Religious Oppression
in Higher Education:
Islam
Facilitator’s Guide
Ben Cecil, Brian McDermott, Casie
Winland
EDH 5046: Diversity in Higher Education
Spring 2014
2
Table of Contents
I. Learning Outcomes ………………………………………………….3
II. Workshop Preparation …………………………………………….4
III. Workshop Outline …………………………………………………5
IV. Workshop Script ….…..……………………………………………6
V. Workshop Visual Aids ……………………………………………14
VI. Activity and Instructions for Facilitation ………………..26
VII. Annotated Bibliography …….………………………………..29
3
Learning Outcomes

Participants will be able to recognize commonly used Islamic terms and define their
meanings.

Participants will be able to identify leading theories surrounding the subject of spiritual
development.

Participants will be able to articulate personal reflections on the subject of religious oppression.

Participants will identify and explore the importance of understanding the specific issues facing Muslim students today.

Participants will be able to describe specific issues and areas in which Muslim students
are discriminated on college and university campuses.

Participants will be able to synthesize examples of best practices for assisting Muslim
students and name specific strategies of best practice to incorporate into professional
practice.

Participants will be able to recognize historical perspectives surrounding the topic, with
an emphasis on pre/post September 11, 2001.

Participants will be able to demonstrate the critical thinking skills necessary for working
through student concerns in relation to this topic.

Participants will gain practical competency in the area of policy and decision making
while working with this student population.
4
Workshop Preparation
Size of Group: 8-32 students and/or professionals
Time Required: 45 minutes: 25 for lecture and questions, 20 minutes for group activity.
Room Setup: For the lecture portion, chairs/desks should be placed in rows. During the
group activity, these rows will be moved into groupings based on the given case studies.
Materials and Technology Required:

Computer with USB adaptability and speakers

LCD projector and screen

USB flash drive with visual aide(s)

Sufficient handouts for the size of the group

Facilitator’s Guide

Copies of Case Studies, one per group

Microphone, if room is exceptionally large
Two Weeks in Advance:

Confirm facilities reservations for room space and room setup

Inquire as to any accommodations needed on behalf of participants
Week of Workshop:

Review Facilitator’s Guide and connect with any co-facilitators

Review scripts, visual aide, case studies, and handouts to refresh familiarity

Utilize annotated bibliographies to have working knowledge of research cited

Ensure visual aide is loaded and available via a USB flash drive

Make photocopies of handouts and case studies
Day of Workshop:

Arrive minimum 30 minutes prior to verify room setup and test technology
5
Workshop Outline
I. Introduction
II. Importance of Topic
III. Historical Perspective
IV. Definitions, Theories, & Research
V. Current Issues & Events
VI. Suggestions & Best Practices
VII. Activity—Case Studies
VIII. Debrief
IX. Closing Comments, Reflection, & Wrap Up
X. Questions
6
Workshop Script for Facilitators
I. Introduction

Facilitator Introductions

Overview of Presentation
II. Importance of Topic

With the growing interconnectedness of the world resulting in globalization, more
students enroll at our institutions with a variety of backgrounds or identities, increasing the need for competence in understanding various identities (Bowman
& Smedley, 2013).

Given this newfound level of interconnectedness, there are still stigmas and stereotypes surrounding identities, especially in regards to religion

In a post-September 11 American society, Islam has become a hugely misunderstood religion based off of media portrayal and misconceptions of the foundations of the religion.

To best assist our students who identify as Muslim, it is of vital importance to educate other students on campuses who do not identify as Muslim (Bowman &
Smedley, 2013).

This involves faculty and staff understanding and making efforts to promote a positive image of the Islamic faith on campus.

This cannot be done without a foundation and basic understanding of the
faith and specific challenges these students face (Nasir & Al-Amin, 2006).
7
Workshop Script for Facilitators
III. Historical Perspective
A. Introduction

I am going to give you all a brief, historical overview of the perception of
Muslims in the United States. This history will specifically focus on the
tragic events of September 11, 2001 (9/11) in which thousands of United
States’ citizens were killed from terror attacks carried out by Al-Qaeda militants. I will discuss how these events have influenced the lives of Muslim
Americans and their relations with non-Muslim citizens. Understanding the
perception many people currently hold about this population will provide a
framework to help understand the issues Muslim college students face.
B. Pre-September 11, 2001

Muslim Americans have always struggled with discrimination in the United
States. It is not something that only existed after 9/11 (Ali and Bagheri,
2009; Zaal, 2012; Shammas, 2009). Islam was often associated with geopolitical stories such as the Palestinian-Israeli conflict in the media which
painted Muslim’s in a negative light (Shammas, 2009). Omeish (1999)
conducted a study of Muslims attending college in the United States which
found that they perceived religious discrimination to be a common issue
they faced on campus (as cited in Sheridan, 2006, p. 318). While religious
oppression has been an issue for Muslims before 9/11, these events
helped to escalate this ongoing problem.
C. Post-September 11, 2001

“The tragedy of 9/11 was unique in that an entire group of individuals,
Muslims, were considered the perpetrators” (Ali and Bagheri, 2009). This
quote emphasizes the damage the events of 9/11 had on the perception of
Muslim Americans. The actions of a few Islamic radicals led to the demonization of the followers of this religion.
8
Workshop Script for Facilitators
III. Historical Perspective
D. Media Coverage
 After 9/11, media stories relating to the religion of Islam skyrocketed. In fact, a study of
four major newspapers showed that after 9/11 stories relating to Muslims increased be
three times (Nacos and Torres-Reyna, 2002). These stories were often negative and
pertaining to the conflicts happening between the United States and terrorist organizations. With his face consistently displayed on media outlets, Osama bin Laden has become the most identifiable Muslim face to citizens in the West (Jackson, 2010). Kaya
(2007) writes, “Media representations shape the public mind and the way it views the
world” (p. 30). Therefore, with the media coverage after 9/11 consistently associated
Muslims with people like bin Laden, stereotypes of Muslims began to emerge.
E. Common Stereotypes: With the consistent negative publicity following 9/11, a negative
perception of Islam formed in the minds of those outside the religion. Some common and
unflattering stereotypes about this population began to evolve. Perhaps the most damaging
effect of these stereotypes is that it has painted a one-dimensional portrait of Muslims and
leaves the diversity within Islam unacknowledged.



Terrorist: A common stereotype that has formed is that those who follow the faith of
Islam are sympathetic toward terrorism and violence. Much of the current discussion in
media and politics has links Muslims with terrorism and spreads the idea that people
should fear them (Zaal, 2012). As we know, Muslims associated with terrorism are in
the miniscule minority.
Arab: Islam is a religion that has become highly tied to race. This is also a result of the
common images of Muslims in the media. These tend to be from conflicts in the Middle
East and predominately Arab countries. Therefore, all Arabs are often identified as followers of Islam (Callaway, 2010). This not only is disingenuous to Arabs who have faith
in a religion different than Islam but also excludes those who are of a different race. It
can make people view non Arab Muslims as out of place. In fact, Leonard (2003) has
found Most Muslim Americans are not Arab but African American (as cited in Kaya,
2007, pg. 30)
Diversity among Muslims: These stereotypes have created a homogeneous view of
those who celebrate the faith of Muslim. Islam is actually full of diversity when it comes
to those who celebrate it. As mentioned previously, it is celebrated by people of many
races. Beyond race, there are Muslim Americans who are immigrants and those that
are born and raised in the United States. Some have been lifelong long followers of Islam while others are converts. These factors and others show that Muslims cannot be
accurately represented in a one size fits all manner.
9
Workshop Script for Facilitators
III. Historical Perspective
F. Conclusion
 Islam is predicted to become the second most practiced religion in the United
States (Ali and Bagheri, 2009). After 9/11, Muslims reported an increase in religious discrimination against them (Sheridan 2006). Followers of Islam began to
be labeled and stereotyped into a dangerous and uniform group. Muslim college
students have been not been protected from facing these problems (Ali and
Bagheri, 2009). Therefore, it is vital that university professionals understand the
evolution of the perception of Muslims in the United States so they can better
support Muslim students on their campus.
IV. Definitions, Theories & Research surrounding the subject
A. Useful Definitions
 Allah - refers to God, Allah is a Divine name of God; the name has no plural and no feminine form

Hadith - reports on the sayings and the traditions of Prophet Muhammad
or what he witnessed and approved are called Hadith

Hijab - commonly, the term hijab is used to denote the scarf or other type
of head-covering worn by Muslim women throughout the world; the broader definition of the term refers to a state of modesty and covering that encompasses a woman's entire body, excluding hands and face

Imam - a religious leader; any person who leads a congregational prayer

Islam - an Arabic word that encompasses the concepts of peace, greeting,
surrender, and commitment, and refers commonly to an individual's surrender and commitment to God the Creator through adherence to the religion by the same name

Khalifah - an Arabic term meaning "successor," it refers to the rightful successor of Prophet Muhammad as leader of the ummah (worldwide Muslim
community)

Muslim - the term means "one who submits to God." More commonly, the
term describes any person who accepts the creed and the teachings of Islam
10
Workshop Script for Facilitators
IV. Definitions, Theories & Research surrounding the subject
A. Useful Definitions
 Pillars of Islam – the five pillars of Islam are: the affirmation of the shahada, performing the prayer or salat, paying the zakat, fasting the month of
Ramadan, and performing the hajj once in a lifetime if you are able to do
so.

Qur’an - "the recitation" or "the reading"; refers to the revealed scripture of
Islam; consists of 114 surahs (chapters) revealed by God to Muhammad
over a period of twenty-three years

Ramadan - the ninth month of the Islamic lunar calendar, the month in
which the first verses of the Qur'an were revealed to Muhammad; the time
during which Muslims fast daily from dawn to sunset to develop piety and
self-restraint

Shia - party or faction, specifically the party who claim that 'ali should have
succeeded the prophet as the first khalif and that the leadership of the
Muslims rightfully belongs to his descendant; roughly 10% of the Muslim
community

Sunni - the main body of Muslims, who recognize and accept the first four
khalifs; roughly 90% of the Muslim community
B. Theories and Research

Spirituality Development (Hindman, 2011)


According to this theoretical perspective, spiritualty is presented as
a component of a faith stance and one part of faith development.
Hindman states that students look to adults/mentors to develop their
spirituality. Additionally, he argues that spirituality development is a
responsibility of faculty and staff.
Spiritual Search Process (Dalton et al., 2006)

This research presents various frameworks for practitioners in the
area of spirituality development. There is a focus on factors that
may lead to spiritual development, including: identity exploration, the
desire to understand one’s purpose, the reexamination of personal
values, the need for a balanced lifestyle, and the idea of mattering.
11
Workshop Script for Facilitators

Spirituality vs. Religion (Patel & Shikongo , 2006)

This article presents the findings that the concepts of spirituality and religion
are distinctly separate from one another. Spirituality may or may not encompass religious concerns where as religion is more structured. Individuals actively practicing the same religion may have differing opinions on the idea of
spirituality.
V. Current Issues and Events
A. Islamophobia: a lack of understanding surrounding the Islamic faith as a result of
the September 11, 2001 terrorist attacks
B. Lack of access to Halal foods:

Halal foods refer typically to meat and other animal tissue to be consumed

For food to be considered Halal, it must be slaughtered and prepared in a
specific manner, according to Islamic principles

Most college/university food service operations do not provide halal options
for students due to lack of perceived interest, cost, and knowledge
C. Space for prayer/quiet reflection

The Islamic faith calls for all followers to pray, facing the direction of Mecca,
five times per day

Often, the time for prayer occurs during class time or other times in which students may feel is inopportune or uncomfortable to pray

Providing a space for prayer and quiet reflection is linked with greater levels
of student success and higher satisfaction (Nasir & Al-Amin, 2006; Cole &
Ahmadi, 2010).

Fewer Muslim-interest student groups to promote interests of this specific
population (DeSouza, 2001).
D. Acts of intolerance/violence

While not as frequent, students identifying as Muslim are at greater risk for
being victims of acts of intolerance or violence, including religious
microaggressions

Typically will stem from a misunderstanding of the Islamic faith, or fear by the
privileged majority. Often times, this fear will stem from a lack of education
and false perceptions surrounding the events of September 11 th and a generalization that all Muslims are against US/Western interests.
12
Workshop Script for Facilitators
V. Current Issues and Events
E. Fasting for Ramadan/Wearing hijab

Depending on the time of year that Ramadan falls, it can negatively impact students’ performance, especially if during the beginning of the school year when
many training sessions or other multi-day mandatory events occur

Stigma surrounding fasting for Ramadan; feeling as if there is a constant need to
explain, validate, or defend the choice to fast in accordance with religious belief
(Nasir & Al-Amin, 2006)

Choosing to wear hijab or not – there are a number of factors to consider in either direction. Wearing hijab can assist in formulating a Muslim woman’s identity,
but also make students feel uncomfortable having to consistently explain her
choice of dress. On the other hand, identifying as Muslim and not wearing hijab
can cause dissonance in developing identity as a Muslim woman (Williams &
Vashi, 2007).
F. Alcohol/Campus Culture surrounding sex

Increased societal acceptance of premarital sex, portrayal of sex and particularly
women in the media; objectification of the body

Perception of alcohol as a driving social factor in college; against halal doctrine
to drink alcohol
VI. Suggestions and Best Practices

Interactions with professors in Muslim/Islamic Studies departments – increasing on
campuses as globalization and connectedness of Western interests and Islamic relations become more salient in society.

Programmatic efforts or study abroad programs to increase understanding of the Islamic faith. While not every Islamic country may be safe for a student to travel to given the
state of the world system, there are mechanisms by which students can be afforded the
opportunity to learn more about the Islamic faith.

Increased support for Muslim Student Associations

Yale University MSA (http://yalemsa.org/): specific offices, space for prayer,
times for prayer hosted each day by a religious leader, programmatic efforts to
increase community knowledge surrounding faith

Necessity of quiet space for reflection and meditation without fear of being interrogated by staff or other students as to what students are doing
13
Workshop Script for Facilitators
VI. Suggestions and Best Practices

Access to Halal foods


Florida State University Center for Global Engagement Café: halal and vegan meals prepared daily, Monday through Friday, and sold for $5. Alternative for students who identify as Muslim but also vegans, vegetarians, or
students interested in gaining a cultural experience through cuisine
Muslim-Interest Living Learning Community

Georgetown University – Washington, D.C. (http://
studentliving.georgetown.edu/llc/muslim-interest/)

Common spaces for fellowship and prayer

Not restricted to only Muslim students

Housing split by gender, no interaction between genders among residential living quarters

Drawback – segregates an already isolated population on campus even
further while still providing space for growth and identity development
VII. Activity—Case Studies
VIII. Debrief
IX. Closing Comments/Wrap Up
X. Questions
14
Religious
15
Workshop Visual Aides
16
Workshop Visual Aides
17
Workshop Visual Aides
18
Workshop Visual Aides
19
Workshop Visual Aides
20
Workshop Visual Aides
21
Workshop Visual Aides
22
Workshop Visual Aides
23
Workshop Visual Aides
24
Workshop Visual Aides
25
Workshop Visual Aides
26
Workshop Visual Aides
27
Activity and Instructions for Facilitation
Time necessary: 20 minutes
Participants necessary: 8-24, split into even groups
Materials needed: 1 copy of each of the 4 provided case studies
Directions:
Setup (5 minutes): To begin this activity, divide the students randomly into four groups.
Once they are separated into 4 teams, hand a member of each group one of the four case
studies. Make sure that no group has the same study. Explain that each group is to read
their case study and then discuss as a group how they would handle each situation. Each
team will also need to choose a spokesperson who can present the group’s ideas to the
class.
Group Discussion (10 minutes): Allow the groups to read and discuss their case study. Facilitators should walk around and listen to the group discussions. The facilitators should
feel free to challenge and push groups to dig deeper as they confer.
Wrap up (5 minutes): Each group spokesperson should take turns presenting their case
study to the class and the ideas the group members had on how to tackle their issue. After
this has been completed, the facilitators need to sum up the activity. Remind the participants that the case studies are supposed to help them understand situations Muslim college students often face on campuses across the nation. As student affairs professionals,
it is important that we become aware these issues and other effects of religious oppression so we can best advocate for all our students’ spiritual needs.
Points to remember:

Encourage students to go past surface level discussion and critically examine the issue
presented.

As a facilitator, be prepared to ask follow up questions during the group discussions
and presentation of the students’ answers.

Emphasize that while these case studies are fictional, the issues they present are real
challenges to this student population.
28
Case Studies
Case Study 1
It is early August, and as a Residence Life coordinator you are responsible for facilitating
Resident Assistant (RA) training. After a training session, Jamie, a first time RA, asks if
she can speak to you in private. While speaking to Jamie, she informs you that she identifies as Muslim. Jamie is currently observing Ramadan and concerned that RA training has
inhibited her ability to celebrate her faith. During lunch breaks, she feels isolated from the
other RAs because she is fasting. Spending all day at RA training has also not allowed her
to devote time to reflection and prayer which is encouraged during the time of Ramadan.
While empathize with Jamie, you are not sure you can let her miss any RA training. After
all, this is her first year on the job, and there is vital information she needs to learn to be a
successful RA. How can you best support Jamie to make sure she feels she can fully observe Ramadan and successful complete her training?
Case Study 2
You are the Director of Student Activities at a private university, affiliated with a denomination of the Christian faith. Recently, there has been an increase in the enrollment of students who identify as Muslim. These students have begun to ask if there can be a designated room on campus where they can pray. During a staff meeting, concerns are raised
in regards to providing a specific space for prayer for Muslim students on campus. Some
staff members fear the backlash of powerful alumni, and other students who feel this room
goes against the school’s religious foundation. What steps would you take to support
these Muslim students and navigate the potential backlash from whatever decisions you
make? Do you have a responsibility to create a space for these students to practice their
religious beliefs? After all, they knew they were coming to a Christian university and
should not expect their religious practices to be accommodated on campus, right?
29
Case Studies
Case Study 3
Marvin is an international student identifying as Muslim who is in his first year at a large,
public university. He is currently living in an on campus residence hall with his 21 year old
roommate, Jack. Jack has many habits that often make Marvin uncomfortable. He consistently has his girlfriend over, and the couple has no shame when it comes to being affectionate with each other. Being 21 and within campus rules, Jack often openly has alcohol
present in their room. Trying to adhere to his religious norms, Marvin finds living with Jack
to be a difficult situation. He tries to have a conversation with Jack about his concerns but
Jack does not seem to understand Marvin’s issues. Jack claims he has every right to drink
in his room and have his girlfriend come over to their residence hall room. You are the Hall
Director of the residence hall in which they are living and their conflict has reached your
office. How do you manage their dispute? Are there practices Residence Life can put in
place to avoid similar conflicts from happening in the future?
Case Study 4
Shawna is one of your Orientation Leaders and identifies as an Islamic woman. So far,
she has been a great asset to your team. She is always contributing great insight during
training sessions and a good source of support for her fellow OLs. You are ecstatic to
have her as part of your team for the upcoming summer. However, you discover some
troubling information right before the summer begins. When checking the spring grades of
your OLs, you find that Shawna has failed a political science class. This is surprising, considering she had always been an outstanding student. You call a meeting with Shawna to
discuss the grade. During this meeting, she tells you that she stopped going to class halfway through the semester. Her class often discussed Middle Eastern politics and their relationship with the United States. These discussions led to students saying insensitive
and generalized, stereotypical statements about Muslims. Her classmates would often
look to her to defend or explain what was happening in the Middle East even though
Shawna has lived in the United States her whole life. The constant pressure of being put
on the spot and the anti- Muslim rhetoric became too much for Shawna. She decided to
attempt to learn the subject on her own and forgo going to class. What conversation do
you believe needs to happen with Shawna after she has told you this information? Are
there available resources you can connect her with to avoid something like this happening
again? After all, she is a political science major and plans to take similar classes again.
30
Annotated Bibliography
Ali, S., & Bagheri, E. (2009). Practical suggestions to accommodate the needs of
Muslim students on campus. New Directions for Student Services, (125), 47-54.
The author describes multiple ways in which universities can act to help make Muslim Students feel more welcome on their campus. He also discusses how 9/11 affected
the Muslim community. It describes the tragic event as one in which a whole group of people became responsible for the acts of the few. Discrimination against the Muslim community began to rise on campuses. The suggestions for creating safe environment on campus for these students and the effects 9/11 had on the Muslim community will be key information for our presentation.
Bowman, N.A., & Smedley, C. (2013). The forgotten minority: Examining religious
affiliation and university satisfaction. Higher Education: The International Journal of
Higher Education and Educational Planning, 65(6), 745-760.
This longitudinal study takes into account religious affiliation and university satisfaction,
a factor that the authors claim is often overlooked in determining student satisfaction as an
outcome of undergraduate education. The main factor in determining student satisfaction
is campus climate, taking into account racial/ethnic prejudice, student experiences a religious or racial minority, and any sort of aggressions or microaggressions these students
may experience. This research determined that students of a Protestant/Christian background are typically the most satisfied, followed by other minority religious groups, including Islam, with students identifying as atheist being the least satisfied. The authors cite the
presence of Christian symbols or Christianity in the government as reasons why students
of other religious identities may be less satisfied, with this only being exacerbated on a religiously affiliated campus, making students with other religious identities less satisfied.
31
Annotated Bibliography
Cole, D., & Ahmadi, S. (2010). Reconsidering campus diversity: An examination of
Muslim students’ experiences. Journal of Higher Education, 81(2), 121-139.
This article is a quantitative study examining different aspects within higher education
that can influence the experiences of Muslim students. The authors aim to determine if
there are differences in student experiences based on religious identity between Christianity, Judaism, and Islam, and uncover if there are any differences in academic achievement
based on these identities. The study methodology is based in Astin’s theory of involvement (1993), and this is compared in contrast to the social environment of U.S. colleges
and universities, in which many Muslim students tend to be less involved due to their perceptions of American students.
Among other results, the Muslim students indicated that they, on average, spend more
time attending or participating with culturally or religiously based programs and/or student
groups than their Christian or Jewish colleagues. There were no significant differences in
academic gains among the three religious identities studied. There was a significant finding that on average, Muslim students are less satisfied with their overall college experience as compared to other religious identities studied.
Dalton, J.C., Eberhardt, D., Bracken, J., & Echols, K. (2006). Inward journeys: Forms
and patterns of college student spirituality. Journal of College & Character, 7(8), 121.
This article contains the findings of the authors’ research in the area of college student spirituality. The article presents various frameworks for practitioners in the area of
spirituality development. Specifically, the authors focuses on: factors that lead to the spirituality search process, forms of spirituality exploration, areas in which students engage in
the search process, how colleges are reacting to a growing number of individuals exploring their spirituality, and recommendations for educators. Dalton et al. present five possible factors that lead to the spirituality search process: identity exploration, the desire to understand one’s purpose, the reexamination of personal values, the need for a balanced
lifestyle, and the idea of mattering. When approaching spirituality exploration, the authors
argue that there are two primary forms, inside religion and outside religion, and each approach leads to varying seeking characteristics. In comparing institutions for best practice
models, the authors found that public institutions are the most active in providing diverse
experiences and avoid direct religious affiliations.
32
Annotated Bibliography
DeSouza, D. (1991). The new segregation on campus. American Scholar, 60(1), 17.
Albeit a bit dated, this article provides a great context on the history of de-facto segregation in the United States. The author refers to the University campus as a “mirror of society”, in which privileged groups/identities experience better treatment or recognition on a
college campus. The article examines a number of concepts, including the recognition of
“separate but unequal”, integration vs. pluralism, and the claim that some groups are more
equal than others. This article can be directly related to the experiences of Muslim students, as they are often victims of this new type of segregation, founded in a basis of misunderstanding regarding their faith (especially in the post 9/11 society). The author additionally identifies that grievances for these students who may feel as though their identities
are not taken into account are difficult to file, prove, and process, leading to a further dissatisfaction with their experiences in higher education.
Ghazal, J. & Bartkowski, J.P. (2000). To veil or not to veil? A case study of identity
negotiation among Muslim women in Austin, Texas. Gender and Society, 14(3), 395417.
This study by Ghazal and Bartkowski explores the complexities surrounding the use
of the hijab by Muslim women. The article focuses on gender identity and conflicting messages that may stem from the wearing of the hijab. The authors’ interviewed 24 religiously
active Muslim women for the study and 12 veiled and 12 did not veil. The sampling method for this research consisted of both snowball and purposeful samplings. Topics of discussion during interviews included evaluating negative stereotypes surrounding traditional
dress, justifications for veiling, oppositions to veiling, and personal difficulties due to wearing the hijab. Despite differing views amongst the women, authors were surprised to see
that there was little to no judgment on either party regarding the decision to veil or not.
33
Annotated Bibliography
Hindman, D.M. (2011). From splintered lives to whole persons: Facilitating spiritual
development in college students. Religious Education, 97(2), 165-182.
This article focuses on the idea of faith development, with an emphasis on spirituality development. Hindman presents several existing theories surrounding the idea of spirituality and then draws his own conclusions. Providing several definitions of spirituality, it is
presented as a component of a faith stance. Seemingly closely linked, spirituality is one
part of faith development. The author states that students look to adults and mentors to
assist in growth and development. He argues that faculty and staff have a responsibility to
assist a student’s spiritual journey. According to Hindman, the college experience goes
beyond the classroom or a future career and students ought to be afforded opportunities
to find their role in the world. The article concludes with ideas and directives on how faculty, staff, and institutions can provide services and support to students to better assist in
this area of development.
Jackson, L. (2010). Images of Islam in US media and their educational implications.
Educational Studies: Journal Of The American Educational Studies Association, 46
(1), 3-24.
This source discusses the effect the media has had on the portrayal of Muslims to
the rest of the public. After 9/11, Osama bin Laden has been the most common picture of
a Muslim shown by media outlets. While bin Laden was part of legitimate news stories, his
image has become greatly associated with Islam by much of the public. The author asserts that this causes many in the West to affiliate the religion with terrorism and violence.
This article is useful for the presentation because it discusses a reason for the common
stereotypes of Muslims that have been formed since 9/11.
Kaya, I. (2007). Muslim American identities and diversity. Journal Of Geography, 106
(1), 29-35.
Beyond providing a lesson plan for teaching about Islam, the author discusses the
lack of knowledge many Westerners have about Islam. The article claims much of this
misunderstanding is due to media misrepresentations which lead to stereotypes of Muslims. Kaya provides statistics on the racial makeup of the American Muslims which shows
that African Americans are 42 percent of this population. This contradicts the common
perception that all Muslims are Arab. The lesson plan provided by Kaya is to help students
form a more accurate understanding of Islam and its followers.
34
Annotated Bibliography
Nacos, B. L., & Torres-Reyna, O. (2002). Muslim Americans in the news before and after
9/11. Symposium Restless Searchlight: Terrorism, the Media & Public Life, Cambridge,
MA: Harvard University. Retrieved from http://www.apsanet.org.
This report details a study which compares news coverage before and after the events of
9/11. To analyze the news coverage, the researchers examined the New York TIme, New York
Post, Daily News, and USA Today. News reports 12 months before and 6 months after 9/11
were part of the sample. Results of the study showed a sharp increase in how often Muslims or
Islam was mentioned by the media after 9/11. The authors did not find this result to be a surprise. One positive result that the study found was an increase in media reports advocating for
American Muslims and non Muslims to learn to better understand each other.
Nasir, N., & Al-Amin, J. (2006). Creating identity safe spaces on college campuses for
Muslim students. Change, 36(2), 22-27.
In this article, the two authors correlate their experiences as Muslim women faculty to the
experiences of their students. The authors identify the difficulties of practicing their faith on campus, particularly in the decision to wear or not wear hijab (a traditional head covering for women), and fasting during the Holy month of Ramadan and still being obligated to attend lunch
meetings. Two student case studies are presented and individual experiences of students feeling very weary of needing to “constantly manage others’ impressions of them”. The authors recognize the confluence between gender, race, religion, and class, as well as the difficulties in
supporting and managing these various identities among Muslim students and faculty.
To conclude, the authors offer a number of suggestions to provide a more inclusive campus
environment for Muslim students and faculty. The need for a Muslim student group is vastly important, as well as professors who are knowledgeable of Islam and maintain a positive perspective of the faith to their students. Other resources could include access to on-campus space for
prayer and quiet reflection, as well as access to halal meals and accommodations during the
month of Ramadan.
Patel, C.J. & Shikongo, A.E.E. (2006). Handling spirituality/religion in professional training: Experiences of Muslim psychology students. Journal of Religion and Health, 45(1).
93-112.
This study was comprised of flexible, semi-structured interviews with a group of Muslim
psychology students. The sample included five female masters students. The authors distinguish between the concepts of religion and spirituality. According to the article, spirituality may
or may not encompass religious concerns whereas religion is more structured. The authors took
a heavy interest in the idea that religion and spirituality seem separate and distinct. One trend
from the interviews was the concept of spirituality. Despite all five interviewees identifying as
practicing Muslims, each had differing ideas and views of spirituality and its role.
35
Annotated Bibliography
Shammas, D. S. (2009). Post-9/11 Arab and Muslim American community college
students: Ethno-religious enclaves and perceived discrimination. Community College Journal of Research and Practice, 33(3-4), 283-308.
This author conducted a study to discover if Muslim, Christian, and non-Arab Muslims experienced an increase in discrimination after the events of 9/11 while attending
community college. The study used a mixed method involving a survey and focus groups.
Shammas also briefly describes a history of discrimination against Muslims that existed
before 9/11 including coverage of the Palestinian-Israeli conflict. Results of this study
found that there was a positive relationship between perceived discrimination and people
of same ethnicity. Focus groups also found many students felt hesitant to report times
they experienced discrimination.
Sheridan, L.P. (2006). Islamophobia pre- and post-September 11th, 2001. Journal of
Interpersonal Violence, 21(3), 317–336.
This source details a study which examines and compares the levels of self reported discrimination of British Muslims before and after 9/11.The study administered a questionnaire at mosques, cultural centers, and universities. The sample consisted of 222 selfidentified Muslims of various genders, races, ages, and ethnicities. Results of the study
found that there was an increase of 82.6% in indirect discrimination and of 76.3% in overt
discrimination toward Muslims after 9/11 compared to before 9/11. The article also mentions a study involving Muslim discrimination at colleges and universities in the United
States before 9/11.
36
Annotated Bibliography
Speck, B.W. (1997). Respect for religious differences: The case of Muslim students.
New Directions for Teaching and Learning, 70, 39-46.
This article explores problems that Muslim students face in the American classroom. The research included mixed methods with the use of both a questionnaire and interviews. The sample for the questionnaire consisted of Muslim students that participated
in a prayer time. Following the questionnaire, four Muslim students were interviewed
based on their answers to the first part of the study. Having indicated they had personal
experience with prejudice, these four interviews expounded upon the idea of religious bias
amongst professors. Speck found four common areas of concern: misrepresentation in the
classroom, use of media that led to misunderstandings, failure to respect various religions,
and a lack of effort to accommodate students’ needs that stem from religious practice. The
article lays out a variety of solutions for each area of concern and concludes with a request of faculty to be considerate of the religious and spiritual needs of students.
Williams, R.H. & Vashi, G. (2007). Hijab and American Muslim women: Creating the
space for autonomous selves. Sociology of Religion, 68(3), 269-287.
This article examines the role of the hijab, a traditional head covering worn by Muslim
women. Often surrounded in controversy, there are a number of Muslim women who
chose to wear hijab, while a significant number also choose to forego hijab. According to
the authors, many women choose not to wear hijab as it is the most obvious sign of difference and readily identifies the wearer as a Muslim. The authors identify a two-fold reason
for the debate to wear or not wear a hijab: the perception that it infringes upon women’s
rights and feminism, and the message it sends to non-Muslims of rejection of American
culture.
The authors interview a number of second-generation Muslim American college-aged
women to determine their decision and any sort of social consequences stemming from
choosing to wear or forego hijab. The study identifies that Muslim American women attempting to formulate their identity as a Muslim but who forego hijab may have a more difficult time in formulating their identity as a Muslim. On the same token, choosing to wear
hijab causes the student to often have to explain or defend the context of their identity.
37
Annotated Bibliography
Zaal, M. (2012). Islamophobia in classrooms, media, and politics. Journal Of Adolescent & Adult Literacy, 55(6), 555-558.
This article describes its concerns for the rise and prevalence of Islamophobia since the
events of September 11, 2001. It discusses the homogeneous view of Muslims that has
evolved since these attacks. The author argues that media, politics, and other sources
have created a portrait of Muslims that has led to the many common stereotypes based on
race, dress, and geographical regions. The article gives statistics about Muslim Americans
that help to illuminate the diversity amongst those who practice Islam. The article helps to
combat the stereotypes that many have come to hold about Muslims today.