American Society for Eighteenth-Century Studies (ASECS)
Transformation in The Rape of the Lock
Author(s): Ralph Cohen
Reviewed work(s):
Source: Eighteenth-Century Studies, Vol. 2, No. 3 (Spring, 1969), pp. 205-224
Published by: The Johns Hopkins University Press. Sponsor: American Society for Eighteenth-Century Studies
(ASECS).
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in
Transformation
TheRape of theLock
RALPH COHEN
IN1968 therewas publisheda collectionofessayson TheRape
for a studyof the
of the Lock 1 which providesan opportunity
criticismand thepoem. JohnDixon Huntreprintsselectionsfrom
JohnDennis,Samuel Johnson,JosephWarton,Thomas Campbell,
WilliamHazlitt,W. L. Bowles,Lord Byronand continueswith"Reremarksthatsuch studiessince
centStudies." The editorcorrectly
1940 have "revisedmostromanticideas about thepoem." 2 Pope's
withas been shownto have a seriousnessand complexitythatthe
earliercriticsdenied,and themodernessayswiththeirdemonstration of the unityof the poem have revealed that the rhetorical
devices and the dictionsupportthe poets' moral and social attiand earlytwentiethtudes. But ifone attendsto thelate nineteenthone can
centurycriticsof thepoem,not includedin the anthology,
recognizethe contextwithinwhichmoderncriticismof the poem
has operated.
to the poem,
In 1899, FrederickRyland in his "Introduction"
economy
remarkedthata "trueclassic spirithas led to the strictest
in the developmentof the stoly." I He foundthatthe epic quotations,parodies and allusionsmaintainedthe sense of the mock"For us the chiefcharmof the [sic] Rape of
heroic;I nevertheless,
theLock lies in the delightful
irony,the use of epigramand anticlimax, the vivid and gracefulpicturesof the court-lifeof the
times."I Ryland praised the poem because it showed an aristocraticenjoymentof a highlyartificialsociety.6In 1909 George
Holden,basinghis commentsupon thoseof Ryland,wrotethat a
and so completea reflection
of an
poem "so brilliant,so faithful,
1 JohnDixon Hunt, ed., Pope, The Rape of the Lock, A Casebook (London,
1968).
2Hunt, p. 19.
3
FrederickRyland,ed., Pope's Rape of theLock (London, 1899), p. liv.
4 Ryland,p. lv.
5 Ibid.
6Ibid.
205
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206
EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY STUDIES
epochwas onlypossibleperhapson a lowerplane,wherean artiof a correspondingly
ficialstylewas broughtto the description
societyand waysof thought.Such a workmustalways
artificial
senseunique."7
be inthetruest
identified
thepoemwitha narrowconcept
The Victorian
critics
withthenormalresponseof
the
features
of correctness, rhetorical
thebeautyanddelicacywithPope'sapproval
a classicaleducation,
wrote
is,I think,"
ofthedazzlingsociallifeofhisyouth."Thetruth
in 1906,"thatTheRape of theLock repreThomasMarcParrott
sentsPope's attitudeto the social life of his time . . . it is the
withtheworldhe paintswhichgivesto thepoem
poets'sympathy
oftheage itself,
of easy,idle,unthinktheair,mostcharacteristic
8
it
otherwise."
not
have
would
We
gayety.
ing
The criticsfromthe 1940's to thepresenthave rejectedthese
viewof the
readingsof thepoemwhichmakeit a sympathetic
sociallifeit describes.Andtheyhavedonethisby a reconsiderathepoem
Theyhavethusrestored
tionofitslanguageandrhetoric.
tothesubtlety
theirremarks
ofwitandhavedevoted
tothetradition
ofvalues. Butwhatis
ofPope'scraftand hisironicmanipulation
apparentas one readsthe poem in the lightof thesevaluable
the
thatPope wishedto reassert
analysesis thetacitassumption
stable values of some greatpast and soughtto contrastthe
artificial
societyofBelindawiththatoftheepicheroes.The diffiis thatit ignoresPope'ssenseof
cultywithsuchan interpretation
society.Pope in The Rape of theLock
transforming
a changing,
buthe was
present,
was dealingwitha fadedpastand a changing
He saw the
also awarethatchangecouldbe naturalor artificial.
between
buthe distinguished
allegedbeautiesofpastand present,
or
resisting
thoseformsthat had become emptyceremonials,
basis
change,and thosethatprovideda contemporary
falsifying
value.
forrenewed
withthepoet'searlier
is notonlyconsistent
Thisinterpretation
butit formed
thegroundsof
and Essayon Criticism,
"Pastorals"
in TheDunciad. A numandculture
hisattackon falseliterature
in thepoem,9
ber of modemcriticshave notedtransformations
7 GeorgeHolden,ed., Pope's Rape of theLock (Oxford,1909), p. 3.
8 Thomas Marc Parrott,
ed., The Rape of the Lock and OtherPoems (Boston,
1906), p. 87.
9See Reuben A. Brower,AlexanderPope, The Poetryof Allusion (Oxford,
Pope: The Rape of theLock (London,
1959), p. 150. See also J. S. Cunningham,
1961).
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207
THE RAPE OF THE LOCK
an essay,"'The Rape of the
and RicardoQuintanahas written
0 in whichtransformation
Lock' as a Comedyof Continuity"
is seenas central
tothemeaning:"theconceptofchangepermeates
and
the poem and in variousforms-itis itselfappropriately
comicallyprotean-underliestheentirecomposition..
.
." 11Pro-
thatthepoem
fessorQuintanadevoteshis essayto demonstrating
and with
and resemblance
of dissimilarity
playswiththeconcepts
This condevicesof theseriesand of anaphora.12
therhetorical
and craft
withitsemphasison rhetoric
ceptionof transformation
by moderncritics,
keepsthepoemwithinthecontextestablished
thepossibility
ofa newconception.Andit is this
butitdoesoffer
embracing
viewI wishto developas a methodof understanding
of human
thepoemand seeingit in termsof Pope's conception
development.
in termsof
In TheRape oftheLock changemustbe interpreted
andgrotesque
or artificial
naturalornormalchangeandunnatural
change. It is obviousthatBelindaundergoesa metamorphosis
fromthe naturalto the
as did the sylphswho weretransposed
theirtransformations
by
realm,wheretheycontinue
supernatural
"whatSexesand whatShapestheyplease" (I, 1. 69).
assuming
in supernatural
and returned
The gnomes,
too,wereso transposed
element(I, 11.63-66). If the chaste
formto theirappropriate
womencan becomesylphsin the air, thereare thosewho are
formsin theunderground
Cave of
changedto variousgrotesque
are
on
side
"Unnumber'd
seen,/OfBodies
Throngs ev'ry
Spleen:
chang'dtovariousFormsbySpleen"13 (IV, 11.47-48).
fromnaturalto supernatural
from
forms,
Thesetransformations
fromnaturalto grotesque
forms
characterto another,
oneelement
inthepoem. Belindathe"PiousMaid"
ofunfolding
ize themethod
Belinda"(V, 1.75), butevenwhilestill
(I, 1. 112) becomes"fierce
by
a "PiousMaid" she becomes,whenshe dresses,transformed
degrees
justas her"deadlyBodkin"(V, 1.88) acquiresa changing
pedigree.
Themajortransformation,
however,
appliesnottothecharacters
but to thecomposition
of thepoemitself.In
or subjectmatter,
1OREL, VII (1966), 9-19.
11Ibid., pp. 10-11.
12
13
Ibid.,pp. 12-15.
All quotationsfromPope are fromGeoffrey
Tillotson,ed., The Rape of the
Editionof thePoems of Alexander
Lock and otherPoems and The Twickenham
Pope,JohnButt,ed.,II (London,1940).
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208
EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY STUDIES
1712, The Rape of theLock was publishedin twocantos,thewhole
comprisinga totalof 290 lines. When Pope revisedit and republishedit in 1714, itwas composedoffivecantostotallingmorethan
twice the originaland includingthe "machinery"of the sylphs.
to thesecondversionseem
Even theimagisticchangesfromthefirst
and spectacularends.
transformational
to be governedby consistent
For example,the1712 versionreads,
didhisBeamsdisplay,
Sol,thro'whiteCurtains
Andop'dthoseEyeswhichbrighter
shinethanthey.(I,11.13-14)
Thiswas changedto:
shota tim'rous
SolthrowhiteCurtains
Ray,
Andop'dthoseEyesthatmusteclipsetheDay. (I, 11.13-14)
In therevisedfirstline,the sun becomesactivelyresponsiblefora
paradoxical"shot"thatis "tim'rous,"
and in thesecondline"eclipse
theday"substitutes
a spectacleterm,"eclipse,"based on theblotting
out of light,for"eyes,"based on increasedlight. Belinda is introduced in an image thatimpliesher beautyis powerfulenoughto
interrupt
thenaturalcycleofthesun. And theattemptto transform
Belinda into a powerfulnaturalforcereappearsat the openingof
CantoII. Originally
thepoemread:
Dames
Belindarose,and'midstattending
Lanch'dontheBosomofthesilverThames(I, 11.19-20)
To thisPope addedtheimageofthesunrise:
inth'Etherial
NotwithmoreGlories,
Plain,
TheSunfirst
riseso'erthepurpled
Main,
Thanissuing
theRivalofhisBeams,
forth,
Lanch'dontheBosomofthesilverThames.(II, 11.1-4)
Pope's epic similegave ceremonialor ritualmeaningto the sailing
of Belinda; herembarkationis made partof thebeautifulcycleof
the sun, thoughit is apparentthatwhat is naturalforthe sun is
unnaturalforBelinda.
as theSun,herEyesthegazersstrike,
Bright
AndliketheSun,theyshineon all alike.(II, 11.13-14)
In comparingthebeautyof Belindato naturalchange,Pope suggeststhatBelinda outdoesnature,thatthe transformations
extend
beyondtheboundsof normalorderby competingwithratherthan
complementingnature. Cleanth Brooks, consideringthe lines
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THE RAPE OF THE LOCK
209
on
quotedabove (II, 11.13-14) writes: "Is thisgeneralmunificence
thepartof Belinda a faultor a virtue?"14 But thisis indeeda mistakenquery,forwhatis naturalto thesun is notnaturalto a maid
who needs a man; that the latterbehavior is natural can be
confirmed
both by the plot of the poem and its occasion. Pope
explainsthe occasion by sayingthathe soughtto make a "jest of
it." 15 His heroi-comicalpoem not only containsallusionsto the
Iliad, the Aeneid,and otherclassical works,but to contemporary
comic drama, opera, a contemporary
card game, a book on the
cabala, Comtede Gabalis,and to themock-heroic
poemsofBoileau
and Garth.
The transformations
in The Rape of theLock are characterized
by two procedures: inevitablenatural changes and artificialor
unnaturalchanges. The firstincludes the human processes of
of hairturningto
growingold, of losingone's beautyand virginity,
grayand theprocessesin natureof the sun'srisingand setting,of
humanchangesinclude
flowersbloomingand fading.The artificial
paintingoneselfinto godhood,pious womenbecomingsplenetic,
old womenpretending
to be young;theunnaturalchangesinclude
men bearing children,women becomingteapots,eclipses hiding
thesun. All thesechangesare conceivedof cyclically-theyare not
and regresses,
progresses,
butprogresses
risingsand fallings,ascendingsand descendings."6
Theyare cyclesin whichtherangeofpossior distorted.
bilitiesis fulfilled
It does not follow,moreover,thatthenaturalhumanprocessof
no more than the settingof the sun is.
growingold is disgusting,
For each naturalhumanchangethereis an appropriatedecorum.
or inappropriate
The artificial
changesresultfromhumanscompeting withnatureor fromembracingchangeswithoutembracingthe
decorumand significance
appropriateto them. Thus a societycan
formallyadhereto social games or religiousriteswithoutgiving
social orreligiousmeaning.
themappropriate
Pope's satirein thepoemis based on describing
impressive
forms
ofbehaviorthathavebeenemptiedof theirtraditional
contentwith14 CleanthBrooks,"The Case of Miss ArabellaFermor,"The Well-Wrought
Urn
(New York, 1947), p. 79.
15 Tillotson,
83.
16
cyclesof man and natureare foundin Pope's workpriorto The Rape,
and "To Mr. AddisonOccasionedby his
especiallythe pastorals,Windsor-Forest,
Dialogues on Medals" (written1713 [?], revised1719), and also in all the major
The Rape.
poemsfollowing
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210
EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY STUDIES
outadaptingto properor "natural"
modernvalues. In thegiddy
is substituted
socialworldofBelinda,in whichlevity
forlove,false
transformations
fortrue,virgins
remainvirginsdespite
substitute
theircoquettish
changesandtheyremain
without
theself-knowledge
role. Pope admires
necessaryto accept theirproperfeminine
Belinda'spowers,
buthepokesfunatherfailure
togivethemproper
direction.The concluding
stanzaofthepoemturnsthejokeupon
thecharacters
bymakingthepoet-themuse-capableofaltering
thecourseofnature.For he,byhispowers,by hisknowledge
of
his powers,transposes
the lock to a starthatwill immortalize
Belinda'snameand makeherrape theenvyof all belles. Pope
jugglestheappearanceofimpropriety
("stray")withgiddyorder,
makingthesecyclicalor circularmovements
merely
another
form
of misbehaving.Traditionalsocial formsare passed down in
ritualistic
orceremonial
buttheybecome,in The
cyclical,
behaviors,
Rape of theLock, emptied
orexaggerated-failures
thatareequally
inadequate.
At the openingof Windsor-Forest
Pope describesa serious
ofwhichthe"mystick
Mazes"is a comicversion:
situation
HereHillsandVales,theWoodlandandthePlain,
HereEarthandWaterseemtostrive
again,
crush'dandbruis'd
NotChaos-like
together
confus'd.
Butas theWorld,harmoniously
wesee,
WhereOrderinVariety
Andwhere,
tho'all things
all agree.(11.11-16)
differ,
inThe Rape, theyagreetobe partof
womenseemtostray
Although
And
the
thegiddysocialcircle.
sylphswhoguardthemare aerial
withtheirownandBelinda'svirginal
andall toochastely
concerned
of an unnaturalconditionof unending
importance,
protectors
"Hear and believe!thy own Importanceknow/Nor
virginity:
ViewstoThingsbelow"(I, 11.35-36). Popehas
boundthynarrow
ofthisadvicein theEssay on Man:
the
given properinterpretation
TheblissofMan (couldPridethatblessing
find)
Is notto actorthink
beyondmankind;
No pow'rsofbodyorofsoultoshare,
Butwhathisnatureandhisstatecanbear.(I, 11.189-192)
The sylphs'advicethatBelindabe guidedby viewsbeyondher
topride.Thesylphs
naturallimits
is,ofcourse,a temptation
representfalsepride,as wouldbe expectedby theirimmortalizing
un-
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THE RAPE OF THE LOCK
211
naturalbehavior.But at thesametime,theyassistthereaderin
howto interpret
thelanguageofthepoem.
understanding
I havebeensuggesting
thatPope'sstatements
onhowtointerpret
a
the world,whenserious,as in the Essay on Man, constitute
in The Rape, thoughbothretainideas of
reversalof statements
humanlimitation
and controlled
changegovernedby unknown
harmony.
In TheRape Arielexplainsthatcertainwordsand acts
arenottobe interpreted
for
in accordance
withreceived
meanings;
theunseensylphsare at work: "'Tis but theirSylph,the wise
Celestialsknow./Tho
Honouris theWordwithMen below" (I,
11.77-78). Arielin his prideattributes
moreauthority
to the
sylphs
thantheydeserve,
forBelindais beautiful
without
theirhelp;
theirassistance
guideswhatis thereto be guidedorprotected.
But
thisattitude
givesthereadera clueforinterpreting
thesociallanguageof femalebehavior.The term"Honour"refersto visible
butit actuallyincludesthesylphs'invisiblesupportof
behavior,
chastity.
"Honour"is thuspartially
emptied
ofitsreference
to high
moralworthbecausethemorality
is a consequence
of thesylphs'
notthoseofthevirgins,
efforts,
and,in thepresentation
ofBelinda,
externalformsbelie theirformer
substantial
ceremonies,
rituals,
rites.
In explaining
the"giddyCircle"thatwomenpursue,
Arielboasts
ofhisprotection
as follows:
Withvarying
Vanities,
fromev'ryPart,
themoving
Theyshift
ToyshopoftheirHeart;
WhereWigswithWigs,withSword-knots
Sword-knots
strive,
BeausbanishBeaus,andCoachesCoachesdrive.
Thiserring
MortalsLevitymaycall,
Oh blindtoTruth!theSylphscontrive
itall. (I,11.99-104)
It is notmerelythatwigs,sword-knots,
even"beaus"are social
butthatin addition,
theseprovidea rotating
andgiddycomforms,
withintheheartof thecoquette,and theheartitselfis a
petition
"movingToyshop."
indiscussing
theline,"WhereWigswithWigs,
WilliamWimsatt,
remarks
withSword-knots
Sword-knots
strive,"
uponPope'srigor
and pointsto the emphasison the finalword
of compression
17 But thisexample
of zeugmais composedof partsof
"strive."
social ceremony
thatsuggestthe emptiness
of thewholes,their
17 William K. Wimsatt,Jr.,"Introduction,"
AlexanderPope: SelectedPoetry
and Prose (New York, 1951), p. xxx.
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212
EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY STUDIES
in contrastto genuinesocial
irrelevantstrivingand competition,
Tillotacts leadingto love. This repetitivefigureis, as Geoffrey
son pointsout, an epic formulaicconventionenactingopposition
and confrontation.18
But Pope's use is consistentwiththe transformation
procedures,and appearsmarkedlydifferent,
forexample,
fromGarth'suse ofthissamefigure,
thatinsistson theviolenceand
ridiculousness
ofcombat.19
The relationofrhetorical
featuresto social formsbecomesin The
Rape of theLock one of thecharacteristic
formsof wit. The wigs,
sword-knots
and coaches providea seriesof expressions,
each one
of whichis a termof social ceremonywithoutthe accompanying
social significance;even the "beaus" become objects instead of
humans. The seriessuggeststhereplacement
ofone wigby another,
one sword-knot
by another,stressingthe emptinessof transition
despitethelivelymovementand theceremonialacts. For Pope, the
social ceremonieshave becomeno morethangesturesfilling
pauses
in conversation:"Snuff,or the Fan, supplyeach Pause of Chat,/
Withsinging,
laughing,oglingand all that"(III, 11.17-18).
In a societythathas ceased to adhereto thesignificance
of such
acts,evennaturalactscan becomeempty,evencorrupted,
behavior.
Thus diningbecomesan excuse forfailingto exercisejusticewith
care:
from
Meanwhile
declining
theNoonofDay,
TheSunobliquely
shootshisburning
Ray;
Thehungry
Judges
soontheSentence
sign,
AndWretches
hangthatJury-men
mayDine. (III, 11.19-22)
The normaldescentof thesunfromtheheightof noon is connected
withthenormalrisingofthejudges'appetites,buttheunnatural,inconsiderateact ofthejudgesin satisfying
theirappetitesrevealsthat
theyhave divorcedthejusticeincumbent
upon themas judgesfrom
theirnatural behavior as men. Thus in the opening series of
Canto III dominatedby emptyrepetition,
or misused
competition,
naturalbehavior,Pope gives to the Augustanview of movement
and transformation
a witty,repetitive
but only seeminglyrelevant
social and ceremonialsignificance.
This is mostconvincingly
achievedin thegame of Ombre. The
pasteboards,as Reuben A. Brower suggests,become kings and
Tillotson,152,n.1O1.
19SamuelGarth,The Dispensaty(6th ed., London, 1706), Canto IV.
18
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THE RAPE OF THE LOCK
213
queens whom Belinda treatswith the excitementand temperof
actuality.It is Belinda's climacticgame, attributing
life to empty
forms,a personified
ceremonyinvolvingchangesor transitions
of
fictitious
powersand kingdomsin whichshe protectsor conquers
royalty.
The game of Ombre summarizesthe disparitybetweennatural
and artificial
social changes,betweena sociallyappropriatesociety
and one thathas kept the formsbut deprivedthemof relevance.
The deprivationis expressedin substituting
fragmentsfor the
whole,butit can equallyapplyto formsthathave been falsified
by
This falsification
prideand self-importance.
offormand ceremony,
like the real thing,relatespast to present,traditionto practice,the
to the natural,the allusivepast to the contemporary
supernatural
social scene. For example,considerthe references
to rituals. The
original1712 version,like the versionof 1714, includedthe altar
of love builtby theBaron (I, 1. 53), the"shiningAltarsof Japan"
(I, 1. 91) and the referenceto the "uncontroll'dShrine"of honor
(II, 1.23). The Baron'saltaris composedoffragments,
trophiesof
hisformerloves,and he uses themto raiseagain thefirein hisheart
to createan artificial
cycle.
It is, therefore,
significant
to notethatalthoughthesealtarimages
are retainedin the revision,a new and impressivealtar image is
added: the"sacredRitesofPride"in whichBelinda'sself-adoration
becomes a religiousrite. The Popean techniquehere resembles
thatin theotheraltarscenes,forPope reducestheclassicalimport
by convertinga heroic dressingscene to an eighteenth-century
prospectview in whichthe values are mockinglyinverted.Thus
the typicalspatial movementand transformation
in such a view
mustnotbe overlooked.
Unnumber'd
Treasures
ope atonce,andhere
ThevariousOff'rings
oftheWorldappear;
FromeachshenicelycullswithcuriousToil,
AnddeckstheGoddesswiththeglitt'ring
Spoil.
ThisCasketIndia'sglowing
Gemsunlocks,
AndallArabiabreathes
from
YonderBox.
TheTortoise
hereandElephant
unite,
Transform'd
toCombs,thespeckled
andthewhite.
HerefilesofPinsextendtheirshining
Rows,
Puffs,
Powders,
Patches,Bibles,Billet-doux.
NowawfulBeautyputson all itsArms;
TheFaireachmoment
risesinherCharms,
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214
EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY STUDIES
RepairsherSmiles,awakensev'ryGrace,
Andcallsforth
all theWonders
ofherFace;
SeesbyDegreesa purerBlusharise,
AndkeenerLightnings
quickeninherEyes.(I, 11.129-144)
The technique
oftakinga naturalphenomenon
and inverting
it
is central
to theironyhere.ForwhatPopedescribes
is an inverted
prospect.The movement
in a prospectextendsfromtheflowers
seenimmediately
beforetheobserver
toa gradualextension
tohills,
clouds and God. The movement
hereis fromthe farthermost
reachesoftheworld,fromIndiaandArabia,fromlargeandsmall
animals,
fromtheceremonial
opening
tothesmallest
dimensions
of
self-adornment,
beautybeingenhancedand thenmade "purer"
thannature's
blushand keenerthannaturallightning.
Justas the
otherrevisions
so too does thisrite,and the
involvedtransitions,
changesoperatebydegreeofextension
andmovement
so thatthe
gemsare"glowing,"
Arabia"breathes,"
pins"extend"
theirrowstheactiongrowsand riseswiththepreparations,
and theresultof
in herbeautyandpride,
theactionis a paintedgoddess,
powerful
butthegraceshehassnatched
is an artificial
grace.20
Beinda is at thebeginning
equatedwithJuno(echoingVirgil);
to in termsappliedto Dido, andher
timesheis referred
at another
lockis comparedwiththatof Catullus'Berenice.Theseare not
all the allusionsassociatedwithBelinda,but theycan, perhaps,
ofartistic
inthepoem.
theconsistency
be usedtosupport
conception
arefragments
fromtheclassicalpast,andfragForthesereferences
The classical
mentsthatarenotandneednotbe madeconsistent.
pastis misusedby thefrivolous
present;it becomesa ritual,the
in
ofwhichhas ceasedto be appropriate.
The manner
significance
herownprospect
whichBelindaseesherownfaceandcommands
is
It is notthatshebehavesin a proud
thecluetothemisconception.
manner
in contrast
towomenofthepast,butthatsheseesthings
as
notclassicalbutpresent
an all-too-modern
bellewhoinverts
values.
In thisrespect
itis illuminating
to comparePope'stranslation
of
ofit in 1717 to suitClarissa
Sarpedon's
speechandhisreworking
inTheRapeoftheLock.He addedClarissa'sspeechin CantoV "to
openmoreclearlytheMoralofthePoem,in a parodyofthespeech
20 This paragraph
represents
materialthatappearedin myessay,"The Augustan
Mode in EnglishPoetry,"ECS, I (1967), 11-12. For a different
interpretation,
see Earl R. Wasserman,"The Limitsof Allusion in The Rape of the Lock,"
JEGP,LXV (1966), 435.
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THE RAPE OF THE LOCK
215
of Sarpedonto Glaucus in Homer."21 In 1709, Pope publishedthe
firstversionof thisspeechin whichSarpedonarguesforvalor and
heroismon thegroundsthatman'schoiceis a heroicdeathor a safe
and ingloriouslife:
Cou'dall ourCareeludethegreedy
Grave,
WhichclaimsnolesstheFearfulthantheBrave,
ForLustofFameI shou'dnotvainlydare
In fighting
Fields,norurgethySoultoWar.
Butsince,alas,ignobleAgemustcome,
Disease,andDeath'sinexorable
Doom:
TheLifewhichothers
pay,letUs bestow,
AndgivetoFamewhatwetoNatureowe;
Bravethowefall;andhonour'd,
ifwelive;
Or letus Glorygain,orGlorygive!22 (11.43-52)
Both Sarpedonand Clarissasharetheviewof man's limitations;
it is inevitablethatgallantyouthbe followedby age and youthful
is the inevitablecycle
beautyby faded days. The transformation
of human existence. But Sarpedon'surgingis in termsof heroic
sacrifice;Pope's language of bestowingand givingbecomes the
heroicdesign. The progressthatSarpedonenvisionsis thatofmilitarynobility-glory;it is a progressthatcounteracts
theinevitable
decline: "Or let us glorygain, or glorygive!" Yet, even though
Clarissa parodiesdirectlines,the implicationsare quite different.
Sarpedonsays,
WhyonthoseShoresarewewithJoysurvey'd,
Admir'das Heroes,andas Godsobey'd?(II. 33-34)
Clarissasays,
Whydeck'dwithall thatLandandSea afford,
ador'd?(V, 11.11-12)
WhyAngelscall'dandAngel-like
Sarpedonsays,
Tis ours,theDignity
Theygive,tograce;
Thefirst
inValour,as thefirst
inPlace. (11.37-38)
Clarissasays,
Thatmenmaysay,whenwetheFront-box
grace,
Beholdthefirst
inVirtue,
as inFace! (11.17-18)
21 Tillotson,195,n.7.
22Pope,"The Episodeof Sarpedon,"PastoralPoetryand An Essay on Criticism,
ed. E. Audra and AubreyWilliams,The TwickenhamEditionof the Poems of
AlexanderPope, I, 451.
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216
EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY STUDIES
Sarpedonsays,
Butsince,alas,ignobleAgemustcome,
Doom: (11.47-48)
DiseaseandDeath'sinexorable
Clarissasays,
Butsince,alas!frailBeautymustdecay,
Curl'dor uncurl'd,
sinceLockswillturnto gray(11.25-26)
and,to someextent,
constructions
The use ofidenticalsyntactical
but
evenidenticalwordsgivesthetwospeechesa seemingsimilarity,
the comic qualitydependson the irrelevanceof the "seeming"or
formallikeness,just as it does in the altarscenes. Sarpedonspeaks
withsublimerhetoricto encouragehis friendand the warriorsto
battle. It is Clarissa'spurposein colloquial languageto persuade
on, to
Belindato desistfrombattle. SarpedonurgesGlaucusto fight
urges
Clarissa
sacrificeto fame "what we to nature owe," but
social behaviorand act according
Belinda to abandonextravagant
to nature:
butwellourPow'rtouse,
Whatthenremains,
welose?
AndkeepgoodHumourstillwhate'er
Andtrust
me,Dear!goodHumourcanprevail,
andScolding
andScreams,
fail.
WhenAirs,andFlights,
(11.29-32)
The counselof Clarissais a counselof adaptation,a viewin which
false and unattractive
spectaclesbecome the object of disapprobation. Her sophisticatedapproachto adaptationis apparentwhen
she assiststheBaron in therape thoughshe has clearlynot anticipatedtheconsequencesthatfollowthisaction. She soughtto satisfy
the wish in Belinda's heart,but did not calculate upon the gulf
betweenformand frankness.The parodyis thenanotherdevice
toindicatethatGreekheroismis forGreeksand modernmodestyfor
moderns.In thispoem allusionservesto bringto thereader'sattentionthetransformation
procedurescentralto itsmeaning.The argumentforthisis two-fold:Pope connectstheClarissapassage with
numerousotherpassagesin thepoemso thatitis explainedby them,
technique.
withallusionprovidinga confirming
The term"glory,"forexample,recursin severalcontexts.Sarpedon says, "Or let us glorygain, or glorygive!" But Clarissa
rejectsthe vanitiesof glory: "How vain are all theseGlories,all
our pains/Unlessgood Sense preservewhat Beautygains" (V, 11.
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THE RAPE OF THE LOCK
217
15-16). CantoII begins,"NotwithmoreGloriesin th' Etherial
Plain,/The
Sunfirst
riseso'erthepurpl'd
Main"(11.1-2). In Canto
III, heroesandnymphs
converseaboutthe"Glory"of theBritish
queenin thesametonesinwhichtheydescribe
an "IndianScreen."
The conclusion
ofthepoemdeclaresthattheravished
hairhas,itself,becomea formof "Glory": "Thencease,brightNymph!to
mournthyravish'dHair/Which
adds new Gloryto the shining
Sphere!"(V, 11.141-142).
All of these"Glories"coalescewithin
thepoem. In thesecond
brilliant
Canto,"Glories"is a punthatincludesthesun'snatural,
raysintheearlymorning
skyas wellas thelatelaunching
ofBelinda
andyouths,
the"Glories"who"aroundhershone"(II,
bynymphs
1.5) spinning,
unlikeplanets,in a giddycircle.The naturalcycle
is comparedwiththe artificial
forms,and in Canto III, genuine
politicaleminence,
"Glory"of theBritish
queen,is balancedwith
a "charming
Indianscreen"whosepurposeis to concealinglorious
sexualbehavior.Effervescence
anddefiorescence
arejoinedinritual
forms
thatimplythetrivializing
ofboth.When,therefore,
Clarissa
asksthatgoodsensepreserve
the"Glories"gainedby beauty,she
asksfortheadapting
ofwisdom
totheforms
womenoughttofollow.
Sheasksthattheforms
be supported
bytheactualities
ofintelligent
socialexperience.
When,attheendofthepoem,thehairaddsnew
"Glory"to theheavenlysphere,"Glory"refersagainto brilliant
fromtransformaand cyclically
enduring
heavenly
lightresulting
tionsaffected
byheavenandthemuse.Here,the"Glory"willcontinuelong afterBelindashall cease her sexualbattles,and her
tresses
shall,likethechinavessel,be laid in dust. ThusBelinda's
wiseadaptation
to changing
socialattitudes
willleadmento adore,
notdeplore
hername.
The parodyof Sarpedonis a gameofdisplayin whichthepoet
demonstrates
hisknowledge
and hiswit. It is, also,a conceptual
manner
ofcontrolling
thelanguageandplotofthepoem. Clarissa
confirms
Belinda'srelation
to thecontemporary
and
socialscheme,
she enhancesthisby hyperbolically
placingthe schemein the
heavenly,
angelicrealmas well as amongthedailyearthbound
to thereasonable,
paintsandcurls.Butit is by adaptability
goodhumored
socialworldthatthegames,displays,
andhyperboles
must
be understood.
are
Tradition,
allusions,
wigsandepicinvocations
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218
EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY STUDIES
recognizabletags of a formallife thatrequiregood humourand
wisdomto changeand adaptthemto thepresent.
as BeBy not recognizingthatHomer'sworld is as transitory
linda's,and thatthereis a decorumproperto each, MurrayKrieger
mistakenly
assumesthatPope findsonly the heroictraditionhospitableto decorum: "As his HomershowsPope to have viewedit,
in the old and reveredheroic traditionthe world of serioussignificanceand consequencesand the world of high play and the
grandmannerwereone." 23 This is not,however,what Pope says
in hisintroduction
to theIliad regarding
thetimesofHomer:
It mustbe a strangePartiality
to Antiquity,
to thinkwithMadam
Dacier"thatthoseTimesand Mannersare so muchthemoreexcellent,
as theyare morecontrary
to ours." Whocan be so prejudiced
in their
Favour as to magnify
the Felicityof thoseAges, whena Spiritof
Revengeand Cruelty,
join'dwiththepracticeof Rapineand Robbery,
reign'dthro'theWorld;whenno Mercywas shownbutforthe sake
of Lucre,whenthegreatest
Princeswereputto the Sword,and their
Wivesand Daughters
madeSlavesand Concubines?On theotherside,
I wouldnotbe so delicateas thosemodernCriticks,
whoare shock'dat
theservileoffices
andmeanEmployments
inwhichwe sometimes
see the
HeroesofHomerengaged.24
the transformational
In stressing
conceptof the poem, I do not
forthe"Hair," "thefrail
wishto overlookthesexualinterpretation,
China jar" and the"Frenzy"of a gentlebelle are also to be understood in termsof change,ceremonyand cyclicalmovement.The
issue is not whetherthe sexualreferences
exist,but,rather,how to
takethem.25
The sexual referencesbelong with the varied allusionsto the
forthelosingof virtueis partof a normal
realmof transformation,
to sylphsbelongsto the artificialand
cyclewhereasthe transition
unnaturalcycle. In the well-known
passage in Canto II, in which
Ariel outlinesthe possible threatsto Belinda, therecan be noted
Pope's typicalproceduresin thispoem:
theNymph
shallbreakDiana'sLaw,
Whether
Or somefrailChinaJarreceivea Flaw,
23 MurrayKrieger,"The 'Frail China Jar' and The Rude Hand of Chaos,"
The CentennialReview,V (1961), 187.
24 Pope, "Preface,"The Iliad of Homer,Books I-IX, ed. MaynardMack, The
TwickenhamEditionof the Poems of AlexanderPope, VII, 14.
25 For a discussionof the sexual imagery,
see Clearth Brooks,"The Case of
Miss Arabella Fermor,"The Well-Wrought
Urn.
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THE RAPE OF THE LOCK
219
Or stainherHonouror hernewBrocade,
ormissa Masquerade,
ForgetherPray'rs,
OrloseherHeartorNecklace,ata Ball;
Heavenhasdoom'dthatShockmustfall.
Orwhether
(II, 11.105-109)
Of thisseries,J. S. Cunninghamremarks,"The paired calamities
are not merelyludicrouslyill-assortedcontrasts.There is a metaacrossthegap, so thatone itemin a pair can
phoricaltransference
of
almostbecomea symbolfortheother."26 The sexual surrogates
china and the lapdog are surelyimplied. But in the rhetorical
featuresof zeugma thatsomewhatfictionalancient"Honour" and
by a singlephysical
theveryrecent"newBrocade"are heldtogether
termin whichtraditionand social ceremonycan be reducedto a
Or losingwhatone had,
stainingactioninvolvingtransformation.
at a social cerewhetherheartor necklace,involvestransformation
mony,a ball, equatinginternalfeelingswithexternaladornment,
thoughcontrolof both is lost by the possessor. But "breaking,"
"amusing,""losing"or "doom"flawing,""staining,""forgetting,"
social disastersening" are a consistentseriesof transformational
way
that
thebalanced alteror
the
in
such
a
nymph
actedby upon
by
nativesbecomeinstancesofthe"giddyCircle." For heldtogether
balance are termslike "Heart"and "Honour"thatcan be balanced
onlyif theyhave been emptiedof theirtraditionalmeaning.
cyclein
developedtheidea of thetransformational
Pope further
his 1714 revision,whenhe added thepedigreeofthebodkin. In the
1712 version,Pope had written:
NowmeetthyFate,th'incens'd
Viragocry'd,
herSide.(II, 11.140-141)
Anddrewa deadlyBodkinfrom
Thishe revised:
Belindacry'd,
NowmeetthyFate,incens'd
herSide.
Anddrewa deadlyBodkinfrom
todeck,
Personage
(The same,hisancient
woreabouthisNeck
HergreatgreatGrandsire
whichafter,
melteddown,
In threeSeal-Rings;
Form'da vastBuckleforhisWidow'sGown;
nextitgrew,
Whistle
Grandame's
HerInfant
andtheWhistle
TheBellsshegingled,
blew;
Thenina Bodkingrac'dherMother's
Hairs,
Whichlongshewore,andnowBelindawears.(V, 11.87-96)
28
Pope: The Rape of theLock (London, 1961), p. 41.
J .S. Cunningham,
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EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY STUDIES
220
lineoftransformations;
ofan ancient
Thebodkinis theconsequence
thena vastbuckle,thena whistle,
threeseal-rings,
itwasoriginally
thispassage
thena dagger.RichardoQuintanafinds
thena hair-pin,
changesaresurely
27 Thebodkin's
changes."
theexampleof"literal
on culturalvalues. The
literal,but theyare also a commentary
werepartofan ancestral
andsocialceremony
devicesofadornment
forthegreat,great
so thatwhatservedas an identification
progress,
virago.
an incensed
becomesa deadlyweaponidentifying
Grandsire
in Belinda's
The originof the bodkinis no longeridentifiable
to
takenon shapesappropriate
weapon,andithas,likethesylphs,
an
menand women,thoughBelindauses it as thoughshe were
is to comparea
Amazon.Butthepointofthepedigree
unnatural
one, Belinda'sdescentwiththe
naturallineagewithan artificial
a strange
descendant
forBelindais atthismoment
bodkin's
descent,
pointsto a similarity
fromthe"ancientPersonage."The pedigree
andthelast'couplet
incharacter,
ofdescent
thatleadstoa difference
"Thenin a Bodkingrac'dherMother's
thedifference:
underlines
longshewore,and nowBelindawears,"For these
Hairs,/Which
worein herhairand
linesreferto thebodkinwhichhermother
it mayalso implythatthereis a
Belindawearsat herside,though
of formor dress(wearingan object) thoughnot of
continuity
meaning.
and it beThe bodkinis another
exampleof falseadaptability,
ofthe
themachinery
inwhichPopeinvoked
longswiththemanner
In
de
Gabalis.
this
cabalistic
volume
Comte
thevolume,
from
sylphs
and bothare
feminine
thesylphsare masculineand thesylphids
and of child-bearing
(thoughnotin thecuscapableof marriage
manner)andtheyhavebornesuchheroesas Achillesand
tomary
immortal
extensions
of
Sarpedon.In makingtheaerialcreatures
thecyclefrom
Pope fixedthemwithin
womanly
prideandchastity,
themintoagentssupwhileconverting
to immortality,
mortality
andpretensions
andemptiness
ofthesocial
theconventions
porting
ofdemons,
areseducedby
whoarethefriends
whirl.TheGnomes,
andto persuademento do likethemto giveup theirimmortality
ofhissources,
Popeoffers
reworking
wise(11.179-181). In a typical
spleen;thesylphs
orextravagant
chastity
alternatives
ofextravagant
theairandgnomesdescendto theCave ofSpleen,butboth
inherit
function
toactuponearthly
Belinda.
2
Quintana,p. 15.
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THE RAPE OF THE LOCK
221
In additionto convertingthe sylphsinto guards ratherthan
Pope gives
of ceremonialsbut not participants,
players,protectors
creatures.I have been
to themthe typicalrole of anxiety-ridden
natural
arguingthatthe poem mustbe understoodas contrasting
thatthesenseof thepast exists
withemptyor falsetransformations;
but thatin the naturalcourse
fordisplay,knowledge,recognition,
social
of the past changes. The artificial
of eventsthe significance
and ceremonialformsof the presentare burlesquesor wittycomand
mentarieson thefailureto recognizetheneed foradaptability,
wit,and delicacyof thepoem reston a conceptionof
thelightness,
and classical,cabalistic
languagein whichallusions,contemporary
social patternsof
the
common
and
comedy,
doctrine,restoration
behaviordiscussedby Addison and Steele,28are convertedinto a
femalefashionand that
of the"giddyCircle"governing
description
all these fragmentssuggestthe diverseforms,ceremonials,and
ritualsthat have ceased to have contentappropiateto present
behavior. The sylphs'anxietyexemplifiesthis situationbecause
female and male sexual behavioris not governedby principles
stabilizedby modestyor good sense or good humor. For this
reason, there is uneasiness about Belinda's frivolityand selfsignthatshe has genuinefeelingsof love,
knowledge;the slightest
not mere surfaceresponsesthat "shine on all alike" (II, 1. 14),
causesthesylphsto retreat.
The sylphiananxietyresultsfroman uneasinessin defending
unnaturalideals of chastityagainstnaturaldesires,limitlessforms
againstboundedbehavior.ThusArieladmitsin CantoI:
Star
ofthyruling
In theclearMirror
I saw,alas! somedreadEventimpend,
Sundescend.(I, 11.108-110)
EretothemainthisMorning
In CantoII thesylphsawaitthedreadevent:
HeartsthedireEventtheywait,
Withbeating
fortheBirthofFate. (II, 11.141-142)
and
Anxious trembling
In Canto III, "anxiousArier' resignshimselfto the fatethatimpends,as he becomesawareofBelinda'sdanger:
28 For a discussion
of therelevanceof Addison'sand Steele'sessaysto Belinda's
behavior,see Hugo M. Reichard,"The Love Affairin Pope's Rape of theLock,"
PMLA, LXIX (1954), 887-902. Reicharddeclares: "As it happens,therelevance
of Addisonand Steele bears out George Sherburn'sopinionthatthe 'tone of the
poem was certainlylearnedfromthosesoberdiscourseson the foiblesof women
thatadornedthe Tatlerand Spectator'" (888).
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222
EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY STUDIES
anxiousArielsought
Justinthatinstant,
Thought;
ThecloseRecessesoftheVirgin's
As ontheNosegayinherBreastreclin'd,
inherMind,
He watch'dth'Ideasrising
Suddenheview'd,inSpiteofall herArt,
atherHeart.
Loverlurking
An earthly
hefoundhisPow'rexpir'd,
Amaz'd,confus'd,
(III, 11.139-146)
Resign'dtoFate,andwitha Sighretir'd.
The languageof lookingand watching,of movementand transformationare typicalof techniquesin the poem thatillustratethe
powerof the naturalto invalidatethe aid of the artificial.In the
his allusion
finalreferenceto anxiety,Pope specificallyidentifies
to Dido. In Dryden'stranslationthe lines fromthe Aeneid read:
Butanxiouscaresalreadyseizedthequeen;
Shefedwithin
herveinsa flameunseen;
inspire
Thehero'svalour,actsandbirth
Hersoulwithlove,andfanthesecretfire.(IV, 11.1-4)
Pope writes:
ButanxiousCaresthepensiveMaidopprest,
AndsecretPassionslabour'dinherBreast.
Notyouthful
KingsinBattelseiz'dalive,
whotheirCharmssurvive,
Notscornful
Virgins
Bliss,
Notardent
Loversrobb'dofall their
thatunrepenting
NotTyrants
fierce
die,
Not CynthiawhenherManteau'spinn'dawry,
andDespair,
E'erfeltsuchRage,Resentment
Hair.(IV, 11.1-10)
forthyravish'd
As Thou,saidVirgin!
from
In thecontextofthepoem,the"anxiousCares" have shifted
thesylphsto Belinda,butsinceshedoes notacknowledgetheearthly
lover,she becomes the prey of Umbriel. The referenceto Dido
to proceedto a hyperbolic
toucheson serioussorrowonly swiftly
and
seriesof comparisonsthatdefineBelinda's"Rage, Resentment
Despair." These instancesof anaphoradefinecrucialor ritualmosituations:therageofyoungkingswho are taken
mentsofcontrary
captivealive but preferdeath; of virginswho are alive but whose
and
charmsare dead; of loverswhose ardorsare unconsummated,
of ancientladies whose kissesare untaken,of tyrantswho do not
repenttheirmisdeeds,and of Cynthiawhose manteau has been
pinnedawry. As each itemin the seriesis introducedby the same
negativeterm,and as themartial,sexualand social imagesare conto a singleCynthia.
nected,thepluralsubjectsare contracted
withimagesof obviousand
of an allusivefigure
The combination
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THE RAPE OF THE LOCK
223
extreme
disproportion-whether
theybe of lifeor drama-perpetratesan obviousartificiality
upontheseriousness
of theallusion.
Thisparticular
instance
is notoneofthemoresuccessful
becauseof
itswholesale
mixing
ofinstances,
butifonetakessomeofthemore
famousseriesin thepoem,Pope'sprocedure
willbecomeapparent.
"Herefilesof PinsextendtheirshiningRows,/Puffs,
Powders,
Patches,Bibles,Billet-doux"
(I, 11.137-138)-In theselinesPope
createsa neatlyorderedsystem,
withfilesofpins,withfacialcoswithlovemessages,
fortheBible,too,is a messageoflove.
metics,
The serieshas been called a "disarrayof values,"whichit is,
and"disarray"
a shrewd
paradoxto describe
theneatorder.29
The
a transformation;
Bible has undergone
emptiedof its religious
implications,
itis a socialform,
nota worktobelievein andliveby.
Thisneatand fashionable
seriescan be contrasted
withthatof
grotesque
phantoms
rising
inthe"Vapour"overtheCave ofSpleen
inCantoIV:
Nowglaring
Fiends,andSnakeson rolling
Spires,
Pale Spectres,
gapingTombs,andPurpleFires:
NowLakesofliquidGold,ElysianScenes,
Andcrystal
Domes,andAngelsinMachines.(IV, 11.43-46)
The naturalhallucinations
of thespleenexistin theair where
coilsroll,tombsgape,goldflowsin lakesand angelsappearin
ofheavenandhellin
machines;
theycreateagaina chaoticmixture
one and thesamefantasy,
and thefourelements
becomeconfused
Butthisseriesofcontradictory
andtransformed.
visions
is based,as
Tillotson
Geoffrey
notes,on a "satiric
ofthesceniceffects
catalogue
of contemporary
operaand pantomime."
80 Theyare,moreover,
instances
of theemptiness
simultaneous
of truevisionsof God's
oroftheElysianfields.
presence
Thisairy,operatic
visionbecomesthebasisfortheclimaxofthe
poem,fortheepic battleis notmerelya social confusion,
but a
and
"Heroes'
and
Heroines'
ringing singing:
Shoutsconfus'dly
rise,/
And bass and trebleVoicesstriketheSkies"(V, 11.41-42). The
theepicconventions
episodeformalizes
toillustrate
theirirrelevance
toactualbehavior,
forwhatever
impressive
valuesthepastmayhave
had,thesehavebeenconventionalized,
putintoplayandsong,lost
theiroriginal
in a different
relevance
society.Butas longas society
29 Maynard Mack, "Wit and Poetry and Pope': Some Observationson his
Imagery,"Pope and his Contemporaries,
ed. James L. Cliffordand Louis A.
Landa (Oxford,1949), p. 31.
30Tillotson,183,n.43.
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224
EIGHTEENTH-CENTURY STUDIES
maintains
suchemptyrites,ritualsand ceremonies,
it calls attentionnotto epic greatness
butto thataspectof epic lifein which,
as Popewrote,
"ancient
Poetsarein onerespect
likemanymodern
Ladies; Let an actionbe neverso trivialin it self,theyalways
makeitappearofutmost
Importance."
31
The allusions,
therefore,
becomepartofthelanguageconception
governing
the poem: references
to past and present,to epics,
dramas,operasandmock-epics,
revealthatthesociallypretentious
worldof Belindauses linguistic
ceremonials.
formsas artificial
The "giddyCircle"confuses
naturalcycleswithartificial
changes.
In thetransformatory
worldthatPope describes,
neither
splenetic
hallucinations
norBelinda'sarming
is an appropriate
useofpastor
present.
Pope deliberately
rejectsa conception
in whichallusivecontexts
providethemodelof a greatpastor in whichlocksand lap dogs
reachallegorical
dimensions.
One makesclassicalallusions
onlyto
disregard
them.One livesby,and callsupon,ceremonies
without
thattheymustbe adaptedto newstagesofthehuman
considering
and socialcycles.Pope'srhetorical
figures,
whether
zeugma,syllepsis,paradox,repetition,
anaphora,becomesubtlepoeticinstrumentsthatimplyemptyor rigidor confusedceremonials.And
in thegrotesque
or in theminutely
whether
Pope writes
particular,
in thefalsesublimeor aerilybeautiful,
hislanguageconverts
rheintotransformational
devicesbywhichthecontoricalconventions
fusedharmony
of an operaticheroi-comedy
ringsoutin verseand
bells.
thepoemintoan actofwitconTheconcluding
passagesconvert
trolled
bythepoet,foritis he,in thepersonofthemuse,whosees
froman artificial
therapedlocktransformed
cycleto a naturalone
intheheavens.
theMuse-she sawitupwardrise,
Buttrust
Tho'mark'dbynonebutquickPoeticEyes.(V, 11.123-124)
Thusthepoetbecomesthegreatreconciler,
inhispoem
establishing
as thepoemdoes,theproper
a newnaturalcycle,demonstrating
to socialbehaviorand therelation
betweennaturalcycles
attitude
andcurrent
behavior.
toFame,
ThisLock,theMuseshallconsecrate
Belinda'sName!(V, 11.159-160)
AndmidsttheStarsinscribe
University
of Virginia
31Tillotson,142.
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