is over-supplied, electricity is used to
compress air that is then stored in underground caverns. The heat
generated during the compression process is also stored in a suitable
device. When electricity demand rises, the stored heat is used to raise
the temperature of the compressed air, which then expands through
a turbine to generate power. Conventional (diabatic) CAES wastes
the heat of compression, and so has to burn fuel to warm the air
during the recovery part of the cycle; this limits the round-trip energy
efficiency to around 55%. By using the heat of compression, A-CAES
could provide a round-trip efficiency of 80%.
A follow-up project, ADELE-ING (2013-2016), aims to further
advance the necessary components for A-CAES, and to develop the
basic concept for a pilot plant. This could then be built in a subsequent
demonstration project.
R&D in liquid air energy storage (LAES) technology is ongoing in the
UK as a cooperation between the University of Southampton and
industry. The Highview Power Storage LAES project42, started in
2011, has built and tested a pilot plant with a power output of 350 kW
and a storage capacity of 2.5 MWh, connected to an existing 80 MW
biomass plant. A round-trip efficiency of 70% has been demonstrated.
In general the technology can also work with waste heat from a power
plant or other source of low-grade heat, as well as electricity. The
Highview pilot plant has undergone a full testing regime, including
performance testing for electricity markets. It has achieved a number
of operating hours equivalent to more than three years of service in
the Short Term Operating Reserve that backs up the UK’s power grid.
Experience from the Highview pilot plant will be used in a follow-up
project to design and test a pre-commercial demonstration LAES
system (5 MW/15 MWh), which will operate alongside a Viridor landfill
gas generation plant in the UK. In addition to providing energy storage,
this plant will convert low-grade waste heat to power. It is scheduled
to be operational by the middle of 2015.
In a feasibility study (2011-2012) a 300 MW CAES system was
developed in the Netherlands. It used existing caverns in the province
of Groningen and explored a new cavern that could be developed in
Drenthe. The study showed that a 300 MW CAES plant that could
generate power for six hours would require a cavern system with
a volume of approximately 600,000 m3. The assumed round-trip
efficiency was 58–59%. The cavern would also require a new borehole
with an internal diameter of about 350 mm. The average investment
cost was estimated at EUR 280 million (EUR 932 /kW) for an existing
cavern, or EUR 341 million (EUR 1,135 /kW) if a new cavern has to
42
www.highview-power.com
41
Energy Storage
be developed. However, if a new cavern (operating at a pressure of
around 70 bar) is developed in a geological formation that contains
salt, the investment is only around EUR 240 million (EUR 800/kW).
This is comparable to the cost of a combined-cycle gas turbine plant.
Table 10: Selected projects in sub-theme 5
Sub-theme 5: Mechanical storage
Project
acronym
Project title
Budget
EUR million
MESSIB
Multi-source Energy Storage System
Integrated in Buildings; WP3
€8.5 m total
€5.99 m EU
ADELE
Adiabatic Compressed-Air Energy
Storage for Electricity Supply
€12 m total
€4.5 m German
national funding
ADELE-ING
Adiabatic Compressed-Air Energy
Storage for Electricity Supply
€40 m total
€2.9 m German
national funding
n/a
Highview Power Storage LAES: pilot
installation and pre-demonstration
€8.0 m total
€1.3 m national
funding (UK)
n/a
Demonstration of the Ability of
Caverns for Compressed Air Storage
With Thermal Energy Recuperation
€1.23 m Swiss
national funding
n/a
Compressed air storage in Drenthe
€1.0 m national
funding (NL)
4.2.6 Sub-theme 6: Hydropower and PHES
General trends in research on the sub-theme
Research objectives for hydropower and pumped hydroelectric storage
(PHES) include investigating the technical and economic feasibility
of upgrading existing hydropower systems by retrofitting new
components (mainly turbines), and the potential to transform existing
hydropower plants into PHES installations, thus getting around the
scarcity of available sites for new PHES. The main R&D challenges
concern environmental issues, long lead times and high initial costs.
New ideas for PHES, suitable for coastal or offshore locations, are also
being tested.
Research results
The EU FP7 project HYDROACTION (Development and Laboratory
Testing of Improved Action and Matrix Hydro Turbines Designed by
Advanced Analysis and Optimisation Tools)43 (2008-2011) aimed to
improve the hydraulic efficiency of small (up to 5 MW) water turbines
through numerical modelling. An average increase in efficiency of
3–5% was envisaged. The project team applied flow simulation tools
43
42
www.hydroaction.org
including a Lagrangian smoothed particle hydrodynamics model, and
evolutionary algorithms based on hierarchical, distributed and metamodels. The models were validated through laboratory testing of three
types of turbine: Pelton, Turgo and Matrix.
The EU FP7 project HYLOW (Hydropower converters with very low
head differences)44 (2008-2012) focused on optimising small low-head
hydropower plants. The target was to develop technologies for three
different applications:
•T
he Free Stream Energy Converter (FSEC) was initially assessed
in model tests. A 7 m long, 2.4 m wide prototype was built and
tow-tested in a harbour. The 32% efficiency achieved was a good
result for a kinetic energy converter with a flow velocity of only 1.5
m/s. Further tests indicated that a stationary converter in a current
would have a higher efficiency than a towed device, and that overall
efficiencies of 40-48% could be expected for an FSEC in a river.
•T
he Hydrostatic Pressure Machine (HPM) for river applications
with head differences of 1–3 m was developed using theory plus
physical and numerical modelling. The results were then used to
design two field installations with power ratings of 5 kW and 10
kW for a head difference of 1.2 m. Both field installations were
built and tested. Mechanical efficiencies were in the range 5082% for a flow range of 40-100% of the design capacity (River
Iskar installation in Bulgaria), and electrical efficiencies were 5065% (River Lohr in Germany).
•M
icro-turbines to generate energy from drinking water pipelines
were also developed. Based on tests and computational fluid
dynamics (CFD) models, a 5-blade turbine was designed and
tested in a real water supply system. With efficiencies of 4080%, and comparatively low costs, such turbines were found to
be economically very attractive, with a return on investment of
less than four years.
The ongoing German project StEnSea45 (2013-2015) is developing
and testing a novel pumped storage concept for storing large amounts
of electrical energy offshore. The design uses the sea itself as the
upper storage reservoir, and a hollow sphere on the seabed as the
lower storage reservoir. To charge the system, water is pumped out
of the sphere; later it is allowed to flow back into the sphere, and in
doing so drives a turbine coupled to a generator. The pilot project will
use a hollow sphere with an inner diameter of approximately 30 m and
a wall thickness of about 3 m, giving a storage volume of 12,000 m3,
and a multi-stage pump-turbine with a capacity of around 5-6 MW. The
energy storage capacity will be 20 MWh and the system will operate
at a water depth of up to 700 m. The calculated cost is EUR 1,238/
kW, which is comparable to the cost of conventional PHES. This cost
44
45
www.hylow.eu
www.energiesystemtechnik.iwes.fraunhofer.de/en/projects/search/laufende/stensea.html
43
Energy Storage
includes the concrete sphere, including formwork and reinforcement,
the pump-turbine with associated electro-mechanical equipment, and
installation, but not cabling.46
The Danish project Energy Membrane47 (2011-2013) worked on
underground pumped hydro storage (EM-UPH). This is a new form of
PHES in which the storage reservoir is enclosed in a membrane. On
top of the membrane is up to 25 metres of soil, whose weight creates
the necessary pressure to run a turbine. As the reservoir discharges,
the soil layer sinks; to recharge the system, water is pumped back into
the membrane, pushing the soil back upward. The weight of the soil
corresponds to the pressure created by the level difference between
the two reservoirs in a conventional PHES system.
The system was tested indoors with a membrane reservoir measuring
5 x 5 m, and as a larger outdoor demonstration plant (50 x 50 m). The
aim was to test the geotechnical conditions, to create a mathematical
model, and to identify the challenges and possibilities of underground
pumped storage in environmental, technical and economic terms.
The outdoor test facility is at Nybøl Nor, 12 km from the Danish city
of Sønderborg. The results obtained so far show that the system’s
efficiency is close to that of traditional PHES technology. The next
step is a pilot plant (200 x 200 m), which will provide the experience
needed for an eventual full-scale plant (500 x 500 m) (Figure 5) with
a capacity of 200 MWh (EUDP 2014).
Figure 5: The Energy Membrane project provided experience for a
future full-scale underground pumped hydro plant
Source: Energy Membrane Project48
46
47
48
44
ww.eurosolar.de/en/images/stories/IRES_2012_Proceedings/C2_Garg_IRES2012_
w
Presentation.pdf.pdf
http://godevelopment.dk/wp-content/uploads/2011/12/Energy-membrane_PPT_211211.pdf
http://godevelopment.dk/wp-content/uploads/2011/12/Energy-membrane_PPT_211211.pdf
National projects on hydropower and storage (e.g. the Swiss and Italian
studies on national potentials), together with international studies (JRC
2012, EEA 2010) have created the first methodologies for estimating
national and European PHES potentials. In addition, a methodology
and model based on a geographical information system (GIS) can
identify the potential for transforming existing single reservoirs into
PHES systems (JRC 2012). The methodology was applied in Croatia
and Turkey to create case studies.
Table 11: Selected projects in sub-theme 6
Sub-theme 6: Hydropower and PHES
Project
acronym
Project title
Budget
EUR million
HYDROACTION Development and laboratory testing
€3.28 m total
€2.16 m EU
HYLOW
Hydropower Converters With
Very Low Head Differences
€4.76 m total
€3.63 m EU
STENSEA
Storing Energy at Sea
€2.3 m German
national funding
Energy
Membrane
Energy Membrane - underground
pumped hydro storage
€1.0 m Danish
national funding
n/a
Evaluation of pumped hydro
storage plants - Bewertung
von Pumpspeicherkraftwerken
in der Schweiz im Rahmen der
Energie strategie 2050
CHF 0.25 m
Swiss national
funding
EA 2010
Small-scale hydropower: a
methodology to estimate Europe’s
environmentally compatible
potential (2007-2010)
n/a
JRC 2012
Pumped-hydro energy storage:
potential for transformation
from single dams
n/a
n/a in the
framework
of Ricerca
di Sistema
Study on the potential of PHS in Italy,
in the framework of the Programme
Agreements on advanced energy
storage systems 2013-2015
n/a
national
funding Italy
of improved action and Matrix hydro
turbines designed by advanced
analysis and optimisation tools
4.2.7 Sub-theme 7: Energy storage integration in
energy systems
General trends in research on the sub-theme
The objectives of recent R&D projects mainly concern the integration of
storage technologies at different levels of energy systems (generation,
transmission, distribution, end users) with intermittent renewable
electricity sources. ‘Smart grid’ technologies play a major role here.
More information on ‘smart’ technologies can be found in the TRS on
45
Energy Storage
Smart Electricity Grids and Supporting ICT, Smart Transmission Grids
and Smart District Heating and Cooling.
Research results
The MESSIB project (Multi-Source Energy Storage System Integrated
in Buildings’ Project) (2009-2013) developed and tested an affordable
multi-source energy storage system (MESS) based on new materials,
technologies and control systems. The work included the integration
of the various storage technologies – as mentioned in other subthemes – with conventional energy installations in real buildings, with
the aim of achieving maximum performance for the overall system.
Important relationships between the relative sizes of storage systems
and renewable energy systems were tested in this way.
The project analysed the architectural and constructional interactions
between the energy storage systems, the building and the power grid.
The team studied the connections and interfaces between the different
technologies, and the modifications required to existing heating,
ventilating and air conditioning (HVAC) systems under different
patterns of use.
Simulations allowed them to understand how storage can affect the
energy balance of a building by improving the efficiency of existing
heat generation technology and reducing the contribution from fossil
fuels. The project published an integration handbook setting out a
range of layouts and installation strategies, as well as a life cycle cost
analysis for the MESSIB technologies.
The objective of the EU project eStorage49 (2012-2017) is to
develop cost-effective solutions for the widespread deployment of
flexible, reliable, GWh-scale storage across the EU, and to enhance
grid management systems to allow the integration of large shares
of renewables. The key issue is the need for power regulation during
periods of low demand, when only inflexible base load generation
and intermittent wind and solar plants are operating. In contrast to
conventional generation, a plant with flexible storage could help to avoid
the need to curtail wind generation. The project will also evaluate the
system-level benefits of storage through simulations, demonstration
results and analysis of storage potential. It will identify barriers to
development, and formulate recommendations for an efficient market
and regulatory framework.
Further important R&D activities are ongoing at national level (e.g. in
Denmark) to model new network configurations that link the electricity,
gas and heat distribution networks. This can be done through a
combination of large-scale thermal storage and heat pumps. Such an
arrangement could buffer the oversupply of renewable electricity, for
instance when demand is low and the wind is blowing strongly.
49
46
www.estorage-project.eu
An example is the advanced energy systems analysis tool
EnergyPLAN, which models smart energy systems on an hourly
basis (www.EnergyPLAN.eu). EnergyPLAN has been developing since
2000 by the University of Aalborg in Denmark. Studies of national
energy systems based on this tool could show how smart grids can
successfully integrate renewable energy, including various storage
technologies (thermal, electricity, fuel storage – see Figure 6). Two
case studies for the Danish and Irish energy systems show that this
may be no more expensive than energy from fossil fuels (Conolly et
al. 2012, Lund et al. 2012).
Figure 6: Heat, electricity and gas storage by integration of RES power
in integrated smart energy grids
A similar study of the Irish energy system has investigated how largescale energy storage in the form of PHES can assist the integration
of fluctuating wind power. The study considered three key aspects of
PHES: operating regime, size, and cost. The results showed that PHS
can increase the feasible level of wind penetration in the Irish energy
system, and also reduce operating costs (Connolly et al. 2012).
The objective of the FP7 project E-HUB50 (2012-2014) was to optimise
the use of renewable energy at district level by matching energy
demand and supply. This involves shifting demand from heat pumps,
refrigerators, washing machines or other devices to match the times
of excess supply, which generally occur in the middle of the night.
Excess renewable heat can be stored for prolonged periods and with
minimal heat loss in advanced thermochemical materials (TCMs),
thermo-active building foundations or boreholes.
50
www.e-hub.org
47
Energy Storage
The recently started German research network project Hybrid Urban
Energy Storage51 (2013-2016) will provide new knowledge on the
role of the urban built environment as a host for energy storage in
future integrated energy systems.
The main objectives of the ongoing German project Smart Power
Flow52 (2013-2016) are the technical and economic analysis and
optimisation of expansions to the electricity network, and the use
of local energy storage systems. As part of the project a redox flow
battery will be integrated into the distribution network and adapted to
a new demand profile.
Another German project is demonstrating heat storage integration at
city level. The aim is the technical and economic demonstration of an
‘energy bunker’ embedded in the district heating network of HamburgWilhelmsburg. This will open up access to storage for solar heat and
surplus heat from third-party CHP units in the city.
Nationally funded research, meanwhile, is helping to create a
comprehensive body of knowledge about conditions for RES integration,
including energy storage, in individual Member States. Examples
include the activities of DEEC 2009 in the UK, and the TRAFO 2013
project in Germany.
The ongoing EU FP7 project GRID+ (2011-2014)53 has evaluated
recent energy storage projects, mapping their main research directions
and applications at the levels of generation, transmission, distribution,
and end use. Chapter 6 gives more details.
The EU IEE stoRE project54 (2010-2014) investigated the nontechnological barriers to energy storage: how to create the regulatory
and market conditions needed to develop energy storage infrastructure
on the necessary scale to accommodate the planned growth of
renewable energy. The project looked at policies, legislation and market
mechanisms in six target countries: Germany, Spain, Greece, Ireland,
Denmark and Austria. The interim results show that a common official
definition of electricity storage is lacking from the network codes
of Member States, and that this is holding up the development of
coherent administrative procedures for grid connection.
Common rules are needed across the EU for grid access fees and
their application to electricity storage, the project partners said. For
instance, access fees should take into account the real impact of
electricity storage on the grid. Packages to provide financial support
for electricity storage projects could help in the timely development
of storage infrastructure. However, the explicit exemption of PHES is
controversial, since this is a technology ready for deployment.
51
52
53
54
48
ybrider-stadtspeicher.de
h
www.reiner-lemoine-institut.de/en/projects/smart-power-flow
www.gridplus.eu
http://backend.store-project.eu/uploads/docs/eusew-2013-presentations/papapetroupresentation-eusew-2013.pdf
Early in 2014 the project drew up energy storage action lists for each
project partner country. Taking Denmark and Norway as examples,
CAES and PHES were identified as storage technologies needed for the
long-term development of energy systems, with P2G as a reasonable
alternative. CAES and PHES are expected to be the most competitive
technologies in the future55.
Looking at different scenarios for RES integration and their influence
on storage demand at a national level, the project noted that the
necessary charging and discharging power, as well as the storage
capacity, depends strongly on the RES technology in use. Heavy
use of PV, for instance, requires high power levels (rapid charge and
discharge), whereas a country that depends on wind power will need to
place most of its emphasis on storage capacity. A balanced combination
of different RESs could minimise the need for energy storage.
The Swiss pilot and demonstration project Swiss2G (2009-2014)56
looked at an alternative approach to smart grids based on decentralised
load management of distributed energy generation and storage. In this
case there is no central control and no sophisticated communications
infrastructure. The first phase of the project was a proof of concept,
using local information (voltage drop) on the grid for load shifting via
a self-organising and self-learning algorithm. This included battery-togrid (B2G) storage system: batteries installed in several households were
charged and discharged via the grid in such a way as to achieve smart
energy management. The test facility at the campus in Canobbio allowed
preliminary testing of the hardware components and algorithms, and the
simulation of future vehicle-to-grid (V2G) storage in the form of electric
vehicles (see Figure 7).
Figure 7: Swiss2G project: home components and features
Source: Swiss2Grid project
55
56
ww.store-project.eu/en_GB/target-country-results
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www.bfe.admin.ch/forschungnetze/01246/03569/index.html?lang=de&dossier_id=04867
49
Energy Storage
Preliminary results of the highly accurate grid measurements showed
a significant correlation between the local voltages at household plugs
and electrical loads at low-voltage (LV) transformers. The first results
of the grid simulation with the S2G algorithm, fed with these local
instantaneous voltage values, shows increasing grid stability as the
S2G algorithm becomes more widely used in the distribution grid. It
also shows beneficial effects at higher levels of the grid, helping to
avoid additional investments in infrastructure.
The French demonstration project Nice Grid57 (2011-2016) is a pilot
for smart solar districts within the framework of the EU-funded project
GRID4EU. It is based on the smart grid concept, focusing on the
smooth integration of distributed energy resources (DERs) into local
low-voltage grids. The DERs studied are PV for electricity generation,
battery storage, and smart home equipment for load shaving.
For electricity storage, several types of Li-ion battery were used to
provide a total capacity of 2.7 MWh at three levels of the distribution
grid. One battery rated at 560 kWh/1.1 MW was used to back up
the connection between the transmission and distribution grids. Five
batteries, each providing 310 kWh/100 kW, were used to match PV
generation with electricity consumption on the low-voltage grid.
Finally, 100 small batteries (6.6 kWh/3 kW) were installed in homes by
volunteer end-users. More details of the GRID4EU project are available
in the TRS Smart Electricity Grids.
The Danish project READY58 (2012-2014) integrated thermal storage
and heat pumps to provide control services for the distribution grid. It
is a ForskEL project administered by Energinet.dk. The main purpose
is to develop a smart-grid-ready virtual power plant (VPP) server
that can control a large number of heat pumps. In this context a VPP
server is a unit that can control thousands of consumption appliances,
making them appear to the network operator as a single controllable
unit. READY built on a previous project known as Intelligent Remote
Control of Individual Heat Pumps.
The Spanish project Virtual Network Operator with Storage:
OVI-RED (2012-2016) aims to design, develop and implement a
system for managing a set of microgrids and individual microgrid
resources. Based principally on the concept of a VPP, the system
can manage a diverse range of distributed energy generation and
storage technologies. The approach is to aggregate the capacity of
many distributed resources so as to present the network operator
with a single point of management. Microgrids can be managed
either locally, or remotely by a centralised system. This gives the
distribution system operators (DSOs) visibility over their distributed
resources, allowing their use to be maximised and so contributing to
the efficiency and stability of the system.
57
58
50
ww.nicegrid.fr/404.htm
w
www.ea-energianalyse.dk/projects-english/1236-READY-heat-pumps.html
Another demonstration project to test the integration of diverse
storage installations in a microgrid, this time for industrial application,
was the ATENEA project (2009-2013), which was supported by
Spanish and European funding. The main conclusions of the project
were that the test microgrid could operate in both on-grid and off-grid
modes, and that it provided a suitable test bench for real systems.
The systems making up the microgrid were able to follow control
commands to demonstrate a range of different energy management
strategies. However, power management of storage systems, so as to
provide the optimal balance between generation and demand profiles,
was found to be crucial. With the facility working in off-grid mode,
the energy storage system (in this case a sealed lead-acid battery)
acted as a ‘grid forming unit’ (i.e. it was in charge of the microgrid).
In general, the tests showed that with support from energy storage
equipment, the system response of a microgrid is well suited to the
operation of real systems based on renewable energy sources59.
The UK project IMAGES (Integrated Market-fit and Affordable Gridscale Energy Storage)60 (2012-2017) aims to develop a complete
dynamic model of a CAES system that can be used to analyse the
dynamic response of the whole system response and the overall energy
efficiency. Another British project, Energy Storage for Low Carbon
Grids (2012-2017), envisages a roadmap for the development of gridscale storage suited to UK applications, with an analysis of appropriate
policy options; a blueprint for the control of storage in UK distribution
networks and new tools and techniques to analyse the integration of
storage into low-carbon electrical networks.
The use of modelling and scenarios is essential for strategic planning of the
development of electricity grids. Among some high-budget EU projects
dealing with this subject, E-HIGHWAY205061 supports transmission
network planning for the period 2020-2050 by investigating different
scenarios combining power generation units, demand-side management
and possibly electricity storage. The ongoing ECOGRID EU project62
(2011-2015) is a large-scale demonstration on the Danish island of
Bornholm of a smart grid operating with 50% renewable energy (wind,
solar, PV, biomass and biogas). It aims to provide essential insights
into the operation of real-time power markets, the use of smart meters
and smart home appliances, and testing of energy storage with heat
pumps. In the German eTelligence project, a field test on the control
of cold-storage depots as part of a virtual power plant allowed wholesale
electricity costs to be cut by 6–8%. The test took place during the winter,
when electricity prices tend to be volatile and low ambient temperatures
increase the flexibility with which refrigeration equipment can be turned
on and off. eTelligence demonstrated that thermal energy systems such
as cold-storage depots and cogeneration plants can be used effectively
as energy storage facilities in an integrated energy system63.
ww.energetica-international.com/articles/vrla-batteries-operation-in-atenea-microgrid-cener
w
www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/sci/eng/research/energyconversion/images
61
www.e-highway2050.eu
62
www.eu-ecogrid.net
63
According to ERKC-TRS Smart Grids (2014), more information on the project website:
www.etelligence.de/etelligence.html
59
60
51
Energy Storage
Table 12: Selected projects in sub-theme 7
Sub-theme 7: Energy storage integration in energy systems
Project
acronym
52
Project title
Budget
EUR million
eStorage
Solution for cost-effective integration
of renewable intermittent generation
by demonstrating the feasibility
of flexible large-scale energy
storage with innovative market
and grid control approach
€22.1 m total
€12.7 m EU
GRID+
Supporting the Development
of the European Electricity
Grids Initiative (EEGI)
€3.88 m EU
MESSIB
Multi-source Energy Storage System
€8.5 m total
Integrated in Buildings (2009-2013), WP1 €5.99 m EU
STORE
Storage Technologies of Reliable
Energy (demonstration project)
€13.21 m total
€3.11 m EU
stoRE
Facilitating Energy Storage
to Allow High Penetration of
Intermittent Renewable Energy
€1.64 m total
75%EU
E-Hub
Energy Hub for Residential and
Commercial Districts and Transport
€11.6 m total
€7.99 m EU
Swiss2G
An Innovative Concept for the
Decentralised Management of
Distributed Energy Generation,
Storage and Consumption and
Consumer Acceptance
n/a
Swiss funding
Nice Grid
Demonstration of a future grid
at Carros (Un démonstrateur de
réseaux du futur à Carros) (France)
– part of GRID4 EU project
€30 m total
€7 m EU
n/a
Hybrid Urban Storage –
Stadt als Speicher
€1.54 m
German national
funding
Smart
Power Flow
Optimisation of Grid Extension vs Storage €8.5 m
in the Distribution Grid Compensating
German national
Increased Renewable Power Flows
funding
(Optimierung von Netzerweiterung
versus Energiespeicher auf der
Verteilnetzebene in Folge zunehmender
regenerativer Leistungsflüsse)
EnergyPLAN An Advanced Energy System
Computer Model
n/a - Danish
national funding
READY
Heat Pumps in a Smart Grid Future
n/a - Danish
national funding
OVI-RED
Virtual Network Operator with Storage
€1.53 m Spanish
national funding
ATENEA
ATENEA Microgrid for
Industrial Application
€2.6 m total
€1.3 m public
(EU & Spanish)
IMAGES
Integrated, Market-fit and Affordable
Grid-scale Energy Storage
€4.4 m total
€3.02 m UK
national funding
n/a
Energy Storage for Low Carbon Grids
€17.02 m total
€7.09 m UK
national funding
Ecogrid EU
Large scale smart grids demonstration
of real time market-based
integration of distributed energy
resources and demand response
€20.7 m total
€12.6 m EU
E-HIGHWAY Modular Development Plan of the Pan2050
European Transmission System 2050
€13 m total
€8.99 m EU
eTelligence
€9.3 m German
national funding
E-EnergyLighthouse project in
model region Cuxhaven
4.3 Implications for future research
The projects overview in this TRS shows that present research
objectives focus primarily on increasing energy efficiency through
energy storage technologies, and notably their wide implementation in
support of RES integration in smart grids at generation, transmission
and distribution levels. This is in line with the EU’s main energy and
climate policies, such as the 20-20-20 targets.
Thermal storage
Thermal energy storage systems appear well-positioned to reduce the
amount of heat that is currently wasted in the energy system. This
waste heat is an under-utilised resource, in part because the quantity
and quality of both heat resources and heat demand are not fully
known. R&D should fill this gap by working out national inventories
of waste heat potential for applications at low, medium and high
temperatures.
Basic research in new materials to store large amounts of thermal energy
in limited space (high energy density) is essential. Thermochemical
systems are the front-runners here when the most compact systems
are required. The materials in existing systems, based on phase
change materials (PCMs) and sorption, need to be optimised or
replaced by better materials. Furthermore, there is no comprehensive
published database on the thermo-physical properties of PCMs. Such a
database would improve the design of commercial heat storage units
by facilitating comparisons and recommendations.
Development of improved heat and mass transfer devices for sorption
and thermochemical storage is also critical for most thermal energy
53
Energy Storage
storage applications, since these need to operate consistently over a
large number of charge and discharge cycles.
In the case of sensible heat storage using water, new seasonal heat
storage technologies are needed that are cost-effective and compact,
with a target storage density of 1 000 MJ/m3. These would be used
mainly in the residential sector, enabling further deployment of
large-scale solar thermal systems. For medium-temperature storage
(between 100°C and 300°C), especially for industrial processes,
research on new materials such as phase change, sorption and
thermochemical materials is strongly needed in order to facilitate their
take-off. For thermochemical storage, complete, compact heat storage
systems need to be developed based on thermochemical reactions
yielding higher energy density than at present.
In general, cost is a big issue, and this needs to be addressed before
new thermal storage materials and systems can become significant
players in the energy market. System investment costs are still too
high for heat storage systems that are not based on water (EUDP
2014).
Electrochemical storage
Battery research is currently focused on new and improved materials
and manufacturing processes as well as on the operating conditions
for batteries.
Future R&D on lead-acid batteries need to address their disadvantages:
their relatively short life, the need for periodic water maintenance, their
relatively poor performance at low and high ambient temperatures,
and the difficulties created by frequent power cycling, often in partial
states of charge, which can lead to premature failure due to sulphation.
For nickel-based (NiMH) batteries, R&D should concentrate on
reducing their very high rates of self-discharge, which makes them
unsuitable for long-term energy storage. For sodium-based batteries,
R&D objectives should include addressing their present high cost: up
to USD 3000/kW (EUR 2,375/ kW) and up to USD 500/kWh (EUR 396/
kWh), reducing their high self-discharge rates, and reducing operating
temperatures, which at the moment are around 300–350°C.
For Li-ion batteries, lifetime nowadays can be up to 3000 cycles at
moderate temperatures (EASE/ERRA 2013, p. 102). Li-ion batteries
age much faster at high temperatures, however, so they are still
unsuitable for use in backup applications. There are also still some
challenges in making large-scale Li-ion batteries, notably the high cost
of more than USD 600/kWh (EUR 435/kWh). This is due to the cost of
materials, the change in production scale, and the special packaging
required, with internal overcharge protection circuits. Lithium-based
cell technologies may in future benefit from R&D on novel materials,
which will help to create better electrodes, plates, current collectors
and seals, complemented by developments in materials processing,
fabrication and manufacturing techniques (Kousksou et al. 2014).
54
For redox flow batteries of the vanadium type, achievements envisaged
through R&D include a wider temperature operating range (>100°C),
a doubling of energy storage density (up to 20-40 Wh/kg) and a 30%
decrease in service cost (a reduction of up to EUR 7/kWh). For the post
Li-ion systems, further life cycles and efficiency increases have been
targeted, in parallel with further significant cost reduction (EASA/EERA
2013a).
Chemical storage
The main focus of chemical storage R&D will continue to be hydrogen
generation and storage (as described in a dedicated TRS). For powerto-gas (P2G) technology, which synthesises methane from CO2 and
hydrogen, the main challenges are to estimate the availability of
the necessary CO2 sources and catalysts, to scale up processes for
industrial applications, to create flexible processes that can adapt to
fluctuating power market requirements, and to reduce costs. Coupling
P2G to biomass conversion could extend the potential of bioenergy.
Electrical storage
Superconducting magnetic energy storage (SMES) technologies can
store electricity directly and with high efficiency, but their costs are
still extremely high. SMES only seems to have the potential to become
economically attractive on a very large scale. The key R&D area is
therefore cost reduction, possibly achieved through R&D into hightemperature superconducting materials and low-temperature power
electronics.
Capacitors and supercapacitors have proven their performance in
demonstration projects, and are currently entering the commercial
stage. Target applications are hybrid vehicles and uninterruptible power
supplies, where new high-power designs compete with both batteries
and flywheels. Future R&D needs to concentrate on novel materials
and design (hybrid and asymmetric), cost reduction, manufacturing
processes, and reduced internal resistance (Kousksou et al. 2014). An
increase in energy density towards >10-15 Wh/kg has been defined as
one of the primary SET-plan targets for supercapacitor technology by
2020-2030, with a further increase to >50 Wh/kg by 2050, according
to EASE/EERA 2013/a.
Mechanical storage
Flywheels currently have some disadvantages that need to be
overcome, especially in regard to their relatively poor energy density,
large standby losses and high capital expenditure costs (CAPAEX).
Self-discharge rates for complete flywheel systems are now about
20% of the stored capacity per hour, and this needs to improve.
Current and future research will focus on improvements in materials
and manufacturing processes to ensure long-term mechanical stability,
improved low-loss bearings, and cost reduction. Safety aspects and
containment for mobile applications are also R&D issues.
55
Energy Storage
Hydropower and pumped storage hydropower
Though hydropower is a well-established technology, R&D is needed to
estimate the potential for building hydropower plants in new locations
and for transforming existing facilities into pumped storage plants.
Aspects to be studied include hydrology limits in dry areas, other
environmental concerns, and social aspects. Technical development
is needed in terms of variable-speed turbines, which can improve
efficiency and reduce investment costs. R&D on new plants and
reservoir concepts is also needed, especially for innovative small-scale
hydropower units and PHES using seawater at various sizes.
Energy storage integration in energy systems
The R&DD that has begun in the field of integrating energy storage in
energy systems needs to be followed up and intensified. Key points
include covering all the available energy storage technologies, fitting
their characteristics to the requirements of different energy systems
in the long, medium and short term, and providing system flexibility.
On the other hand, as recent project results show (notably the stoRE
project), there is a need for further research in terms of defining the
optimal shares of different RESs in future energy systems, so as to
minimise the extra energy storage capacity required. The connection
of national electricity systems can bring benefits as well.
At national scale, demonstration projects are needed to explore
and define how energy storage technologies should help to support
national targets for renewable energy, and how this compares to
alternatives. Energy storage is just one of several ways to provide
flexibility to energy systems with a high share of RES. It competes
with other technologies such as flexible fossil fuel generation; grid
extensions to allow power flows over larger regions; demand-side
response technologies with smart meters; or simply dumping excess
RES energy, as anticipated by a number of studies on systems with
high shares of RES. Competition in this area will be a source of energy
system efficiency and needs to be better investigated, so that Member
States can choose the best combination of ways to provide flexibility
to suit their own national conditions (SWD 2013).
In the light of existing and future national and European legal
frameworks, new business cases need to be further developed so as
to answer questions such as
• Which services could energy storage technologies provide?
•W
hich services do the transmission and distribution grids need
most? Are the priorities:
• reducing the curtailment of PV and wind generation,
• increasing security of supply,
• ensuring grid stability,
• increasing operating flexibility, or
• avoiding power cuts.
56
• Who should pay for these services, and how much?
• Are grid operators ready to pay for these services?
These subjects should be further studied in current and future R&D.
A fully integrated energy system requires a combination of economic
and technological research (SWD 2013).
57
Energy Storage
5 International
developments
This chapter describes research relevant to energy storage that is
being carried on outside the EU, at both national and international
levels.
The most relevant energy storage research is run by the International
Energy Agency (IEA):
• I
EA Energy Conservation through Energy Storage (ECES)
Implementing Agreement, with its annexes:
oT
hermal Response Test for Underground Thermal Energy
Storages (Annex 21)
oA
pplying Energy Storage in Ultra-low Energy Buildings
(Annex 23)
oS
urplus Heat Management using Advanced TES for CO2
mitigation (Annex 25)
oE
lectric Energy Storage: Future Energy Storage Demand
(Annex 26)
o I ntegration of Renewable Energies by Distributed Energy
Storage Systems (Annex 28)
oM
aterial Research and Development for Improved TES
Systems (Annex 29)
• I EA Solar Heating and Cooling Implementing Agreement, Task 32,
focused on advanced storage concepts for low-energy buildings.
Within this project, storage systems based on phase-change
materials were used in energy systems incorporating solar
energy. The addition of heat storage increased the efficiency of
biomass and gas boilers, as well as reducing their emissions, and
increased the proportion of solar energy in the system.
• IEA Electric and Hybrid Vehicles Agreement, Task X, relates to
energy storage technologies for electric vehicles.
• IEA Roadmap on Energy Storage (IEA, 2014).
Research trends in major countries outside the EU
Below we summarise research objectives in leading countries outside
the EU, and briefly describe the energy storage and hydropower R&D
challenges being addressed.
58
CHINA
China is experiencing rapid growth in renewable energy generation.
China State Grids Energy Research Institute (SGERI) is in the process
of developing various scenarios for renewable energy deployment for
2050. Wind and solar capacity are both predicted to reach 1 000 GW
under SGERI’s 50% renewable grid scenario, or 1,500 GW and 1 300
GW respectively under the 70% RES share scenario.
Alongside existing and new-planned coal, nuclear and gas power plants
involved in power system regulation, energy storage technologies are
expected to play an important role in improving system flexibility
and supporting RES integration. Under SGERI’s high renewable
energy scenario it is expected that demand for energy storage could
reach more than 200 GW by 2050. This is twice the pumped storage
hydroelectric (PSH) capacity currently installed worldwide (IEA
2014a); China’s existing storage capacity was 18 GW (mainly PSH) at
the end of 2012. The required increase is expected to be met mainly
through PSH: the State Grid envisages 100 GW of PSH by 2030 (IEA,
2014a). Furthermore, China, showing currently the strongest growth
in installed wind power capacity worldwide (16 GW in 2013, (WWEA
2014)), faces at the same time the increasing curtailment of wind
power supply due to bottlenecks in the existing grid (Bai Jianhua,
2013 pages 6 ff).
Nevertheless, such an increase will also require R&D across a wide
range of electricity storage technologies covering different grid
applications. 2010 and 2011 saw great progress in the construction
of demonstration projects for energy storage, with cumulative growth
rates of 61% and 78% respectively. China currently has nearly 50
storage demonstration projects in the planning and operation stages.
In terms of applications they focus on supporting wind power (53%
of projects), distributed micro-grids (20%), and transmission and
distribution grids (7%) (IEA, 2014).
As the number of high-quality sites for new PSH projects decreases,
PSH deployment is expected to slow down after 2030, reaching 110–
130 GW by 2050. In parallel, thermal storage could become more
important in supporting an increasing number of big coal-fired and
gas-fired power plants. Here, heat storage can make good use of
surplus heat, improve system efficiency and drive badly needed CO2
emissions reduction.
US
Recognising former legal limits for energy storage deployment in the
US energy system, the US Federal Energy Regulatory Commission
(FERC) has recently made significant strides in amending market rules
and tariff structures to allow energy storage technologies to receive
compensation for supplying energy services. Specifically, FERC Order
890 and 719 asked the nation’s independent system operators (ISOs)
to allow all non-generating resources – such as demand response
and energy storage technologies – to participate fully in established
59
Energy Storage
energy markets. The subsequent Orders 755 (2011) and 784 (2013)
on energy storage deployment recognised the added value of fastresponse energy storage.
Based on these improved conditions, many national energy suppliers
and regional transmission organisations (RTOs) have expanded their
activities, integrating new energy storage systems such as battery
systems and flywheels. The FERC 755 and subsequent regulations
are important for deployment of storage technologies but not directly
related to R&D, however they push a relevant number of demonstration
projects in this area.
The US Department of Energy (DoE) in 2009 launched a big electricity
storage programme with funding from the American Recovery and
Reinvestment Act (ARRA), which provided USD 185 million in federal
matching funds to support demonstration storage projects with a total
value of USD 772 million (EUR 611 million). These projects should
generate additional storage capacity of 537 MW to be added to the
grid (SANDIA, 2013).
The DoE published a comprehensive study (NREL, 2013) evaluating
the potential for a national transition to a predominately (up to 80%)
renewable electricity supply by use of currently available technologies.
The DoE identified three electricity storage technologies: PSH, CAES,
and a generalised battery storage system. Thermal storage for CSP
systems was also included to provide system flexibility (IEA 2014/a).
Important R&D activities currently running within the framework of
several national programmes include the BEEST programme, which
aims to develop batteries that could allow EVs and PHEVs to travel
300-500 miles on a single charge, for less than USD 10 on average.
The DoE’s Advanced Vehicle Technology Programme is funding RD&D
projects on advanced batteries to the tune of about USD 100 million
annually.
Another current US project, Advanced Flywheel Composite Rotors (20102013), led by Boeing, aims to demonstrate a low-cost, high-energydensity flywheel storage grid by developing a new material for flywheel
rotors. Boeing’s new material could dramatically increase the energy
stored in a flywheel by allowing it to run faster without the danger of
breaking up. The team will work to improve the storage capacity of their
flywheels and increase the duration over which they store energy. The
ultimate goal of this project is to create a flywheel system that can be
scaled up for use by electric utility companies and produce power for a
full hour, at an investment cost of USD 100 per kWh.
The US also has several ongoing CAES demonstration projects – one
of the latest (started in November 2013) is the 1.5MW/1MWh nongrid tied aboveground isothermal CEAS pilot system supported in
the framework of the ARRA support. Another project is the 317 MW
compressed air energy storage facility designed for renewable energy
time sheet, announced 2013 in Tennessee Colony, Texas. An overview
60
on current demonstration energy storage projects worldwide could be
accessed by the DoE database64.
One area of research is the use of CO2 as a ‘cushion gas’ in CAES: air
would remain the working gas for the compressor/expander and other
above-ground equipment, but much of the underground volume would
be occupied by CO2 instead. CO2 has two advantages here. First, it is
more compressible than air, allowing more energy to be stored in a given
cavern volume. Second, it would allow CAES to share cavern space
with carbon capture and storage (CCS) technology, avoiding possible
competition for storage sites between CAES and CCS (USDOE, 2012).
JAPAN
For some years Japan has been the leader in battery RD&D via its
traditionally well-developed ICT market. After the Great East Japan
Earthquake in March 2011, Japanese government redesigned Japan’s
energy policy moving it towards more nuclear independence (Tomita,
2014). In the framework of this policy, energy storage projects will
be supported, demonstrating the ability to ‘time-shift’ demand by
10%, in conjunction with the growth of renewable generation. There
under the Ministry of Economy, Trade and Industry (METI) funds up
to 75% of the costs of storage systems, with the goal of driving costs
down to USD 234/kWh (EUR 186/kWh) within the next seven years
(IEA, 2014, p.47). Further challenges for different batteries have
been formulated in the framework of the Japan Battery Road Map,
the common ones concern cost reduction of power conditioner, long
time backup, secondary use and recycle, residual performance and
standardization (Tomita 2014, p. 9) – they will shape largely current
and future RD&D activities in the battery storage in Japan.
South Korea
South Korea also has respectable RD&D activities in energy storage.
Public funds are being made available for a 4-MW (8MWh) Li-ion battery
demonstration project to be installed by the main Korean energy
supplier (Jeju smart grid project) to integrate renewable power to 154
kV transmission. Another 8-MW Li-ion battery system for frequency
control, will be installed as a demonstration project by another Korean
energy company.
64
DOE Global Energy storage database: www.energystorageexchange.org
61
Energy Storage
6 Technology mapping
This section describes the innovative contributions of the projects
summarised above towards the state of the art and expected
developments, as described in the technology map of the SET-Plan65.
In terms of their relevance to the scope of this TRS (energy storage
and hydropower), the strategic objectives of the SET-Plan are:
• t o transmit and distribute up to 35% of electricity from dispersed
and concentrated renewable sources by 2020, with completely
decarbonised electricity production by 2050;
• to integrate national networks into a market-based, panEuropean network, to guarantee a high quality electricity supply
to all customers and to engage them as active participants in
energy efficiency; and
• t o anticipate new developments such as the electrification of
transport.
Key performance indicators (KPIs) focus mainly on grid sustainability
and RES integration.
The European Electricity Grid Initiative (EEGI) prepared an
implementation plan for the period 2014-2016 in the framework of
the R&D Roadmap (2013-2022). This formulated a number of specific
KPIs describing project-based development in the Electricity Grids
R&D area of the SET-Plan. The synergies and KPIs related to electricity
storage were identified as:
Synergies in the Electricity Grids R&D area:
• Power Technologies: demonstration of renewable integration (S1);
•M
arket rules - market simulation techniques to develop a single EU
electricity market: tools for renewable market integration (S2);
• Distribution: integration of storage in distribution networks (S3).
KPIs in the Electricity Grids R&D area focus on grid sustainability and
integration:
•e
nhanced efficiency and better service in electricity supply and
grid operation (K1);
•h
armonisation and standardisation of grid connection procedures
giving access to any type of grid user (K2);
• increase of capacity to host electricity from distributed sources,
including readiness for electric vehicles and storage (K3);
62
• increase of capacity to host renewable electricity from central
sources, including readiness for massive offshore wind integration
(K4);
• increase of the overall quality of electricity supply (interruptions,
voltage quality) (K5);
• reduction of the peak to average load ratio - in% (K6).
Synergies and KPIs relevant to energy storage R&D are also identified
in the SET-Plan R&D area Solar CSP:
• Synergies:
oD
emonstration of innovative components:
‣ Storage media material (S4)
‣ Storage systems (S5)
oD
emonstration of innovative configurations of plants: New
storage concepts (S6)
• KPIs
oC
oncerning increased ability to dispatch:
‣ increased performance of storage and hybridisation (K7);
‣ investment cost of storage of stored energy (€/MWhth)
(K8);
‣ increase efficiency of storage (%) as well as time
dependency (K9);
‣ decrease size of storage (m3/MWhth) (K10);
‣ increase number of operating hours, based on maximum
storage capacity (K11);
‣ decrease the cost of produced energy (K12).
The Commission Staff Working Paper (2013), Materials Roadmap
Enabling Low Carbon Energy Technologies, has analysed and proposed
selected KPIs for the various storage technologies as a result of the indepth survey of the international state of the art and on-going largest
RD&D programmes. The EASE/EERA Energy Storage Technology
Development Roadmap 2030 also includes the allocation of respective
KPIs.
Tables 13 and 14 show how the selected projects relate to the synergies
and KPIs described above.
65
uropean Commission (2009): Technology Map of the European Strategic Energy
E
Technology Plan (SET-Plan), Part I: Technology Descriptions, JRC-SETIS Work group, JRC,
Petten, Netherlands.
63
Energy Storage
Table 13: SET-Plan Key Performance Indicators for energy storage
R&D, by sub-theme
Energy storage
projects under
subthemes
Subtheme
Key Performance Indicators (K1, K2…)
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
x
x
1
Thermal storage
2
Electrochemical
storage
3
Chemical storage
4
Electrical storage
x
x
x
5
Mechanical
storage
x
x
x
6
PHS including
hydropower
x
x
7
Integration of
energy storage in
energy systems
x
x
10 11 12
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
Table 14: SET-Plan Synergies for energy storage R&D, by sub-theme
Energy storage
projects under
subthemes
Subtheme
SET-Plan synergies (S1, S2…)
relevant to energy storage
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
x
x
1
Thermal storage
2
Electrochemical
storage
3
Chemical storage
4
Electrical storage
x
x
x
5
Mechanical
storage
x
x
x
6
PHS including
hydropower
x
x
7
Integration of
energy storage in
energy systems
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
10 11 12
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
x
In addition to the R&D projects selected for this TRS, the interim results
of the GRID+ project are relevant here. The EU-funded project GRID+
[Supporting the Development of the European Electricity Grids Initiative
(EEGI)], which has run since 2011, organises networking among smart
grid demonstration projects in Europe. Part of this work was also to
review more than 390 ongoing (in 2010) energy storage projects in an
evaluation known as the Map and Analysis of European Storage Projects.
This work shows the core areas of current energy storage R&D (national
and EU-funded) and their location on a map of Europe66.
66
64
www.gridplus.eu/Documents/events/energy%20storage/Energy%20Storage%20%report.pdf
National funding for energy storage R&D is close to EUR 800 million,
of which the EC’s share is around EUR 200 million. The bulk of this
budget is being spent on electrochemical storage (mostly batteries),
power-to-gas and thermal storage.
In looking at the costs of energy storage technologies we should
distinguish between thermal energy storage (TES) and electricity
storage technologies. For TES, large-scale seasonal storage is close
to being cost-effective, and will substantially increase the potential
for solar district heating. The combination of large-scale solar district
heating (or cooling), seasonal storage, heat pumps and CHP can
work effectively with dynamic renewable electricity production, using
thermal storage as a buffer for variations in load and production of both
heat and electricity (IEA, 2012). The costs of other TES technologies,
on the other hand, still need to be optimised.
Electricity storage technologies may represent a valuable flexibility
resource, addressing most of the system impacts of intermittent
renewable electricity production. However, a suite of barriers is still
holding back more widespread adoption of energy storage for this
purpose. High costs and a comparably immature market are the most
significant barriers to distributed storage of electricity (IEA 2014/b).
Figure 8 shows the current costs and maturity of the various electricity
storage technologies (JRC 2011).
Figure 8: Costs and maturity of electricity storage technologies
Source: JRC 2011 In: SWD 2013
65
Energy Storage
With regard to the profitability of PHES and CAES, a JRC literature
review identified differences of about one order of magnitude between
the different studies (JRC 2013). The results are highly sensitive to the
assumptions made. Nevertheless, there is likely to be a net gain if the
addition of storage can allow investments in the grid can be deferred
or avoided. Reserve markets may prove essential for the profitability
of electricity storage.
Electricity storage technologies have the special property that they can
provide services that affect a wide range of domains in the electricity
market. This applies to the deregulated parts of the market as well
as to the grid, which remains regulated. Examples are arbitrage
and reserve power, though which large-scale storage can serve the
wholesale and trade sectors as well as the grid [see Figure 9, taken
from JRC (2013)].
Figure 9: The main business opportunities for bulk electricity storage
in a partly deregulated power system
Source: JRC 2013
66
7 Capacities mapping
This section expands on the RD&D funding issues relevant to energy
storage, as outlined in the capacities mapping section of the SETPlan67. It is a summary of national expenses in the R&D areas relevant
to energy storage and hydropower, based on statistics reported to the
IEA and other sources – as far as these are available. The comparison
of aggregated national budgets for RD&D in energy storage, reported
for 2011 by the IEA database, shows clearly that Japan is in the
lead, with more than EUR 72 million, followed by the US (EUR 37
million), Korea (EUR 19 million), Canada and France (EUR 14 million
each) (Figure 10). The lion’s share of RD&D budgets in this area is
dedicated to electrical storage, mainly in the form of batteries and
other electrochemical storage technologies.
Figure 10: National R&D spending on energy storage in 2011
Source: IEA Statistics database
The budgets given in the figure 11 include national expenditure on
R&D for thermal energy storage as well. 2011 funding for this research
area decreased (Figure 11), and in the case of France, the biggest
supporter of thermal storage, spending in 2011 was much less than
in 2010.
67
uropean Commission (2009): R&D Investment into the Priority Technologies of the
E
European Strategic Energy Technology Plan (SET-Plan), JRC-IPTS, Seville, Spain.
67
Energy Storage
Figure 11: Thermal energy storage: national R&D spending in 2010
and 2011
Source: IEA Statistics database
According to the IEA Statistics database, Canada was the only country
with a significant RD&D budget for hydropower in 2011. Canada funded
R&D projects for both large hydropower (EUR 20 million) and small
hydropower (EUR 8 million); in second place was Switzerland with EUR
4 million and EUR 2 million, respectively. However, considering the
large amount of hydropower and pumped storage facilities installed
in China, and especially the new 50 storage demonstration projects
launched in this area (IEA, 2014, p. 37), a much higher RD&D budget
for hydropower may be assumed in China.
68
8 Conclusions and
recommendations
Key messages
Energy storage technologies will play the key role in the development of future
integrated energy systems based on RES. The current R&D activities focus on
electrochemical, mechanical and thermochemical storage – mainly batteries
(Lithium-ion, redox flow), CAES, thermal storage (with focus on PCM) - , and
integration of energy storage technologies in energy systems with focus on the
efficiency and cost optimization issues.
This TRS on energy storage summarises more than 70 selected EU and
national projects. Based on the project results, the key messages are:
•M
ost R&D projects in energy storage focus on batteries. They are
funded mainly by national RD&D budgets in countries outside
the EU: the leader is Japan (EUR 72 million), followed by the US
(EUR 37 million) (2011)68. These figures comfortably exceed the
amounts individual EU countries spend on energy storage R&D.
•S
everal projects demonstrating large-scale CAES are currently
envisaged in EU countries.
•P
umped hydroelectric energy storage (PHES) is a mature
technology that is included in R&D activities only to the extent of
estimating the potential to transform existing hydropower plants
into PHES facilities.
•T
hermal energy storage projects cover a wide range of applications
(low- and medium-temperature storage of heat or cold for
space and domestic water heating or cooling in the residential
and service sectors; high-temperature heat storage for energyintensive industrial processes).
Thermal energy storage systems appear well suited to reducing the
amount of heat lost from energy systems; such ‘waste heat’ is an
under-used resource. As the quantity and quality of both heat resources
and heat demand is not fully known, R&D should fill this gap, working
out national inventories of waste heat potential for the various low-,
medium- and high-temperature applications.
68
dditionally, there are relevant budgets (e.g. in the USA, an average of USD 100 m/
A
year with a peak of about USD 1.9 billion on 2009 for ARRA programme), which are
dedicated to battery RD&D for transport applications - with basic research results useful
for stationary applications as well.
69
Energy Storage
Reservoir-based hydropower and pumped hydropower energy storage
are both flexible technologies that help system operators to handle
the variability of RES. R&D devoted to estimating additional national
potentials, mainly through repowering of existing hydropower
installations, should therefore be intensified. Further R&D is also
strongly needed to reduce both the investment costs and the
environmental impact of hydropower.
It is important to further support investment in R&D for early-stage
energy storage technologies. These include technology breakthroughs
in high-temperature thermal storage systems, scalable battery
technologies, and systems that incorporate both electricity and thermal
energy storage (covered, inter alia, by hybrid systems) to maximise
resource use efficiency.
Public funding of R&D in energy storage, notably via demonstration
projects and R&D activities concerning investment and energy systems
integration, has already led to significant cost reductions. Additional
efforts are needed, however, to accelerate technology development
and further decrease energy storage costs.
70
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Energy Storage
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of pumped hydropower storage. Lacal Arántegui 2012 http://
setis.ec.europa.eu/setis-deliverables/setis-workshops-hearings/
setis-expert-workshop-assessment-of-potential-of-pumped
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IET: 2011 Technology Map of the European Strategic Energy
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• Joint Research Centre (JRC) 2013: European Commission JRC/
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ousksoua, T., Bruelb, P., Jamilc, A., El Rhafikid, T., Zeraoulia,
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•L
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•N
ational Renewable Energy Laboratories – NREL (2013)
Renewable Electricity Futures Study, Colorado www.nrel.gov/
analysis/re_futures/
•P
illot, C. (2013): Avicienne energy - the worldwide battery
market 2011-2025; In: BATTERIES 2013 October 14-16, 2013
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http://www.avicenne.com/pdf/The%20worldwide%20battery%20
market%202012-2025%20C%20Pillot%20BATTERIES%202013%20
Nice%20October%202013.pdf
•R
HC-Platform (2012): Strategic Research Priorities for Renewable
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www.rhc-platform.org/fileadmin/Publications/Crosscutting_
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•S
andia (2010): Energy Storage for the Electricity Grid: Benefits
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andia (2013): DOE/EPRI 2013 Electricity Storage Handbook
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•S
BC Energy Institute (2013): Electricity Storage
www.sbc.slb.com/SBCInstitute/Publications/ElectricityStorage.aspx
•S
ETIS Magazine 4/2013: Power Storage, SETIS Magazine,
December 2013,
http://setis.ec.europa.eu/system/files/Setis_magazine_04_2013_v6_
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•S
WD (2013): European Commission, Commission Staff Working
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•T
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.S. Department of Energy (USDOE) (2012): Energy Efficiency
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http://techportal.eere.energy.gov/category/energy_storage
•U
nited States Department of Energy (US DOE) (2013), DOE
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www.energystorageexchange.org
•U
nited Nations Industrial Development Organization and
International Center on Small Hydro Power (UNIDO and ICSHP)
(2013): World Small Hydropower Development Report 2013
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74
Annexes
Annex 1: Acronyms and abbreviations
General
ARRA
American Recovery and Reinvestment Act
DHC
District heating and cooling
DSM
Demand-side management
EC
European Commission
EEA
European Environment Agency
ERKC
Energy Research Knowledge Centre
EU
European Union
FP7
Seventh Framework Programme (EU R&D programmes)
KPI
Key Performance Indicator
IEA
International Energy Agency
JRC
Joint Research Centre, European Commission
PB
Policy Brochure
R&D
Research and Development
RD&D
Research, Development and Demonstration
SETIS
Strategic Energy Technologies Information System
SET-Plan European Strategic Energy Technology Plan
TRS
Thematic Research Summary
St
Sub-theme
Technical and related to the theme
A-CAES
Adiabatic Compressed Air Energy Storage
CAES
Compressed Air Energy Storage
D-CAES
Diabatic Compressed Air Energy Storage
FSEC
Free Stream Energy Converter
HT
High Temperature
HPPs
Hydro Power Plants
LAES
Liquid Air Energy Storage
Li-ion
Lithium-ion (battery)
LT
Low Temperature
PHES
Pumped Hydroelectric Energy Storage
RES
Renewable Energy Sources
SMES
Superconducting Magnetic Energy Storage
TES
Thermal Energy Storage
75
Energy Storage
Annex 2: Complete list of projects relevant to the theme
Sub-theme 1: Thermal storage
76
Project
acronym
Project title
Programme
Run time
Budget (EUR)
Project website
COMTES
Combined development of compact thermal energy
storage technologies
FP7-Energy
2012-2016
€6.65 m total
€4.7 m EU
www.nachhaltigwirtschaften.at/iea_pdf/
events/20120919_eces_wim_van_
helden_shc_ii_1.pdf
MESSIB
Multi-source Energy Storage System Integrated in
Buildings - WP2
FP7-NMP
2009-2013
€8.5 m total
€5.99 m EU
www.messib.eu/assets/files/docs/MESSIBElectrical%20energy%20storage%20
using%20flywheels-website.pdf
STARS
Stockage Thermique Appliqué à l’extension de
production d’énergie Solaire thermodynamique
n/a
2012-2016
€16.3 m total
€6.7 m national (FR)
www2.ademe.fr/servlet/
doc?id=82736&view=standard
MERITS
More Effective use of Renewables Including compact
seasonal Thermal energy Storage
FP7-Energy
2012-2016
€6.3 m total
€4.6 m EU
www.merits.eu/
www.tno.nl/downloads/merits_rhc_
dublin_tno_final_130422.pdf
SOTHERCO
Solar Thermochemical Compact Storage System
FP7-Energy
2012-2016
€6.3 m total
€4.5 m EU
http://cordis.europa.eu/projects/
rcn/107960_de.html
TCSPOWER
Thermochemical Energy Storage for Concentrated
Solar Power Plants
FP7-Energy
2011-2015
€4.25 m total
€2.85 m EU
www.tcs-power.eu/project-overview.html
StoRRe
High temperature thermal energy Storage by
Reversible thermochemical Reaction
FP7 Cooperation
2012-2015
€3.08 m total
€2.2 m EU
http://storre.eu/
HESTOR
Development of Thermal Storage Application for HVAC
solutions based on Phase Change Materials
FP7-SME
2010-2012
€0.8 m total
€0.56 m EU
www.hestor.eu/projects
HD-HGV
Hochdynamische Thermochemische Energiespeicher
auf Basis von Hybrid-Graphit-Verbundwerkstoffen
6.Energieforschungsprogramm 2012-2015
€1.18 m
German national
funding
www.ifam.fraunhofer.de/de/Dresden/
pressemitteilungen0/28-09-2012.html
TcET
Thermochemical energy storage unit for thermal
power plants and industrial heat - Thermochemischer
Energiespeicher für thermische Kraftwerke und
industrielle Wärme
6.Energieforschungsprogramm
2014-2017
€1.59 m
German national
funding
www.es.mw.tum.de/index.php?id=322
HeHo
Heat storage in hot aquifers
n/a
2011-2015
€1.95 m national
funding (Denmark)
www.staff.dtu.dk/ilfa/HeHo
NEOTHERM
Innovative Composite Materials for Thermal-chemical
Energy Storage
6.Energieforschungsprogramm 2013-2018
€2.54 m German
national funding
http://forschung-energiespeicher.info/
en/news/aktuelles-einzelansicht/2/
Sonnenenergie_mit_neuen_Materialien_
speichern/
E-HUB
Energy-Hub for residential and commercial districts
(seasonal heat storage and thermochemical heat
storage R&D)
FP7-NMP
2010-2014
€11.6 m total
€7.99 m EU
www.e-hub.org/advanced-thermalstorage.html
OPTS
OPtimization of a Thermal energy Storage system with
integrated Steam Generator
FP7-Energy
2012- 2014
€13.7 m total
€8.6 m EU
http://www.opts.enea.it
Sub-theme 2: Electrochemical storage
Project
acronym
Project title
Programme
Run time
Budget (EUR)
Project website
STABALID
STAtionary Batteries LI-ion safe Deployment
FP7-Energy
2012-2015
€2.1 m total
€1.53 m EU
http://stabalid.eu-vri.eu
STALLION
Safety Testing Approaches for Large Lithium-Ion
battery systems
FP7-Energy
2012-2015
€2.8 m total
€1.96 m EU
http://www.cordis.europa.eu/project/
rcn/106483_de.html
HI-C
Novel in situ and in operando techniques for
characterization of interfaces in electrochemical
storage systems
FP7-Energy
2013-2017
€6.3 m total
€1.96 m EU
http://www.cordis.europa.eu/project/
rcn/109252_de.html
POWAIR
Zinc-Air flow batteries for electrical power distribution
networks
FP7-Energy
2010-2014
€5.13 m total
€3.56 m EU
www.powair.eu
APPLES
Advanced, High Performance, Polymer Lithium
Batteries for Electrochemical Storage
FP7-Energy
2011-2014
€4.6 m total
€3.3 m EU
www.applesproject.eu
MESSIB
Multi-source Energy Storage System Integrated in
Buildings - WP2
FP7-NMP
2009-2013
€8.5 m total
€5.99 m EU
www.messib.eu
LiB2015: Helion
High-energy lithium-ion batteries for the future
Lithiumionen-Batterien für die Zukunft
LiB2015
2009-2013
€16.97 m
German funding
www.lib2015.de/projekte.php
n/a
OFGEM (Low Carbon Networks Fund) and New Energy
and Industrial Technology Development Organisation
(NEDO)- Kirkwall, Orkney Islands project
OFGEM (UK)
and NEDO (Japan)
n/a
www.mhi.co.jp/technology/review/pdf/
e503/e503036.pdf
E-STARS
Efficient smart systems with enhanced energy storage
FP7-ICT
2008-2011
€4.03 m total
€2.59 m EU
www.estars-project.eu
alpha-Laion
Alpha Laion - Hochenergie-Lithium Batterien
6.Energieforschungsprogramm
2012-2015
€19.5 m total
€13 m
German funding
www.elektroniknet.de/automotive/
sonstiges/artikel/94244/
LithoRec II
Recycling von Lithium-Ionen-Batterien - LithoRec II
6.Energieforschungsprogramm 2012-2015
€5.47 m total
German funding
www.lithorec2.de/index.php/en/
ProTrak
Production technology for Li cells - Produktionstechnik
für die Herstellung von Lithium-Zellen
6.Energieforschungsprogramm
2012-2015
€11.1 m total
€6.58 m
German funding
http://foerderportal.bund.de/foekat/jsp/
SucheAction.do
www.pt-em.de/de/1546.php
77
Energy Storage
Installation and test of a research production line
for optimised production of LI-ion cells - Aufbau und
Erprobung einer Forschungs-produktionslinie zur
Erforschung und Optimierung der Lithium-IonenZellfertigung*
6.Energieforschungsprogramm
2012-2014
€23.44 m
German funding
www.zsw-bw.de/en/support/news/
news-detail/lithium-ionen-zellen-ausulm-mit-spitzenwerten.html
ReLiable
Reversible Li Air Batteries
n/a
€3.58 m Danish
national funding
www.reliable.dk/
n/a
Accordi di programma Sistemi di Accumulo
elettrochimico
Ricerca di Sistema
2013-2015
€8.0 m Italian
national funding
www.ricercadisistema.it:8080/site/
Ricerca di Sistema
2014-2016
Italian national
funding
€5.0 m (graphene)
€3.0 m (other
materials)
www.ricercadisistema.it:8080/site/
ZSW
n/a
Bandi di ricerca su materiali avanzati per l’accumulo
elettrochinico (grafene e altri)
*Final report www.zsw-bw.de/uploads/media/pi06-2013-ZSW-SpitzenwertLithiumbatterien_EN.pdf
Sub-theme 3: Chemical storage
78
Project
acronym
Project title
Programme
Run time
Budget (EUR)
Project website
INGRID
High-capacity hydrogen-based green-energy storage
solutions for grid balancing
FP7-Energy
2012-2016
€24.06 m total
€13.79 m EU
www.ingridproject.eu/
Power to Gas
Installation and operation of a research facility for
storing renewable electricity as renewable methane
in the 250 kWe scale - Errichtung und Betrieb einer
Forschungsanlage zur Speicherung von erneuerbarem
Strom als erneuerbares Methan im 250 kWe Maßstab
6.Energieforschungsprogramm
2011-2014
€3.97 m
German funding
www.zsw-bw.de/themen/brennstoffewasserstoff/power-to-gas.html
100% EE durch
PtG
Das Power-to-Gas Verfahren als Energiespeicher in
einer dezentral organisierten Landschaft fluktuierend
einspeisender rein erneuerbarer Energien
6.Energieforschungsprogramm
2012-2015
€1.36 m
German funding
www.greenpilot.de/beta2/app/search/
search?FS=ID%3DUFOR01043021
BioCat
Power-to-Gas via Biological Catalysis (P2G-BioCat)
ForskEL
€6.7 m total
€3.7 m Danish fund
http://biocat-project.com
Smart Region
Pellworm
Collaborative project 'Smart Region Pellworm'
demonstration of a hybrid storage system for a stable,
cost-efficient and market-oriented electricity supply
based on renewable energy
6.Energieforschungsprogramm
2012-2015
€4.1 m
German national
funding
www.smartregion-pellworm.de/home.
html
Power2Gas
Systeemfunctie van gas
n/a
2013
€4.1 m
National funding
Netherland
www.nwo.nl/actueel/nieuws/2013/cw/
calls-voor-innovatieprojecten-binnentopsector-energie.html
Sub-theme 4: Electrical storage
Project
acronym
Project title
Programme
Run time
Budget (EUR)
Project website
Super-Kon
Novel capacitors for energy storage
Neue Superkondensatoren als Energiespeicher
6.Energieforschungsprogramm
2010-2012
€1.6 m
German funding
www.super-kon.uni-halle.de/index.
php?idm=3
NEST
Nanowires for Energy Storage
FP7-Energy
2012-2015
€3.3 m total
€2.3 m EU
www.project-nest.eu/
STORAGE
Composite Structural Power Storage for Hybrid
Vehicles
EU FP7-Transport
2010-2013
€3.4 m total
€2.5 m EU
www3.imperial.ac.uk/
structuralpowerstorage
Innovative electrochemical supercapacitors
Innovative Elektrochemische Superkondensatoren
6.Energieforschungsprogramm
2014-2015
€1.7 m
German funding
http://forschung-energiespeicher.
info/en/projektschau/gesamtliste/
projekt-einzelansicht/95/Innovative_
Superkondensatoren/
ENREKON
Development of resource-efficient condensers for
short-term energy storage
Entwicklung ressourceneffizienter Kondensatoren zur
Energie-Kurzzeitspeicherung
6.Energieforschungsprogramm
2012-2017
n/a
http://forschung-energiespeicher.info/
en/projektschau/gesamtliste/projekteinzelansicht/95/Vom_Verteilnetz_zur_
Grundlagenforschung/
n/a
Preliminary analysis of HT SMES materials and design
for grid applications
Ricerca di Sistema
2012-2015
€0.2 m national
funding Italy
www.ricercadisistema.it
IES
Sub-theme 5: Mechanical storage
Project
acronym
Project title
Programme
Run time
Budget (EUR)
Project website
MESSIB
Multi-source Energy Storage System Integrated in
Buildings – WP4
FP7-NMP
2009-2013
€8.5 m total
€5.99 m EU
www.messib.eu/assets/files/docs/
MESSIB-Electrical%20energy%20
storage%20using%20flywheels-website.
pdf
ADELE
Adiabatic compressed-air energy storage (CAES) for
electricity supply
n/a
2009-2014
€12 m total
German fund
ADELE-ING
Adiabatic compressed-air energy storage (CAES) for
electricity supply
Joint Initiative energy
Storage
2013-2016
€40 m total
€3.7 m German fund
n/a
Demonstration of the ability of caverns for compressed
air storage with thermal energy recuperation
Eignung von Kavernen für die Druckluftspeicherung
mit Wärmerückgewinnung
n/a
2013-2015
CHF1.4 m Swiss
national funding
http://www.rwe.com/web/cms/
en/183748/rwe/innovation/projectstechnologies/energy-storage/
www.aramis.admin.ch/Default.aspx?pag
e=Grunddaten&projectid=34712
79
Energy Storage
€1.0 m Dutch
national funding
www.drenthe.info/dvs/fileadmin/
user_upload/kwartaal3 _2012/26-3.16201201291-00326939_CAES_zoutkoepelCOMPL.pdf
CAES (NL)
Compressed air storage in Drenthe
n/a
2011-2012
n/a
Highview Power Storage LAES
Pilot plant
Pre-commercial demonstration plant
n/a
2011-2014
2014-2015
€8.0 m total
€1.3 m national
funding (UK)
www.highview-power.com/
Sub-theme 6: Hydropower and PHES
80
Project
acronym
Project title
Programme
Run time
Budget (EUR)
Project website
HYDROACTION
Development and laboratory testing of improved action
FP7-Energy
and Matrix hydro turbines designed by advanced
2008-2011
analysis and optimization tools
€3.27 m total
€2.16 m EU
http://cordis.europa.eu/result/brief/
rcn/6208_en.html
HYLOW
Hydropower converters with very low head differences
FP7-Energy
2008-2012
€4.76 m total
€3.63 m EU
http://cordis.europa.eu/result/
rcn/55207_en.html
n/a
Evaluation of pumped hydro storage plants Bewertung von Pumpspeicherkraftwerken in der
Schweiz im Rahmen der Energiestrategie 2050
Switzerland
2012-2013
CHF 0.25 m
http://www.news.admin.ch/
NSBSubscriber/message/
attachments/33124.pdf
Energy
Membrane
Energy Membrane - underground pumped hydro
storage
ForskEl
2011-2013
€1.0 m Danish
national funding
http://godevelopment.dk/wp-content/
uploads/2011/12/Energy-membrane_
PPT_211211.pdf
STENSEA
Storing Energy at Sea - Entwicklung und Erprobung
eines neuartigen Pumpspeicherkonzeptes zur
Speicherung großer Mengen elektrischer Energie
offshore
6.Energieforschungsprogramm
2013-2015
€2.3 m German
national funding
http://www.energiesystemtechnik.iwes.
fraunhofer.de/en/projects/search/laufende/
stensea.html
n/a
Study about the potential of PHS in Italy - in the
framework of the Programme Agreements on
advanced energy storage systems
n/a
2013-2015
n/a
Italian national
funding
n/a
JRC 2012
Pumped-hydro energy storage: potential for
transformation from single dams
n/a
2012
n/a
http://setis.ec.europa.eu/system/files/
Transformation_to_pumped_hydro.pdf
JRC 2013
Assessment of the European potential for pumped
hydropower energy storage
n/a
2013
n/a
http://setis.ec.europa.eu/system/files/
Assessment_European_PHS_potential_
online_0.pdf
EEA 2010
Small- scale hydropower: a methodology to estimate
Europe’s environmentally potential
n/a
2007-2010
n/a
http://acm.eionet.europa.eu/reports/
docs/ETCACC_TP_2010_17_small_
hydropower.pdf
Sub-theme 7: Integration of storage technologies
Project
acronym
Project title
Programme
Run time
Budget (EUR)
Project website
MESSIB
Multi-source Energy Storage System Integrated in
Buildings (WP 4)
FP7-NMP
2009-2013
€8.5 m total
€5.99 m EU
www.messib.eu
eStorage
Solution for cost-effective integration of renewable
intermittent generation by demonstrating the
feasibility of flexible large-scale energy storage with
innovative market and grid control approach
FP7-ENERGY
2012-2017
€22.1 m total
€12.7 m EU
http://cordis.europa.eu/projects/
rcn/107957_en.html
STORE
Storage technologies of reliable energy
IEE
2009-2012
€13.21 m total
€3.11 m EU
www.store-project.eu
E-HUB
Energy Hub for Residential and Commercial Districts
and Transport (R&D concerning business models)
FP7-NMP
2010-2014
€11.6 m total
€7.99 m EU
www.e-hub.org
n/a
Hybrid Urban Energy Storage System
Die Stadt als Speicher - Energietechnische und
-wirtschaftliche Bündelung vielfältiger lokaler
Speicherkapazitäten innerhalb städtischer Lastzentren
zum Ausgleich der Fluktuation erneuerbarer Einspeiser
6.Energieforschungsprogramm
2013-2017
€1.54 m German
national funding
http://hybrider-stadtspeicher.de/
Smart Power
Flow
Optimisation of grid extension vs storage in the
distribution grid compensating increased renewable
power flows - Optimierung von Netzerweiterung versus
Energiespeicher auf der Verteilnetzebene in Folge
zunehmender regenerativer Leistungsflüsse
6.Energieforschungsprogramm
2013-2016
€8.5 m German
national funding
http://www.reiner-lemoine-institut.de/
en/projects/smart-power-flow
GRID+
Supporting the development of the European
Electricity Grids Initiative (EEGI)
FP7-Energy
2011-2014
€3.9 m total
€2.99 m EU
http://www.gridplus.eu/
stoRE
Facilitating energy storage to allow high penetration of
intermittent renewable energy *
IEE
2011-2014
€1.64 m
www.store-project.eu/
www.store-project.eu/en_GB/targetcountry-results
Nice Grid
Un démonstrateur de réseaux du futur à Carros
Demo in Carros, France - partly funded in the
framework of GRID4EU (€7 m)
FP7-Energy
2012-2016
€30 m total
€11 m EU and
national
www.nicegrid.fr/nice-grid-le-stockaged-energie-10.htm
Swiss2G
Swiss2Grid Messmodul
2009-2014
CHF 1.08 m
http://www.bfe.admin.ch/
forschungnetze/01246/03569/index.
html?lang=de&dossier_id=04867
ENERGYPLAN
EnergyPLAN – an advanced energy system computer
model
2000-2014*
n/a
http://www.energyplan.eu/
81
Energy Storage
READY
Heat pumps in a smart grid future
2012-2014
n/a
http://www.ea-energianalyse.dk/
projects-english/1236-READY-heatpumps.html
IMAGES
Integrated Market-fit and Affordable Grid-scale Energy
Storage
2012-2017
€4.4 m total
€3.02 m
national funding (UK)
www2.warwick.ac.uk/fac/sci/eng/
research/energyconversion/images
Ecogrid EU
Large scale Smart Grids demonstration of real time
market-based integration of distributed energy
resources and demand response
FP7-Energy
2011-2015
€20.7 m total
€10.3 m EU
http://www.eu-ecogrid.net/
E-HIGHWAY
2050
Modular Development Plan of the Pan-European
Transmission System 2050,
FP7-Energy
2012-2015
€13 m total
€8.99 m EU
http://www.e-highway2050.eu/
eTelligence
E-EnergyLighthouse project in model region Cuxhaven
6.Energieforschungsprogramm
2008-2012
€9.3 m German
national funding
www.etelligence.de/etelligence.html
International projects
82
Project
acronym
Project title
Programme
Run time
Budget (EUR)
Project website
Beacon Power
Development of a 100 kWh/100 kW Flywheel Energy
Storage Module
GRIDS
2012-2016
$4.25 m
ARPA-E
n/a
http://arpa-e.energy.gov/?q=slicksheet-project/next-generation-flywheelenergy-storage
IEA ECES
Annex 19
‘Optimised Industrial Process heat and Power
Generation with Thermal energy Storage’
2007-2009
n/a
http://www.iea-eces.org/files/
annex_19_finalreport-07-2010.pdf
83

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