An introduction to grammatical-relation
changing processes

Each verb permits a certain number of arguments:
(1) The baby cried.
(2) Harry took the vase.
(3) Jenny gave Mike $50.

Choosing the wrong number of arguments makes a
sentence ungrammatical:
(4)
(5)
(6)
(7)

[Intransitive verb – 1 argument]
[Transitive verb – 2 arguments]
[Ditransitive verb – 3 arguments]
*The baby cried her broken toy.
*Harry took.
*Harry broke Mike the vase.
*Jenny gave Mike.
Some verbs allow more than one set:
(8) Elvis left.
(9) Elvis left the building.
[VINTR]
[VTRANS]

Participants who benefit from an action are
normally indicated by for or to (recipients):
(10) I brought the ice cream for Mary.
(11) The teachers gave a cookie to every child.

This preposition can be deleted if the
participant is moved right after the verb:
(12) I brought Mary the ice cream. Notice: No preposition!
(13) The teachers gave every child a cookie.

The transformation only works with
participants that have a benefactive meaning:
(14) I brought the ice for the party.
*I brought the party the ice.



The Indirect Object Transformation (=Dative Shift
= Applicative) changes an adjunct into an object
of the verb,
thus resulting in an increase in transitivity by one.
It is therefore an example of a transitivityincreasing device:
(15) I brought the ice cream for Mary. 1 object: transitive
S V
O
Adjunct
(16) I brought Mary the ice cream.
S V
O1
O2
Indirect object Direct object
2 objects: ditransitive

Passivization of (17) is ungrammatical:
(17) The teachers gave a cookie to every child.
(18) *Every child was given a cookie to by the teachers.

After undergoing Dative Shift, passive works:
(19) The teachers gave a cookie to every child.
Apply Dative Shift:
(20) The teachers gave every child a cookie.
Apply passive:
(21) Every child was given a cookie by the teachers.

Dative shift/Applicative
(22) You kill that pig.
(23) You kill that pig for me.
(24) Can you kill me that pig?

[kill: VTRANS]
[for me: Adjunct]
[2 objects!]
Causative
(25) The tree fell.
(26) The loggers felled the tree.
(27)
(28)
(29)
(30)
The
The
The
The
loggers
loggers
loggers
loggers
made the tree fall.
had the tree fall.
caused the tree to fall.
let the tree fall.
[fall: VINTRANS]
[fell: VTRANS]
Increased
control

Normal word order in transitive active sentences is
Subject-Verb-Object:
(31) Active: John took the cookie.
S
V
O

The passive highlights the original object by
making it into the subject of the passive sentence:
(32) Passive: The cookie was taken by John.
S
V
PP

Three changes have occurred:
1. The original object, the cookie, has become the new subject.
2. The original subject, John, has been moved into a PP with by.
3. The auxiliary be has been added and the verb changed to a participle.

Passives are acquired late. Even very fluent 5year olds will often not understand them yet.
Reasons:
1.
2.
Complexity: 3 simultaneous changes are involved.
Passive word order runs counter to the basic pattern of the
language: “Name the agent first!”
The car hit the truck.
1
2
The truck was hit by the car.
1
2
Child will pick up the toy car and
slam it into the truck.
↓
Child will pick up the toy truck and
slam it into the car.

Chinese:
Active:
他
Tā
he
‘He

骂
你
了
mà
nĭ
le.
scold you
scolded you.’
Passive:
→
你
Nĭ
you
‘You
被 他 骂
了
bèi tā mà
le.
by he scold
were scolded by him.’
Contrast with English:
- No AUX added.
- Bèi agent is preverbal.
- Meaning: Adversative
[Data from Li, Charles N. & Sandra A. Thompson. 1976. Mandarin Chinese: A
Functional Reference Grammar. University of California Press]

German has both, passives from transitives
(33 & 34) and from intransitives (35 & 36):
(33) Der
Junge
the:NOM:SG:M boy
‘The boy saw the man.’
(34) Der
Mann
sah
den
saw the:ACC:SG:M
wurde von
the:NOM:SG:M man
got
from
‘The man was seen by the boy.’
(35) Die
Leute
tanzten viel.
the:NOM:PL people danced
‘People danced a lot.’
(36) Es wurde viel
Mann.
getanzt.
It got
much danced
‘There was much dancing.’
much
man
dem
Jungen gesehen.
the:DAT:SG:M
boy
seen


Passivization
Noun incorporation
(33) I went bear-hunting.
(34) Book-reading is a dangerous obsession.

[hunt:
[read:
Some types of nominalization
VTRANS]
VTRANS]
(35) The destruction was devastating.
[destroy: VTRANS]
(36) The enemy’s destruction of the city was devastating.
But:(37) Destroying (*of) the city was devastating.

Morphological reflexives/reciprocals
(38) Ni
kwəšθ-ət kwθə
AUX shoot-self DET
‘The man shot himself.’
swǝʔqeʔ
man
[Halkomalem]
[tones removed]