Adv Physiol Educ 35: 421–426, 2011;
doi:10.1152/advan.00007.2011.
How We Teach
Development of a model for whole brain learning of physiology
Saramarie Eagleton1 and Anton Muller2
1
Department of Human Anatomy and Physiology, Faculty of Health Sciences, and 2Faculty of Management, University of
Johannesburg, Johannesburg, South Africa
Received 25 January 2011; Accepted 19 July 2011
learning styles; information processing; physiology
is a complex and field, often ill understood. Current
research in the area is increasingly conducted in domains
outside psychology, the domain from which many of the
central concepts and theories of learning originate (8). With
this model, an attempt is made to integrate learning styles into
instructional design for physiology.
Most of the existing research on learning styles is based on
a single facet of learning and has a learning style inventory
associated with it. Some of the most popular learning style
schemes include the VA(R)K instrument, which categorizes
learning preferences as visual (V), auditory (A), readingwriting (R), or kinesthetic (K) (4). The learning styles for this
study were grouped according to Curry’s onion model as those
associated with personality, information processing, and instruction and the environment (13).
Learning styles associated with personality include Carl
Jung’s psychological types, which are based on how information is perceived and processed during learning (36); the
Myers-Briggs personality type indicator is another example
and is primarily concerned with the valuable differences in
people that result from where they like to focus their attention,
the way they like to take in information, the way they like to
decide, and the kind of lifestyle they adopt (37). Keirsey’s
LEARNING
Address for reprint requests and other correspondence: S. Eagleton, Dept. of
Human Anatomy and Physiology, Faculty of Health Sciences, Univ. of
Johannesburg, Johannesburg, South Africa (e-mail: [email protected]).
temperament sorter addresses the relationship between temperament, character, and personality (24).
Learning styles that describe learning based on information
processing include Lewin’s cycle of learning, which gives
details on the role of concrete experience, reflective observation, abstract conceptualization, and active experimentation in
learning (34). This cycle was elaborated on by Atherton (2),
Kolb (26), Honey and Mumford (22), and McCarthy, with the
4MAT cycle of learning (29). Different perspectives from the
cyclic events of learning have been presented by Herrmann
(20) and Neethling (33), who explain the role of the four
quadrants of the brain in learning.
The role of instruction in learning has received attention
from Bransford (11), who described anchors during instruction,
De Bono (15), who elaborated on lateral thinking, and Bandura
(3) and Vygotsky (40), who explained the social aspects of
learning. The role of environmental factors during learning has
been described by Carbo et al. (9).
These different facets of learning need to be integrated to
provide educators with a framework of what learning entails.
Various models have been used to simplify and categorize
learning (8). The model proposed by this article describes
whole brain learning based on an elaboration of a recognized
model described by Lynn Curry, who used the metaphor of an
onion to describe three levels of learning (13). The innermost
layer represents the role of personality in learning, the middle
layer refers to information processing, and the outer layer
stands for the role of the environment and instruction on
learning. In the proposed model, the two innermost layers of
Curry’s model are integrated with Neethling’s four quadrants
of the brain. The learning styles associated with personality
and information processing are categorized into the model.
Kolb’s cycle of learning is integrated with this combined onion
and quadrant model. The constructivist principles of learning
are categorized in the information-processing layer into the
four quadrants. The outermost layer houses the role of environmental preferences, as described by Carbo et al. (9), and the
different instructional preferences that encompass face-to-face
and technology-assisted learning. This proposed model can be
used to encourage whole brain learning for physiology students.
Development of the Model
Dunn and Dunn (16) explained that learning styles involve
“ѧthe way in which individuals begin to concentrate on, process, internalize, and retain new and difficult information.”
Slater et al. (37) added that learning style is the manner in
which and the conditions under which learners most efficiently
and effectively perceive, process, store, and recall what they
are attempting to learn. These processes involve personality
and information processing.
1043-4046/11 Copyright © 2011 The American Physiological Society
421
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Eagleton S, Muller A. Development of a model for whole brain
learning of physiology. Adv Physiol Educ 35: 421– 426, 2011;
doi:10.1152/advan.00007.2011.—In this report, a model was developed for whole brain learning based on Curry’s onion model. Curry
described the effect of personality traits as the inner layer of learning,
information-processing styles as the middle layer of learning, and
environmental and instructional preferences as the outer layer of
learning. The model that was developed elaborates on these layers by
relating the personality traits central to learning to the different
quadrants of brain preference, as described by Neethling’s brain
profile, as the inner layer of the onion. This layer is encircled by the
learning styles that describe different information-processing preferences for each brain quadrant. For the middle layer, the different
stages of Kolb’s learning cycle are classified into the four brain
quadrants associated with the different brain processing strategies
within the information processing circle. Each of the stages of Kolb’s
learning cycle is also associated with a specific cognitive learning
strategy. These two inner circles are enclosed by the circle representing the role of the environment and instruction on learning. It relates
environmental factors that affect learning and distinguishes between
face-to-face and technology-assisted learning. This model informs on
the design of instructional interventions for physiology to encourage
whole brain learning.
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WHOLE BRAIN LEARNING OF PHYSIOLOGY
Fig. 1. Illustration of Curry’s onion model.
Fig. 2. Personality traits with implications for learning.
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Knowledge of learning style preferences can help lecturers
to assist students to develop effective curricular approaches.
Learning style information can also benefit students as they
learn about themselves and general learning theories (4). A
holistic learning environment nurtures all aspects of learning
and helps to establish a supportive learning community (27).
Here, a model for whole brain learning was developed based
on Curry’s onion model, which is based on three levels of
learning (13). A diagram (Fig. 1) to illustrate these levels was
designed to represent the role of personality traits in learning in
the inner layer, the role that information processing plays in
learning in the middle layer, and the role of the instruction and
environment in learning in the outer layer.
Personality traits. In the central layer of the thematic learning style model, the focus is on the ability to acquire and
integrate information. This refers to an individual’s approach
to assimilate and adapt information. This adaptation does not
involve interactions with the environment, as these underlying
personalities constructs form part of personality (25). In this
article, personality typing was based on the research of Carl
Jung (36) and Katherine Myers and Isabel Briggs-Myers (32).
The personality traits that can influence learning are extraversion versus introversion (6), thinkers versus feelers (38), and
judgers (schedulers) versus perceivers (probers) (31). As these
personality traits have an effect on a student’s approach to
learning (12), an awareness of the role of personality traits in
learning can help to identify areas of growth and development.
In the proposed model for whole brain learning, the personality traits that have an effect on learning were grouped into the
four quadrants of the brain according to Neethling’s fourquadrant model (33). Neethling explained that the different
characteristics that suit each quadrant of the brain are based on
left and right hemisphere preference. The left brain (hindquarter) is for structured processing; the left brain (front quarter) is
for analytic processing; the right brain (front quarter) is for
holistic processing; and the right brain (hindquarter) is for
emotional processing. Front quarters refer to cortical processing, whereas hindquarters represent limbic processing.
Figure 2 shows the integration of personality traits and
Neethling’s brain profile.
The next layer of the proposed model represents the role of
information processing in learning.
Information processing: perceptual modalities and cognitive
strategies. The middle layer of Curry’s onion model represents
the intellectual approach to assimilate and process information
during learning. This layer is not as stable as the inner layer
representing the personality and can be “modified” by instruction. The ways in which people perceive and process information affect how they learn. Different styles are of equal value or
can be equally effective at task performance; the same level of
performance can be attained in different ways (12).
The perceptual modality is a biologically based reaction to
the physical environment and refers to the primary way that the
body takes in information. Perception could be visual, auditory, or kinesthetic (27). Perceptual differences affect what and
how information is received. People do not use all of their
senses to the same extent (18).
Cognitive styles refer to thinking processes that are used to
organize, shape, and retrieve perceived information (27). Descriptions of these styles make use of dichotomies to represent
the extremes of the dichotomy of each style. The styles should,
however, be seen as a continuum between the two extremes.
Cognitive styles that have been found to influence learning
include left brain versus right brain (5), reflective versus
impulsive (41), concrete versus abstract (27, 38), sequential
versus global (42), and sensing versus intuitive (25).
Information-processing models focus on an individual’s
cognitive approach and processes by which information is
obtained, sorted, stored, and used. Knowledge about information processing gives the student vital in-class learning mode
How We Teach
WHOLE BRAIN LEARNING OF PHYSIOLOGY
preferences as well as cues for being aware of possible lecturer
learning style preferences (21). This layer is considered to be
relatively stable because it does not directly interact with the
environment.
In the proposed model, information-processing styles are
represented in the second layer of Curry’s onion model and
integrate Kolb’s experiential learning styles (26) into the four
quadrants of Neethling’s brain model (33). Kolb described the
learning cycle as being a concrete experience, followed by
observation and reflection, followed by abstraction and generalization, which culminate in active experimentation. Strategies for active learning in each of the quadrants were incorporated into the four quadrants: critical-thinking activities for
students who prefer to use the left cortical quarter of the brain
(1) and learning structured to use inquiry for those who have a
preference for the left limbic quarter of the brain (19). Lateral
thinking exercises will develop right cortical functioning of the
brain (15). The right limbic quadrant of the brain is used for
problem-solving activities (17). An illustration of the integrated model for information processing that was developed is
shown in Fig. 3.
The outermost layer of the proposed model for whole brain
learning represents the role of the environment and instructional preferences in learning.
Environmental and instructional preferences. The outermost
layer houses the role of environmental preferences that affect
learning, as described by Burke and Dunn (7), as well as the
instructional preferences that distinguish between face-to-face
and technology-assisted This layer, representing the environmental and instructional preferences, is shown in Fig. 4.
A diagram (Fig. 5) was designed to illustrate the integration
of personality traits, information-processing styles, and environmental and instructional preferences. This model was used
to describe how the integrated learning styles can be applied to
teach physiology to undergraduate students.
Thinkers decide on things impersonally on analysis, logic,
and principle. Thinkers value fairness, focusing on the situation’s logic and placing great weight on objective criteria when
making decisions. Feelers make decisions by focusing on
human values and needs. They tend to be good at persuasion
and facilitation (6).
Judging people are decisive and self-regimented. They prefer making agendas, timetables, programs, lists, and outlines.
These students want to know what the essential elements are
and then focus on completing a task. By committing themselves to set schedules, they tend to stop looking for alternatives, and, by doing so, they may never know what they are
missing. They prefer to complete one task before starting the
next. Perceptive people are curious, adaptable, and spontaneous. They start many tasks, want to know everything about
each task, and often find it difficult to complete a task. These
students are more likely to be adaptable and tolerant; however,
they need freedom and flexibility. They find it difficult to stick
to deadlines (27).
Introverts find energy in the inner world of ideas, concepts,
and abstraction. Introverts are concentrators and reflective
thinkers; they want to understand the world. While they can be
sociable, they need to be left alone to recharge their batteries.
Extraverts find energy in things and people. They prefer
interactions with people and are action oriented. They are
“on-the-fly” thinkers (6).
The middle layer. This layer is used to distinguish between
the perceptual and information-processing styles that influence
learning.
Perceptual preferences differentiate between the preferred
ways of attaining information. Visual students do not remember well what they only hear. They extract detail from the
background, remembering faces rather than names. They are
very imaginative, with a keen visual memory. These students
need to see the facilitator’s body language and facial expressions to understand the content. They usually sit in the front of
the room and take copious notes, are neat and clean, but often
doodle, and need a quiet environment to learn their best. They
may think in pictures and learn best from visual displays,
including diagrams, illustrated textbooks, overhead transparencies, videos, flipcharts, and handouts (41). Auditory students
often do better talking to a colleague or tape recorder and
hearing what was said. They have difficulty with reading and
writing tasks. For auditory students, information that has been
written down will have little meaning until it has been heard.
They do not form a mental picture but remember the way a
word sounds. These students often remember names but not
Application
This model can be used to inform physiology lecturers on
the design of learning interventions to stimulate whole brain
learning.
The central layer. This layer is used to describe the personality traits that influence learning.
Fig. 4. Environmental and instructional preferences.
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Fig. 3. Information processing.
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WHOLE BRAIN LEARNING OF PHYSIOLOGY
faces, do not take notes in class, hum or talk to themselves
when bored or concentrating, read aloud under their breath,
enjoy talking, and will often do well in a noisy environment
(42). Kinesthetic students require whole body movement and
real-life experience to absorb and retain material to be learned.
These students learn best when they are totally involved.
Acting, puppetry, and drama are excellent examples of kinesthetic
learning. Other methods are using building, designing, visiting,
interviewing, and playing as instructional methods (41).
Students have different preferences for processing information. Sequential students are reflective, convergent students
who prefer learning material to be serial or sequential. They
can easily separate important details from a complex or confusing background. They tend to rely on themselves and their
own thought system when solving problems. They appear to be
more active, autonomous, self-motivated, and task oriented in
their approach to life. Analytic students resist distractions and
have a longer attention span and greater reflectivity than global
students have. They tend to be more sedentary and prefer
formal learning situations. They can be very competitive. They
are usually not so skilled in interpersonal relationships (38, 40,
41). Global students are impulsive, divergent students and
prefer learning material to give a holistic view and to be
randomly presented (31). Global students find it difficult to see
the parts in a whole. Persons who are “labeled” as global rely
on the environment of the learning situation for structure. They
are sensitive to social cues without being alerted to them. They
are interpersonally oriented and rely heavily on external stimuli. This motivates them to look toward others for reinforce-
ment of opinions and attitudes. These students have a short
attention span, are easily distracted, and like informal learning
situations. They respond to learning environments that evoke
their feelings and experience. They are less achievement oriented and competitive than sequential students. For them,
learning is a social experience (38, 40, 41).
Concrete students use real materials and examples for learning; they deal with physical expression of information. They
are hands-on experiential students, and they need examples,
models, and templates. Abstract people prefer pictures and
explanations. They learn through lectures and accept theory
well. They are book students, enjoying metaphorical expression (27, 38).
The learning process has to pass through the four brain
quadrants within the cognitive domain. Within each of these
quadrants, one of the stages of Kolb’s learning cycle describes
the learning events that need to take place. Each of the
quadrants can also be related to a constructivist activity. The
left limbic quadrant represents logical activities. It is the brain
quadrant responsible for sensing and experiencing new information through inquiry. The left cortical quadrant is where
observations and reflections take place and requires critical
thinking. The right cortical quadrant is for abstract analysis
and allows for lateral thinking, whereas activities in the right
limbic quadrant are for taking action and solving problems.
The outer layer. The outer layer of the proposed model
refers to instructional and environmental preferences. The
instructional preferences that are referred to are used to distinguish between face-to-face and technology-assisted learning.
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Fig. 5. Model for whole brain learning.
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WHOLE BRAIN LEARNING OF PHYSIOLOGY
classified into the four quadrants associated with the different
brain processing strategies within the information-processing circle. Each of the stages of Kolb’s learning cycle were associated
with a specific cognitive learning strategy. These cognitive strategies have been related to the stages of Kolb’s cycle in the
information-processing circle. The inner circles are enclosed by
the circle representing the role of the environment and instruction.
It relates the environmental factors that affect learning to the
overall learning process and distinguishes between the significance of face-to-face and technology-assisted learning.
This study makes a contribution to the field of instructional
design for physiology in that lecturers are alerted to the
importance of incorporating learning strategies that make provision for the personality, information processing, and environment and instructional needs of different students.
GRANTS
This ork was funded, in part, by the National Research Foundation’s
Thuthuka program and the University of Johannesburg.
DISCLOSURES
No conflicts of interest, financial or otherwise, are declared by the author(s).
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Advances in educational technology have made it possible to
implement blended teaching, incorporating both face-to-face
and technology-assisted instructional intervention. Face-toface interventions can combine lecturing, cooperative group
activities, tutorials, and practical sessions, whereas technologyassisted learning can be used to create vivid, playful, interactive learning environments that support multimedia presentations as well as adaptive online exercises and virtual discussions that allow for greater student control of learning (22).
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(33). All interventions need to be planned to incorporate the
learning strategies as described by the inner layers of the
model. A number of educationalists have described the role
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The role that the teaching environment plays is the most
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still. Students’ environmental needs are important to them and
are beyond their control. Although these needs may change
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Limitations. The model needs to be “tested” by physiology
lecturers to determine if it has an effect on the students’ ability
to understand physiology. Students also need to give feedback
if they understand better if they are taught according to their
preferred way of learning while also being challenged to use
different learning strategies to encourage whole brain learning.
Future directions. The importance of understanding the role
that learning styles play in the learning of physiology requires
further investigation. The role of whole brain learning strategies can be investigated and compared for students registered
for different modules in physiology to guide both lecturers and
students. The objective is to improve the understanding and
application of physiology, especially for students embarking
on medical and paramedical careers.
Conclusions. The information gathered during the extensive
literature search were integrated to conceptualize learning and
motivate the principles for the development of the proposed
model. This model, based on Curry’s onion model, merged
personality traits, information-processing strategies, and instructional design and environmental preferences to enlighten
instructional design for learning interventions. This model
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quadrants of brain preference according to Neethling’s brain
profile. These personality preferences are encircled by the
different information-processing preferences for each brain
quadrant. The different stages of Kolb’s learning cycle were
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