CONSCIO USNESS
THIS CHAPTERISABOUT:
The Nature of Consciousness
V1 Levels of Consciousness
i Sleep and Dreams
i Hypnosis
Meditation
EZ1 Psychoactive Drugs
F?i Near-Death Experiences
6.1. The Nature of Consciousness
A. What is consciousness?
Consciousness is the complex process of keeping track of and evaluating our environment, and then
filtering
that information through our minds.
B. Purposes of consciousness
Consciousness serves four main purposes.
1. Consciousness aids in survival by allowing us to register, process, and use information. We make sense
of the world to avoid danger, pursue mates, and accomplish other goals.
2. Consciousness helps us filter out extraneous stimuli that are not useful to us, such as noises in the back
ground when we are working.
3.
Consciousness allows us topl what to do, keep track of what we are doing. and remember what we’ve
done.
4. Consciousness gives us a sense of personal identity. as noted by the seventeenth-century British philoso
pher. John Locke.
6.2. Levels of Consciousness
Sigmund Freud. the great twentieth-century Austrian psycholocist. and others have
suggested that
consciousness operates at multiple levels,
A. The conscious level
The conscious level is the level we are aware of. It is what William James. the
early twentieth-century
Harvard psychologist, referred to as the “stream of thought.”
B. The preconscious level
1. The preconscious level comprises information that could become conscious readily. but that is not
continuously available at the conscious level. Most automatic behavior, such as dialing familiar
a
telephone
56
COflSC1OUSI1eSS
57
number or deciding which muscles to move in order to stand up. occurs at this level. The tip-ofthe-toiague
phenomenon, which occurs when we are trying to remember something we already know but cannot quite
retrieve (such as a name to go with a face), is also preconscious.
2. In subliminal
perception. we detect information without being aware we are doing so. During the
1950s. advertisers tried to sell products by placing rapidly flashed subliminal messages (such as “Buy
Popcorn”) on movie screens. This practice was discontinued because of negative public reaction.
C. The subconscious level
1. Information at the subconscious level is not easily accessible by consciousness. The term is sometimes
used interchangeably with the term UnCOnSCiOUS, whereas other times. the latter term is used to refer to a
level even deeper and less accessible than that represented by the subconscious.
2. Freud suggested that material we find too difficult to handle at a conscious level is
repressed, that is,
never admitted past the unconscious level. Freud believed slips of the tongue represent inadvertent surfacing
of unconscious material (e.g., “I’m glad to beat you” replacing “I’m glad to meet you”).
6.3. Sleep and Dreams
A. Sleep and dreams as altered states of consciousness
Sleep and dreams represent one of several altered states of consciousness, whereby awareness is somehow
changed from that of our normal, waking state. In such states:
1.
2.
3.
4.
perceptions are typically different from those of the normal waking state:
thinking is typically shallow and uncritical;
bizarre ideas or images may seem real and acceptable (e.g., flying under one’s own power);
inhibitions in thinking or behavior may be weakened.
B. Why do we sleep?
There are several theories of why we sleep, none of which is universally accepted.
1. Certain naturally occurring chemicals in the body may cause sleep. Some of the compounds believed to
cause sleep have been labeled “Factor 5,” “sleep-promoting substance” (SPS), and “delta sleep-inducing
peptide” (DSIP).
2. Sleep may help prevent breakdown of normal information processing during waking hours. Individuals
subject to sleep deprivation show progressive deterioration in functioning. such as tiredness, irritation, and
difficulties in concentration after 1 or 2 days; illusions (distorted perceptions of objects. such as when
surfaces of objects appear to waver) and hallucinations (perceptions of nonexistent objects, such as spider
webs appearing to cover a floor that is actually bare) after 3 days; and paranoid delusions (false beliefs of per
secution, such as that the sleep deprivation is actually a diabolical plot hatched against the person) after 4 days.
3. Sleep may be an evolutionary adaptation to the need to be safe from predators at night. When people are
placed in a controlled environment where there are no clocks or changes of light, they nevertheless form a
sleeping—waking cycle, typically of about 25 hours (rather than the 24 hours regulated by the rising and
setting of the sun). Daily cycles, including that of sleep and wakefulness, are called circadian rhythms.
C. Stages of sleep
Sleep can be divided into five relatively distinct stages, each with somewhat different brain-wave patterns
(see Figure 6.1). The first four stages are referred to as N-REM sleep (non-rapid eye movement sleep)
because our eyes do not move very much during these stages. The fifth stage is referred to as REM sleep
because our eyes roll around in their sockets. People do not simply progress through the stages from the time
of going to bed to the time of arising, but rather alternate through the stages.
1. Stage I is the relaxed wakefulness we experience as we drift into sleep. During this stage. the brain
shows an alpha-wave EEG (electroencephalogram) pattern. During this stage. our thoughts may not make
much sense, even though we feel fully or almost fully awake,
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College Outlinefor Psychology
FIGURE 6.1. Electroencephalogram Patterns Showing the Stages of Sleep
These EEG patterns illustrate changes in brain waves, which reflect changes in consciousness during REM
sleep and during the four stages of N-REM sleep. (a) Alpha waves typify relaxed wakefulness. (b) More rapid,
irregular brain waves typify Stage 1 of N-REM sleep, (c) During Stage 2, large, slow waves are occasionally
interrupted by bursts of rapid brain waves. (d) During Stages 3 and 4. extremely large, slow brain waves
predominate. (e) During Stage 5 (REM sleep). the brain waves look very much like those of the awake brain.
Awake
Alpha activity
Beta activity
Stage 1 sleep
Theta activey
Stage 2 sleep
K complex
\‘V!/
Spindle
Seconds
Stage 3 sleep
0 1 2 3 4 5
M
V
v
.
Delta activity
Stage 4 sleep
‘1
.! If
!,
..
p4
Delta activity
REM sleep
Theta activity
Beta activity
2. Stage 2 occupies more than half of our sleeping time, Larger EEG waves appear, overlapping with sleep
spindles (bursts of rapid EEG waves) and occasionally with K-complexes (large, slow waves). Muscle
tension is markedly lower in Stage 2 than in the waking state.
3. In Stage 3. roughly 20 to 50% of the EEG pattern shows delta waves, which are larger and slower than
alpha waves.
4.
in Stage 4, more than 50% of the EEG pattern shows delta waves.
S In Stare ot REM (rapid e moement sleep thL EEG pattern is similar to th it ot v ci LtulnL s jiihouh
we are in deep sleep. The coupling of “awake” EEG with deep sleep has led this stage to be characterized by
some as paradoxical sleep. Vv’e experience most (although not all) of our dreaming during this stage.
D. Sleep disorders
There are several different types of sleep disorders.
L There are various types of insomnia, in which a person may have difficulty falling asleep. a tendency
to wake up during the night and then he unable to fall hack asleep, or a tendency to wake up too early in the
morning. Insomnia is more common among women and in the elderly. Methods of combating insomnia
include establishing a regular bedtime: avoiding strenuous mental or physical activities in the evening;
avoiding intermittent naps during the day: avoidine caffeine, alcohol, and nicotine: and trying to sleep in a
quiet. dark room with adequate circulation and a comlortable temperature.
Consciousness
59
2. Sleep apnea is a breathing disturbance in which an individual repeatedly stops breathing during sleep.
Attacks can occur up to several hundred times per night. During episodes of obstructive apnea, the upper
airway becomes blocked. and the sufferer cannot inhale. In central apnea. the sleeper seems to forget to
breathe for short periods of time. People with sleep apnea are likely to feel drowsy during the day, but more
senously, they may suffer oxygen deprivation while asleep. Sleep apnea most often afflicts overweight men
over 40 years of age, and is also associated with high alcohol consumption.
3. Somnambulism (sleepwalking) combines aspects of waking and sleeping. with the sleepwalker able to
see, walk, and perhaps even talk, but usually unable to remember the sleepwalking episodes after waking.
Contrary to popular opinion, sleepwalking is not associated with dreaming: It usually occurs during N-REM
sleep. when dreaming is rare.
4. Narcolepsy is a syndrome characterized by a strong impulse to sleep during the day or at times when it
is undesirable to do so (e.g, while driving or attending to heavy machinery).
E. Dreams
1, Dreams are fantasies that we accept as true while we sleep, but that typically seem implausible or impos
sible when we are awake. All of us have dreams every night, whether or not we remember them,
2. Several different theories of dreams have been proposed. According to Freud, dreams allow us to express
unconscious wishes in a disguised way. Freud called dreams the “royal road to the unconscious” because
they are one of the few ways we have of allowing the contents of the unconscious to be expressed. In this
regard, Freud distinguished between the manifest content of dreams, which is the stream of events as we
experience them during the dream, and the latent content of dreams, which refers to the repressed impulses
and other unconscious material that give rise to the manifest content.
3.
In contrast, Robert McCarley and J. Allan Hobson have proposed the activation-synthesis hypothesis,
according to which dreams represent a person’s subjective awareness and interpretation of neural activity
during sleep. Francis Crick and Graeme Mitchison have suggested that dreams are nothing more than the
attempt of the mind to get rid of its mental garbage; according to this view, we should pay no more atten
tion to dreams than we do to garbage!
6.4. Hypnosis
A. What is hypnosis?
1, Hypnosis represents an altered state of consciousness in which a person is typically deeply relaxed and
extremely sensitive to suggestion. For example, hypnotized people may imagine that they see or hear things
when they are prompted to do so. People differ in their susceptibility to hypnosis, or hypnotizability.
2. Subjects may also receive a posthypnotic suggestion, in which they are given instructions under
hypnosis that they implement after having wakened from the hypnotic state; the subjects implementing these
suggestions have no recollection of having been given the instructions or that they are acting other than of
their own volition.
B. Theories of hypnosis
Several different theories of hypnosis have been proposed, including one that hypnosis does not represent a
genuine psychological phenomenon at all.
1,
Theodore Barber has suggested that hypnotism is nothing more than a sham—an unspoken collusion
between hypnotist and subject for the subject to entertain or even deceive onlookers. Barber’s viewpoint has
been tested by the simulating paradigm, in which one group of subjects is hypnotized and another is not,
and in which the nonhypnotized subjects are asked to act as though they are hypnotized (i.e., to simulate
hypnosis). Martin Orne, Kenneth Bowers, and others have found that the simulating subjects typically repro
duce some, but not all, of the behavior of the hypnotized subjects, suggesting that more than collusion
between hypnotist and subject is typically involved in hypnosis.
2. According to psychoanalytic thinking, hypnosis represents a state of partial regression to an infantile
way of thinking. Thus, a hypnotized person acts in ways that at his or her age would normally be censored
by higher levels of thought.
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College Outlinefor Psychology
3.
Another theory argues that in hypnotism, subjects play a role. In other words. without realizing it, they
act as they think they should when hypnotized. This theory differs from Barber’s in that it holds that
subjects are not even aware of their collusion.
4.
fourth and particularly popular theory today is neo-dissociative theory, which has been proposed by
Stanford psychologist Ernest Hilgard. According to this theory. hypnotized individuals experience a disso
ciation (separation) of one part oftheir minds from another. in effect. when the subjects are hypnotized. their
consciousness splits. One part responds to the hypnotist’s commands, while another part becomes a hidden
observer, monitoring everything that is going on. For example. studies of pain relief through hypnosis have
found that at the same time subjects respond to a hypnotist’s suggestion that they feel no pain (the hypno
tized part of consciousness), they are also able to describe how the pain feels (the hidden observer).
.t
6.5. Meditation
Meditation is a set of techniques used to alter consciousness by a shift from an active, outwardly oriented.
and linear mode of thinking to a more receptive, inwardly oriented, and nonlinear mode of thinking.
A. Kinds of meditation
There are several different kinds of meditation.
1. In concentrative meditation, the meditator focuses on an object or thought and attempts to remove all
else from consciousness.
a). In Zen, the classical Buddhist form of concentrative meditation, the meditator might be asked to
count breaths from 1 to 10 in a series of repetitive cycles, or to think about the passage of air during the
breathing process. People learning Zen go through a series of graded stages on their way to becoming expert
meditators,
b). In yoga, meditation often involves the use of a mantram (plural, mantra), or a set of soft-sounding
words (such as “om”) that helps to focus the meditator. These words are repeated over and over again while
the person meditates. Transcendental meditation is a form of mantram yoga. in which practitioners are
instructed to repeat their mantra over and over again twice a day for about half an hour at a time. Other forms
of yoga make use of visual imagery rather than of mantra. In one form, the yogi sits in a lotus (cross-legged)
position and constructs a visual image of a mandala, a pattern that can range in complexity from a simple
circle to a highly elaborate geometric form.
2. Opening-up meditation seeks
to expand awareness of everyday events, and is in some respects the
opposite of concentrative meditation. In one form of opening-up meditation, you observe yourself as though
you were another person. In another form, you perform everyday actions in a way that differs slightly from
your normal pattern, for example. altering the order in which you put on pieces of clothing, or the order in
which you eat successive courses of a meal.
B. Effects
of
meditation
Meditation generally results in a decrease in respiration, heart rate, blood pressure. and muscle tension,
Meditation has also been linked with alleviation of bronchial asthma, hypertension (high blood pressure).
insomnia, and some psychiatric symptoms.
6.6. Psychoactive Drugs
Psychoactive drugs affect consciousness, mood, and behavior. They can be classified into four basic
categories, as follows.
A.
Narcotics
1. What. exactly. are narcotics? Narcotics are psychoactive drugs that produce some degree of numbness or
stupor and that lead to addiction, The numbness is generally perceived as a ti’eling of well-being or freedom
from pain.
Consciousness
61
Narcotics derived from the opium poppy bulb are referred to as opiates. Drugs with similar chemical
structures and the same effects that are synthetically produced are referred to as opioids These drugs are
typically injected intravenously, smoked, or inhaled.
2.
Some of the main narcotics are morphine, the active ingredient in opium, and heroin. a purified
morphine derivative. Heroin is illegal practically everywhere. In contrast, another narcotic. codeine, is used
legally but by prescription as a painkiller and to fight persistent cough.
3.
Narcotics have several different effects on the hod. They bring about pain relief, relaxation, and sleepiness. They can also suppress coughs and stimulate vomiting. They cause mental fuzziness or cloudiness. and
also contraction of the pupils of the eyes. sweating. nausea. and sometimes depressed breathing.
Aside from the symptoms themselves. the main dangers of narcotics are addiction. the contraction of
acquirLd imnulnodetlLlenc\ s\ndrome ( MDS throuh the ue ol shared needks to inject the dru and
overdose, or ingestion of a life-threatening or lethal dose of a drug. Repeated use of narcotics and other
drugs often leads to tolerance, whereby users require increasingly potent doses to achieve an effect equiv
alent to that attained earlier. When the drug is withdrawn. users experience withdrawal symptoms. such as
chills. sweating. intense stomach cramps. diarrhea, headache. and repeated vomiting. After a certain point,
many drug users continue drug use not so much for the pleasant effects of the drug but rather to stave off
the great discoinfrt of withdrawal symptoms.
4.
Like many other drugs. narcotics mimic neurotransmitters in the way that they act in the brain. The molec
ii1ar composition of opiates resembles that of endorphins. which are the body’s naturally produced pamkllling
neurotransrnitters. Prolonged use of narcotics leads to a drop in the body’s natural production of endorphins.
5.
Drug dependency is typically treated by one of two methods. In detoxification, an attempt is made to
wean the addict from the drug and thereby to become drug-free. In maintenance, an attempt is made to
control the addict’s use of the drug, sometimes by introducing a substitute drug, such as methadone. The
problem with the maintenance procedure is that drug users can then become addicted to the substitute drug.
B. Depressants
1. Central nervous system (CNS) depressants,
like narcotics, slow the operation of the CNS. They
typically elevate mood, reduce anxiety and guilt, and relax normal inhibitions.
2.
The most well-known CNS depressant is alcohol. At blood-level concentrations of 0.03 to 0.05%,
people often feel relaxed, uninhibited, and have a general sense of well-being. At a level of 0. 10%, sensori
motor functioning is markedly impaired. People may exhibit slurred speech, and grow angry, sullen, or
morose. At a concentration of 0,20%, people show grave dysfunction. At 0.40% or more, there is a serious
risk of death. Addiction to alcohol, or alcoholism, is now widely regarded as a disease. It is one of the most
common afflictions in the world. Alcoholics are unable to abstain from alcohol and cannot control their
drinking once they get started. Chronic alcoholics may sustain permanent damage to the nervous system.
pancreas. liver, and brain cells. Alcohol use by pregnant women, even in moderate amounts, can cause fetal
alcohol syndrome, which may produce mental retardation and facial deformities in children born of mothers
who drink alcohol.
Another type of depressant is the sedative-hypnotic, which includes barbiturates, such as
methaqualone. and various tranquilizers (anti-anxiety drugs). such as the benzodiazepines.
C. Central nervous system stimulants
Central nervous system stimulants excite the central nervous system by stimulating the heart or by inhibit
ing the actions of natural compounds that depress brain activit Common CNS stimulants include caffeine.
nicotine, amphetamines, and cocaine. In the short term. CNS stimulants can increase the user’s stamina and
alertness, stave off hunger pangs. and create a sense of euphoria. In stronger doses, the drugs can cause anx
ietv and irritability. Cocaine is the most powerful of the known natural stimulants, and is highly addictive.
especially if smoked in crystal form or nasally inhaled in powder form.
.
D. Hallucinogens
Hallucinogens (also known as “psychedelics” or “psychotomimetics”) alter consciousness by inducing
hallucinations—experiences of sensory stimulation in the absence of any actual corresponding external
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College Outline for Psychology
sensory input—and by affecting the wa\’ the users perceive both their inner worlds and their external envi
ronments. Included in this chiss of drug are mescaline. lysergic acid dieth1arnide (LSD), phencyclidine
(PCP), marijuami, and hashish. The greatest danger of these drugs is that people may cause danger to
themselves by acting as though their hallucinations were true. as when the walk out a window. expecting
to fly while under the influence of LSD.
6,7. Near-Death Experiences
Near-death experience refers to a pattern of experiences reported by individuals who have been near death
but who have managed to survive. Commonly reported are feelings of peace or intense joy, feelings of
having left one’s body or of ha ing looked at one’s body from the outside, traveling through a dark tunnel
and seeing a brilliant light at the end of it. having a reunion with a deceased friend or relative, and contact
with a being who encourages the individual to return to life. Not all of the people who have near-death
experiences report all of these phenomena. The frequency and intensity of these experiences tend to be
greatest for people who are ill. lo\k est for people who have attempted suicide, and in-between for accident
victims. According to Kenneth Ring. fe people hase reported any negative experiences.
We do not know why people have reported this shared base of near-death experience. No clear demo
graphic trends have been found. Several physiological explanations have been proposed, although none are
conclusive. Perhaps the most interesting thing to come out of near-death experience research is that people who
have had such experiences typically say that their lives have changed for the better as a result. They are inure
appreciative of what they have, less afraid of death, and more determined to live their lives to the fullest.
1. Consciousness is a stream of thought or awareness—the state of mind by which we compare possi
bilities for what we might perceive, and then select some possibilities and reject others.
2. Some of the functions of consciousness appear to be to sift important from unimportant information,
and to facilitate planning, monitoring, and memory of experiences.
3. Consciousness occurs on multiple levels. The conscious level is what is within our awareness. The
preconscious level is immediately prior to and just outside of consciousness. The subconscious or
unconscious level is deeper and normally behind conscious access. Perception below the level of
consciousness is referred to as subliminal perception.
4. Scientists have isolated several chemical substances in Our bodies that may cause sleep. Sleep may
help people to function adaptively in the environment, People ssho are sleep-deprised show increas
ingh maladaptive symptoms over time.
5. Sleep occurs in five different stages. Four of these are stages of non-REM sleep: Stage 5 is REM
rapid eye mm ement> sleep, when most dreaming occurs.
6. Some of the main sleep disorders include insomnia, a condition in which an individual has trouble
falling asleep. wakes tip during the night. or wakes up too earls in the morning: sleep apnca, in
which oxygen intake is temporarily impaired during sleep: somnambulism csleepwalking. in which
the person gets up from bed while still sleeping; and narcolepsy, in xhich a person feels a strong
impulse to sleep when it ic undesirable to do so.
7. Several different theories of dreaming hax e been proposed. including that dreams fulfill unconscious
wishes, that they are our subjecti e interpretation of nocturnal brain activity, and that they are the
brain’s wax of clearing itself of garbage.
8. Hypnosis is an altered state of consciousness in which a person becomes extremely sensitixe to. and
often compliant with, the communications of the hypnotist. Sex eral theories of hypnosis are that it
inxohes conscious or unconscious collusion between h’.pnotist and subject. that it is a regression to
infantile wax s of thinking, and that it represents a splitting of consciousness.
9. Meditation Is a set of techniques for entering a more reeepti\ e and quiescent mode of thought. Two
main kinds of meditation aie concentrative meditation, in xxhich the meditator focuses on an
Consciousness
63
object or thought and attempts to remove all else from consciousness, and opening-up meditation.
in which the meditator attempts to integrate meditation with, rather than separate it from, other
activities.
10. Four main categories of psychoactive drues include narcotics, which produce numbness or stupor:
depressants, which slow the operation of the central nervous system; stimulants, which speed up
the operation of the central nervous system: and hallucinogenics, which produce distorted percep
tions of reahtv.
11. Near-death experiences involve a set of shared experiences, including feelings of peace and
emotional well-being, separation from the body. entrance into a tunnel ending in a bright light, and
encounters with deceased or supernatural beings.
KeyTerms
activation-synthesis hypothesis
alcoholism
alpha-flave EEG
(electroencephalogram)
altered state of consciousness
automatic behavior
barbiturate
central apnea
central nervous system
depressant
central nervous system
stimulant
circadian rhythm
codeine
concentrative meditation
conscious level
consciousness
delta wave
detoxification
endorphin
fetal alcohol syndrome
hallucination
hallucinogen
heroin
So1vedProbIeins.
hidden observer
hypnosis
hypnotizahilit\
illusion
insomnia
K-complex
latent content
maintenance
mandala
manifest content
mantram (mantra)
meditation
methadone
morphine
narcolepsy
narcotic
near-death experience
neo-dissociative theory
N-REM sleep
obstructive apnea
opening-up meditation
opiate
opioid
overdose
paradoxical sleep
paranoid delusion
posthypnotic suggestion
preconscious level
psychoactive drug
REM (rapid eye movement) sleep
repression
sedative-hypnotic
simulating paradigm
sleep apnea
sleep spindle
somnambulism
subconscious level
subliminal perception
tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon
tolerance
tranquilizer
transcendental meditation
unconscious
withdrawal symptom
yoga
Zen
,.
A. Select the best response option from among the four that are given.
1.
Tolerance to a psychoactive drug occurs when
A. a person no longer cares if he or she receives the drug or not.
B. a person needs successively greater doses of a drug to achieve the same effect.
C. a person stops having withdrawal symptoms after reintroduction of a drug.
D. others get used to the idea that an addict is not likely to stop taking drugs.
2.
The purpose of the simulating paradigm in studies of hypnosis is to determine whether
A. hypnotized people can act as though they are not hypnotized.
B. nonhypnotized people can act as though they are hypnotized.
C. hypnotized people know that they are hypnotized.
D. people are amenable to posthypnotic suggestion.
_________
_______
________
64
B.
college Outline for Psychology
3.
Which of the following is not typically a symptom of sleep deprivation?
A. illusions
B. hallucinations
C. irritability
D. apnea
4.
Subliminal perception occurs
A. only at night.
B. under hypnosis.
C. without consciousness.
D. during dreams,
5.
Alphawave patterns first appear during which stage of sleep?
A. Stage 1
B. Stage 2
C. Stage 3
D. Stage 4
Match each of the terms at the left with its proper classification at the right.
6.
7.
8.
9.
10.
11.
12.
13.
14.
15.
Nicotine
Barbiturates
Cocaine
Morphine
LSD
Mescaline
Heroin
Tranquilizers
Amphetamines
Caffeine
A.
B.
C.
D.
Narcotic
Depressant
Stimulant
Hallucinogenic
C. Answer each of the following questions with the appropriate word or phrase.
16. The stage of sleep during which most dreaming occurs is called
1 7. A syndrome in which the upper airway becomes blocked during sleep is called
18. The hypothesis that dreaming represents a person’s subjective awareness and interpretation of
neural activity during sleep is called the
hypothesis.
19. The process by which an addict’s use of a drug is kept under control is called
2(1 According to Freud. slips of the tongue are due to
of material that is not allowed into
consciousness,
D. Answer I (true) or F (false) to each of the following statements.
21. The normal sleep—waking cycle appears to he 24 hours, whether people are exposed to time cues or not.
22. Alcohol is a central nervous system depressant.
23 .A person with narcolepsy is at risk of falling asleep while driving.
24. A mantram is a geometric form upon which a person concentrates while meditating.
25. People in altered states of consciousness are typically more inhibited than they would be in a
normal conscious state,
consciousness
65
26. Zen is a form of concentrative meditation.
27. People are generally aware of what is in the subconscious, but not of what is in the unconscious,
28. There is some evidence suggesting that sleep may be induced by chemical substances in the body.
29. Drinking of just a moderate amount of alcohol by pregnant women can lead to fetal alcohol
syndrome
30. Methadone is used to achieve detoxification of heroin addicts,
I—
1. B: 2. B: 3, D; 4, C: 5.A; 6. C; 7. B: 8. C; 9.A; 10. D; 11. D: 12,A; 13. B: 14. C; 15. C: 16. REM sleep
(or paradoxical sleep); 17. obstructive apnea; 18. activationsynthesis: 19. maintenance; 20. repression; 21.
F (25 hours): 22. T; 23. T; 24. F (a mantram is a set of softsounding words); 25. F (they are less inhibited):
26. T: 27. F (people are unaware of either); 28. T: 29. T: 30. F (it is used to achieve maintenance).