CHAPTER 9 • SECTION 1
Congressional Decisions Washington took charge of a political system
that was a bold experiment. No one knew if a government based on the will
of the people could really work. The new government began to take shape
in the summer of 1789. First, people argued over what to call Washington.
Some suggested “His Excellency,” but others argued that made the president
sound as if he was a king. Finally, in keeping with the simplicity of a republic,
Washington agreed to “Mr. President.”
The writers of the Constitution had left many matters to be decided by
Congress. For example, the Constitution created a Supreme Court but left it
to Congress to decide on the details. What type of additional courts should
there be and how many? What would happen if federal court decisions
conflicted with state laws?
To help answer these questions, Congress passed a federal court system
under the Federal Judiciary (joo•DISH•ee•AIR•ee) Act of 1789. This act gave
the Supreme Court six members: a chief justice, or judge, and five associate
justices. Over time, that number has grown to nine. The law also provided for
Jay, the prominent
less powerful federal courts. Washington appointed John Jay
lawyer and diplomat, as the first chief justice of the Supreme Court.
More About . . .
The Number of Supreme Court
Justices
Congress increased the number of Supreme
Court justices to seven in 1807 and nine in
1837. It reduced the number to eight to limit
Andrew Johnson’s ability to appoint new
members, but restored the number to nine
in 1869. The number of justices became
a controversy in 1937 when Franklin
Roosevelt proposed adding six justices, one
for each member of the court over 70 years
old. This was called a “court packing” plan,
and it would have allowed Roosevelt to add
judges who looked more favorably on his
legislative proposals. The plan was defeated
and the number of justices remains at nine
today.
Unit 4 Resource Book
• Active Citizenship, pp. 181–182
Assembling a Cabinet The Constitution also gave Congress the task of
George Washington’s
first cabinet
More About . . .
Presidential Cabinets
The president’s cabinet consists of the
heads of departments established by
Congress, currently 15. Cabinet members
can’t be members of Congress or judges or
hold other elective office. As a group not
defined in the Constitution, the power and
role of the presidential cabinet has varied
over the years. Andrew Jackson relied on
an unofficial group of advisers which was
called his “Kitchen Cabinet” because they
supposedly met in the kitchen. Today,
in addition to the cabinet, the president
has other important advisers, such as the
White House Chief of Staff and the National
Security Adviser.
Unit 4 Resource Book
• Primary and Secondary Sources,
pp. 36–37
314 • Chapter 9
creating departments to help the president lead the nation. The president
had the power to appoint the heads of these departments.
Congress created the departments: state, war, treasury, justice and postal
service. The State Department dealt with relations with other countries. The
War Department was in charge of the nation’s defense. The Treasury Department was in charge of the nation’s economy, or financial security.
Washington chose talented people to run the departments. For
secretary of war, he picked Henry Knox, a trusted general
during the Revolution. For secretary of state, Washington
chose Thomas Jefferson. He had been serving as U.S.
minister to France. Washington chose the brilliant
Alexander Hamilton to be secretary of the treasury. Hamilton was to manage the government’s
money. The secretary’s ties to the president began
during the war when he had served as one of
Washington’s aides. To advise the government
on legal matters, Washington picked Edmund
general.
Randolph as attorney general
These department heads and the attorney
cabinet. The
general made up Washington’s cabinet
Constitution made no mention of a cabinet,
but Washington began the practice of calling
his cabinet to advise him on official matters.
Another high office, that of postmaster general, was
not elevated to cabinet status until 1829.
314 Chapter 9
EVALUATE Explain how the decisions made by the first
Congress created political traditions. Answer: Since
Washington was the first president, there were no
traditions in place. Departments of state, war, treasury,
justice and postal service were created.
DIFFERENTIATING INSTRUCTION
English Learners
Pre-AP
Vocabulary: Idioms
Chart Growth of Cabinet
Point out the idiom took charge in the
first paragraph on this page. Explain
to students that to take charge (of
something) means “to take control of an
organization or a situation.” Tell students
that George Washington took control of
the new political system in the United
States. Then give students an example of
how the idiom can be used to show the
taking control of a situation.
Note that the cabinet has grown
consistently since Washington’s time,
although presidents have used it
differently. Ask students to use Internet
or print resources to construct a chart
that lists all cabinet positions, the years
they were established, and their areas of
responsibility.
CHAPTER 9 • SECTION 1
The Nation’s Finances
KEY QUESTION What financial problems faced the
new nation?
Washington assigned his secretary of the treasury,
Alexander Hamilton, the task of straightening out
the nation’s finances. The most urgent money
issue was the U.S. government’s war debts.
Teach
The Nation’s Finances
War Debts During the Revolution, the United
States had borrowed millions of dollars from
France, Spain, and the Netherlands. The new
nation was also in debt to private citizens, including soldiers who had received bonds—certificates
that promised payment plus interest—as compensation for their services during the war. State
governments also had wartime debts. By 1789,
the national debt—foreign and domestic—totaled
more than $52 million.
Most government leaders agreed that the nation
must pay its debts to win the respect of both
foreign nations and its own citizens. Hamilton
saw that the new nation must assure other countries that it was responsible about money. These
nations would do business with the United States
if they saw that the country would pay its debts.
Talk About It
History Makers
Alexander Hamilton
1755–1804
Hamilton was one of the giants of American history.
In his early twenties, he was a personal aide to
General George Washington during the American
Revolution. In the 1780s, he was a signer of the U.S.
Constitution. He was one of the authors of a set of
essays called The Federalist Papers that persuaded
Americans to ratify the Constitution.
Hamilton’s Political Views Hamilton believed
As the first secretary of the treasury, Hamilton
helped ensure the economic health of the new
republic. His actions helped support his belief in
a strong government and helped establish the
executive branch as the most powerful branch of
the government.
in a strong central government. He thought the
power of the national government should be stronger than that of the state governments. Hamilton
also believed that government should encourage
business and industry and that the nation’s prosperity depended on the support of the nation’s
wealthy merchants and manufacturers. The government owed money to many of these rich men.
By paying them back, Hamilton hoped to win
their support for the new government.
COMPARING
Leaders
Compare Hamilton’s leadership qualities to those of other
American leaders mentioned in the chapter.
Hamilton’s Proposals In 1790, Hamilton pre-
sented his plan to Congress. He proposed three
steps to improve the nation’s finances and to
For more on Alexander Hamilton, go
strengthen the national government: 1) paying
ONLINE
to the Research & Writing Center
BIOGRAPHY
off all war debts, 2) raising government revenues,
@ ClassZone.com
and 3) creating a national bank.
Hamilton also wanted the federal government to pay off the war debts
of the states. However, sectional differences arose over repayment of state
debts. Many Southern states resisted because they had already gone further
Launching a New Republic 315
INTERDISCIPLINARY ACTIVITIES
CONNECT
to Math
Compute Per Capita Debt
Note that the estimated debt for the U.S.
after the war was about $75,000,000 and the
population was estimated at 3,929,000 in 1790.
Ask students to compute the per capita debt
using these figures. ($13.23). You might also
ask them to get a better general picture of the
amount in current dollars by dividing the figure
by a conversion factor of .067 (for the year
1800). ($13.23 in 1790 = about $197 in 2005)
CONNECT
to Language Arts
Write a Persuasive Letter on Federal
Payment of State War Debts
• Why was it important for the new government
to pay its war debts? (to gain trust of countries
and citizens and gain support from wealthy
merchants and manufacturers)
• Why did Jefferson and Madison believe the
government did not have the power to set up
a national bank? (because the Constitution did
not specifically mention that power)
• Categorize How would you categorize the
types of war debt that the new country had?
(debts to countries; debts to private citizens,
including soldiers)
RESEARCH &
Go online to explore
WRITING CENTER
more of the heated
debate at
ClassZone.com
History Makers
Alexander Hamilton
Find links to biographies of Alexander
Hamilton at the Research and Writing
Center @ ClassZone.com. Hamilton
believed so strongly in a powerful central
government that he proposed that the
president and senators should be elected
for life. His proposal wasn’t accepted
at the Constitutional Convention, but
he still supported the Constitution as a
great improvement over the Articles of
Confederation. His opposition to Aaron
Burr as a candidate for New York governor
in 1804 eventually led to a duel in which
Hamilton was killed.
COMPARING LEADERS ANSWER
Hamilton was very skilled in economic
and financial matters and led those
who believed in a very strong central
government; Washington built unity,
Jefferson gained consensus and
agreements, Jay was a lawyer and
diplomat.
Ask students to take a position on the decision
of the federal government to pay state war
debts and write a persuasive letter to a
congressman supporting their position. Should
the federal government pay state debts to
increase government credibility and establish
federal power, or is this position unfair to
Southern states who have already paid their
own war debts?
Teacher’s Edition • 315