Current Research (2003) Newfoundland Department of Mines and Energy
Geological Survey, Report 03-1, pages 279-292
GLACIAL HISTORY AND QUATERNARY GEOLOGY
OF THE WHITE BAY REGION
S.J. McCuaig
Geochemistry, Geophysics and Terrain Sciences Section
ABSTRACT
Evidence of the last (late Wisconsinan) glaciation was found in the White Bay area. During ice build up, ice flowed
toward, but not across, White Bay from the Long Range Mountains. At the glacial maximum, ice flowed north-northeastward
along the bay. Later, as ice thinned, ice caps developed on peninsular uplands that flank the bay. Calving and drawdown in
White Bay occurred at the same time. The change in ice source areas brought about a gradual change in ice-flow directions,
until ice was flowing into White Bay from either side. Ice flowed actively during retreat in most of the study area.
Till deposited during the late Wisconsinan is generally thin and discontinuous, and is almost non-existent along the shoreline. An exception is the Micmac Pond area, where till is thicker and locally, hummocky; large boulders litter the surface over
much of this area. As ice retreated and thinned, glaciofluvial and glaciomarine sediments were laid down; however, the volume of these deposits in comparison to till is minor. Isostatic rebound during deglaciation caused relative sea level to fall as
these deposits formed.
Raised deltas, glaciomarine terraces and beach ridges were formed during several different sea-level stands, ranging
from a high of 70 m above sea level (asl) to a low of 10 m asl. Sea-level highstands identified at 40 and 30 m asl on the west
side of the bay occurred 11 200 ± 100 and 10 200 ± 100 radiocarbon (14C) years ago respectively.
Modern sediments include minor fluvial and mass-wasting deposits. Rockfalls are particularly active along the steep
shores of White Bay.
INTRODUCTION
The White Bay area of northeastern Newfoundland was
extensively and likely repeatedly glaciated during the Pleistocene (MacClintock and Twenhofel, 1940; Vanderveer and
Taylor, 1987; Liverman and St. Croix, 1989). It has also
been an area of interest for gold exploration from 1889
(Betz, 1948) to present. Gold, copper, fluorite, molybdenum
and lead occurrences have been identified on the west side
of White Bay, while gold, titanium, copper and lead have
been found on the east side of the bay (Davenport et al.,
1999). Lake-sediment geochemistry (Davenport et al., op.
cit.) has identified areas showing anomalous values of Zn,
Pb, Mo, Mn, Cr, Cu, Ni, Au, Ag and U.
The presence of mineralization, along with a complex
ice-flow history (Vanderveer and Taylor, 1987; Liverman,
1992), make the White Bay area an attractive place for Quaternary geology investigation. An improved understanding
of the regional ice-flow history is important for overall icesheet reconstruction in Newfoundland. On a smaller scale,
an understanding of the Quaternary geology is helpful to
companies engaged in drift prospecting, especially if till
samples are taken.
Thus, the Quaternary geology of NTS map areas
12H/10 and 12H/15 was mapped. The region was also sampled for till geochemistry and ice-flow indicators were
measured and recorded.
PHYSIOGRAPHY
White Bay separates the Great Northern and Baie Verte
peninsulas. It is a long, narrow, north-northeast-trending bay
that narrows to a point in the south (Figure 1). Its rocky
shores consist of steeply sloping bedrock cliffs, upon which
numerous rockfalls have occurred. The Long Range Mountains in the northwestern part of the map area reach a maximum elevation of 509 m asl (metres above sea level) and
form a hilly plateau. Rolling linear hills and valleys on both
sides of the bay take their shape from bedrock structure,
which also trends north-northeast. An exception to this is
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Figure 1. Location map, White Bay area.
Purbeck’s Fiord (near Purbeck’s Cove), a curving fiord that
cuts through the bedrock structure. In the southeastern part
of the region, near Micmac Pond, glacial sediments are
thicker; they hide much of the bedrock and create a locally
subdued hummocky topography. Drainage patterns are
directly related to bedrock geology, except in the southeastern part of the study area, where the sediments are thicker.
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Narrow beaches are located in sheltered coves and at river
mouths, but they are uncommon.
BEDROCK GEOLOGY
The bedrock geology of the study area is complex (Figure 2). The region is dominated by rocks of the Humber
S.J. McCUAIG
Figure 2. White Bay geology and till sample locations.
Zone, although Dunnage Zone rocks outcrop in the southeastern corner of the study area. The Humber Zone was once
the margin of the early Paleozoic continent Laurentia
(Williams, 1979). The Dunnage Zone contains mostly volcanic oceanic rocks that were thrust over Humber Zone
rocks when the Iapetus Ocean closed (Hibbard, 1983).
Rocks on the east and west sides of White Bay are significantly different from each other. Clast lithology can thus
be used to help determine ice-flow directions in this area.
The bedrock geology is described in detail in the following
section.
HUMBER ZONE ROCKS
The oldest rocks, which have been subjected to high-
grade metamorphism, belong to the Long Range Inlier of the
Great Northern Peninsula (Owen, 1991). They form the
Mesoproterozoic Long Range Gneiss Complex, composed
of granitic to granodioritic gneiss and minor migmatite.
They were intruded first by the Paleoproterozoic Lake
Michel Intrusive Suite (Aspy and Main River granites) and
much later by the Devonian Devils Room granite (Owen,
op. cit.).
The Proterozoic rocks are unconformably overlain by
much younger sandstone, conglomerate, dolostone, limestone, slate, schist, phyllite and marble of the Cambrian to
Middle Ordovician Coney Arm Group; ophiolitic volcanic/volcaniclastic rocks, sandstone, slate, phyllite, granite,
tonalite and gabbro of the Cambrian to Middle Ordovician
Southern White Bay Allochton; and conglomerate, felsic
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CURRENT RESEARCH, REPORT 03-1
tuff, rhyolite, breccia, sandstone, siltstone, dolostone, limestone, schist and slate of the Silurian Sops Arm Group
(Smyth and Schillereff, 1982). The Devonian and older Gull
Lake Intrusive Suite lies to the south of these rocks and consists of gabbro, granodiorite, tonalite and granite (Smyth
and Schillereff, 1982). The Carboniferous Anguille Group
borders southern White Bay, east of the Sops Arm Group
and the Gull Lake Intrusive Suite and is mainly sandstone
and shale (Smyth and Schillereff, 1982).
The Doucers Valley fault complex separates the
Grenvillian rocks in the west and the younger Sops Arm and
Coney Arm groups to the east, and extends from Doucers
Valley to Great Coney Arm (Tuach, 1987). The northern
extension of the fault complex falls in a valley, which is
informally named ‘Jackson’s Valley’. The Birchy Ridge
strike–slip fault and the Cabot–Hampden fault separate the
Anguille and Sops Arm groups (Smyth and Schillereff,
1982; Tuach, 1987).
Rocks outcropping on the Baie Verte Peninsula include
the Neoproterozoic to Silurian Fleur-de-Lys Supergroup, the
highly deformed, Neoproterozoic or older East Pond Metamorphic Suite and the Silurian Wild Cove Pond Igneous
Suite (Hibbard, 1983; Cawood et al., 1994). Schistose rocks
dominate the Fleur-de-Lys Supergroup, which is mainly
continental and is less deformed than the East Pond Suite.
The Fleur-de-Lys Supergroup is subdivided into the White
Bay Group, which contains schist, amphibolite and marble,
and the Old House Cove Group, which consists of schist
(Hibbard, 1983). The East Pond Metamorphic Suite
includes banded and granitic gneiss, schist and minor
migmatite (Hibbard, 1983) and is intruded by the Wild
Cove Pond Igneous Suite, which is composed of diorite, granodiorite, granite, and minor migmatite (Hibbard, 1983).
DUNNAGE ZONE ROCKS
The oceanic rocks in the southeastern-most portion of
the study area include Neoproterozoic to Early Ordovician
plutonic ultramafic rocks, gabbro and diabase dykes of the
Advocate Complex (Hibbard, 1983). A younger Silurian
sequence consists of mafic volcaniclastic rocks, conglomerate, diabase dykes and pillow lava of the Mic Mac Lake
group and felsic volcanic–volcaniclastic rocks, sandstone,
conglomerate and mafic flows of the Flatwater Pond Group
(Hibbard, 1983).
ECONOMIC GEOLOGY
A number of mineral occurrences have been described
in the region. The Mineral Occurrence Data System
(MODS) database of the Geological Survey of Newfoundland and Labrador identifies one past-producing gold mine,
282
two past producers of marble, three gold prospects and one
limestone prospect within the study area. Other showings or
indications include gold, copper, iron, molybdenum, lead,
zinc, silver, titanium, barium and fluorine, of which the first
four are the most common.
Gold mineralization is found in shear zones in the Aspy
Granite, in the Sops Arm Group, and along the Doucers Valley fault complex (Owen, 1991; Tuach, 1987). Arsenic and
antimony are pathfinders for gold in lake sediments in these
areas (Davenport and Nolan, 1989; McConnell and Honarvar, 1989). Browning’s Mine, near Sops Arm, was one of
Newfoundland’s first gold mines, and operated for a year in
1903-04 (Betz, 1948).
Localized fluorite and molybdenite are found in the
Devils Room granite (Smyth and Schillereff, 1982) and in
the Gull Lake Intrusive Suite (Tuach, 1987). Fluorite-bearing breccia is exposed along the forestry road on the Main
River’s north bank. Lead is found in limestone and rhyolite
in the fault zone at the western edge of the Gull Lake Intrusive Suite, as well as minor copper and uranium (Tuach,
1987).
PREVIOUS WORK
QUATERNARY GEOLOGY
The Island of Newfoundland maintained an independent ice cap or caps during the late Wisconsinan; the Laurentide Ice Sheet reached only the tip of the Great Northern
Peninsula (Grant, 1977, 1992). Ice-flow directions in Newfoundland changed through time as the influence of individual ice caps increased or decreased (see for example St.
Croix and Taylor, 1991).
Heyl (1937) and MacClintock and Twenhofel (1940)
provide the earliest descriptions of glacial geology in the
White Bay area. They mention the presence of abundant
erratics, ice-scoured and stossed bedrock, U-shaped valleys
and patchy glacial sediment. MacClintock and Twenhofel
(op. cit.) concluded that the uplands on both sides of the
southern part of White Bay were glaciated. They also identified thick glacial deposits extending from Grand Lake to
White Bay. Heyl (op. cit.) noted that glacial deposits had
caused the damming of several ponds and a reversal of the
drainage from Taylor Pond, which drains southward rather
than northward to Sops Arm. He also suggested that White
Bay is a major fault zone that was scoured deeper by glaciation.
On the Baie Verte Peninsula, till is thin and discontinuous (Grant, 1986), especially near the coast (Liverman and
Scott, 1990). Thicker deposits are found in the southern part
S.J. McCUAIG
of the peninsula and in lowlands and valley bottoms (Liverman and Scott, 1990; Liverman, 1992). Lodgement,
supraglacial melt-out and basal melt-out till are all present,
but there is generally only one stratigraphic unit of till (Liverman and St. Croix, 1989; Liverman, 1992). Glaciofluvial
deposits are rare and include braided outwash plains, kames,
eskers (Liverman and Scott, 1990; Liverman, 1992) and
deltas (Liverman and St. Croix, 1989). Thick glaciolacustrine deposits have been found in the Indian Brook area
(Liverman and St. Croix, op. cit.) and glaciomarine sediments are found near the coast (Liverman and Scott, 1990).
Vanderveer and Taylor (1987) mapped in the Sops Arm
area. They found till up to 10 m thick, as well as glaciomarine silt–clay grading upward to glaciofluvial sand and gravel.
Ice Flow
MacClintock and Twenhofel (1940) suggested that ice
moved northward through White Bay. Heyl (1937) found
north-northeastward flow south of Sops Arm and eastsoutheastward flow north of it. Vanderveer and Taylor
(1987) found two ice-flow events in the same area: early
eastward flow from the Long Range Mountains was followed by northeastward flow, which came from an ice centre southwest of Gull Pond.
Liverman (1992) identified four phases of ice flow on
the Baie Verte Peninsula. Phase 1 was a southeastward flow
from the Long Range Mountains at the last glacial maximum. This flow may have deflected northward-flowing ice
from central Newfoundland to the east across the Baie Verte
Peninsula. Ice flowed northwestward toward White Bay in
Phase 2, from an ice divide extending along the central part
of the Baie Verte Peninsula. It may then have been deflected northeastward along White Bay. In Phases 3 and 4, an
isolated ice cap developed over the southern Baie Verte
Peninsula, after ice retreated completely from the northern
part of the peninsula. Ice flow from the Baie Verte ice cap
was radial (northwest into White Bay) (Liverman, 1992).
This ice cap stagnated sometime between 12 000 and 11 700
years BP (Liverman and Scott, 1990). Clast lithology studies show that transport distances were short on the Baie
Verte Peninsula (Liverman and Scott, op. cit.), whereas they
were longer on the west side of White Bay (Vanderveer and
Taylor, 1987).
Sea Level
Liverman (1994) showed that the White Bay area had a
type-B sea-level curve (following the terminology of Quinlan and Beaumont, 1981): rapid sea-level fall was followed
by lesser sea-level rise caused by forebulge migration; sea
level fell below present between 10 000 and 9500 years BP
(Liverman, 1994).
Flint (1940) notes a raised beach at 32 m in Sops Arm.
Mya truncata shells collected from a 30 m asl site in the
Corner Brook Pond area, just south of Sop’s Arm, yielded a
14
C date of 10 200 ± 100 years BP (GSC-4023, Blake, 1988).
Grant (in Blake, 1988) interprets the site as having formed
at the margin of a southward-retreating ice lobe. A date of
11 200 ± 100 years BP (GSC-4247) on Mya truncata shells
at Jackson’s Arm is interpreted as being from a major delta
that gives a 41 m marine limit. Grant (op. cit.) suggests that
both sites may represent a Younger Dryas stillstand.
METHODS
The area has an extensive network of woods roads,
which, along with the three main roads, provide a reasonable
amount of vehicle access (4x4 truck and ATV); the remainder of the area was reached by helicopter. Surficial sediments were mapped at numerous field sites and were recorded on air photos for later interpretation.
Ice-flow directions were determined by measuring striation, rôche moutonnée and crag-and-tail orientations. Nine
striae were measured at each striation site and the median
orientation was recorded. Direction was determined by
stoss–lee relationships (micro- and macro-scale), crosscutting relationships and by preservation of older striae in the
lee of younger ones. Clast provenance was also used to support ice-flow information.
Till samples were taken for geochemical analysis. The
region was sampled at a spacing of about 1 sample per 4
km2, except for the Long Range Mountains, which were
sampled only near the roads, as till was scarce in that area
(Figure 2). The sample target was C-horizon till. Most of the
samples were taken from hand-dug pits at depths commonly in the 40 to 60 cm range and from road-cuts. Road-cut
sample depths average 100 cm below the soil surface. Mudboils were sampled at shallower depths (average 25 cm) and
in areas of thin till, samples were taken near the bedrock-till
interface. A number of B- and BC-horizon samples were
taken in areas where the soil was too thin for a C-horizon to
be present or where till was too bouldery to penetrate to
greater depths. Nevertheless, 81 percent of all samples are
either from the BC- or C-horizon (45 percent are from the Chorizon). Samples were placed in paper bags and weigh
about 1 kg each. Three hundred and fifty-five samples were
taken and the silt–clay fraction will be analyzed for traceelement content. The Geological Survey laboratory will
complete ICP and AAS analyses, and INAA analyses will be
done externally.
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At many sites, the
various rock types present in the till were
recorded; these were
not quantified.
RESULTS
QUATERNARY
GEOLOGY
The surficial geology of the area is dominated by thin till
deposits.
However,
minor glaciofluvial and
glaciomarine sediments
are also present. Modern deposits include
fluvial, marine, bog and
rockfall sediments.
Till
Plate 1. Large boulders on surface of till, Micmac Pond area. Helicopter for scale.
In most areas, till
distribution is thin and
discontinuous; only a single stratigraphic unit of till was
noted. Bedrock outcrop is common, especially at higher elevations and along the coastline. Till thickness increases in
the southeastern part of the study area, where large hummocks are common. The clast lithology within the till is
variable and reflects ice flow from a variety of source areas.
The till is commonly massive, matrix-supported, and very
poorly sorted; the matrix ranges from silt to very coarse
sand, and is calcareous in Doucers and Jackson’s valleys
(Figure 1). Clast sizes range from granule to boulder and are
generally subround to very angular. Very large clasts (boulders that average 100 cm in diameter) are quite common and
can be up to 12 m in diameter. Boulders 2 to 4 m in width
are not uncommon, especially in the southeastern portion of
Plate 2. Large boulders are more common near the surface
the study area, where the till is thickest. The largest boulders
of till deposits, Wild Cove Pond area.
are generally found in the upper part of the till and on the
surface (Plates 1 and 2); these boulders may represent the
above current sea level. A few ice-contact deltas are also
englacial load of the glacier and were thus the last debris to
present.
be released from the melting ice sheet.
Glaciofluvial Sediments
Glaciofluvial sediments are uncommon and are found
only in a few valley bottoms; both ice-contact and ice-distal
deposits are present. Two eskers were identified in the
southern part of the map area, but most other glaciofluvial
sediments are subaerially deposited outwash plains that generally terminate near the sea, at deltas that are elevated
284
Glaciofluvial braidplain or outwash sediments are poorly to moderately sorted, horizontally or irregularly bedded
and either clast- or matrix-supported. Clast size ranges from
granule gravel to boulder gravel and the deposits have a
sand or granule gravel matrix. Also present are medium to
very coarse sand and gravelly sand beds. Overall, the clasts
are subround to angular but generally are subangular.
S.J. McCUAIG
Deltaic sediments, found on both sides of White Bay,
are thick (up to 20 m exposed) and contain topset and/or
foreset beds that are generally well stratified. The deposits
comprise moderately to well sorted beds of granule gravel to
boulder gravel set in a matrix of sand, granule or pebble
gravel. Well to very well sorted sand beds and laminations
are commonly present (Plate 3) and may contain heavy mineral concentrations. Beds are 10 to 70 cm thick and clastand matrix-supported beds are both common. Rounding
ranges from subrounded to angular, however, subrounded
and subangular clasts dominate the deposits. Dipping
beds/laminations of fine gravel, granules and very fine to
coarse sand commonly comprise the foreset beds, which
become coarser toward the delta surface, eventually giving
way to horizontal cobble and boulder gravel topset beds.
Foreset beds have planar or tangential dips. Contacts are
sharp and sigmoid and planar crossbeds are common, while
scoured beds are less so (e.g., coarse sand scoured into fine
sand). Ripple cross stratification was only seen at a delta
northwest of Corner Brook Pond.
One delta or fan, perched 40 m above the Main River,
contains very large subround boulders (up to 2 m diameter)
in its uppermost crudely stratified beds. At Corner Brook
Pond, a delta with distinct topset and foreset beds indicates
water flow into the valley rather than out toward the sea
(informally named the ‘Backwards Delta’, Plate 4). It is
moderately to well sorted and has finer grained beds at
lower stratigraphic levels as well as to the southwest. The
topset and foreset beds consist of interbedded silty fine to
coarse sand, sandy pebble gravel, sandy granule gravel, pebble gravel and cobble gravel. Clasts are subangular (range
subround to very angular), indicating a short transport distance.
Plate 3. Very fine sand/fine sand laminations underlying
coarser beds, Sops Arm 60 m delta. Person is pointing to
contact between the two.
An ice-proximal delta at Jackson’s Arm consists mostly
of sandy pebble gravel, cobble gravel, fine and medium sand
beds, and a few poorly sorted diamicton beds; some of the
sand beds contain recumbent folds.
An esker in the southeastern part of the study area has
irregular horizontal beds of matrix-supported, poorly to
moderately sorted, imbricate granule to boulder gravel set in
a fine- to medium-sand matrix. Pebble and cobble gravel are
most common as are subangular clasts. However, there are
also beds of fine and medium sand, and clast roundness
ranges from round to angular. A wide variety of rock types
are present. The deposits form a discontinuous esker complex less than 10 m high and aeolian blowouts are common
on the surface. Unlike the surrounding till, there are no large
boulders on the esker surface.
Plate 4. ‘Backwards Delta’. Foreset beds dip up valley (to
the southwest) rather than towards the sea.
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Glaciomarine Sediments
There are two types of marine sediments in the White
Bay area; these are glaciomarine diamicton and raised beach
deposits. The glaciomarine diamictons are found below
marine limit, commonly close to sea level and often seaward
of glaciomarine deltas. They have a finer matrix than the till
typical of the region (clay to fine sand) and clast content is
low (about 30 percent). As a result, glaciomarine diamictons
are fully matrix-supported. They are also massive or crudely stratified, poorly sorted, and contain granule- to bouldersized clasts, however, granules and pebbles dominate. Clasts
are generally subangular, but range from subround to very
angular and represent a variety of rock types.
The raised beach deposits are also matrix-supported,
but they are much coarser and are better sorted than the
diamicton (moderately to well sorted). The deposits form
low (about 3 m high) terraces up to 10 m asl. Sediments are
crudely stratified or have well-defined horizontal bedding
and common clast sizes are pebbles and cobbles, but granules and boulders are also present. The matrix is medium to
very coarse sand; medium to coarse sand beds may also be
present. Clasts are subangular to round, but mostly subround, and may be aligned along bedding planes. The upper
70 cm of the deposit can be strongly cemented.
Plate 5. Rockfalls on cliffs (arrowed), Great Coney Arm,
looking southeast.
Floodplain deposits are typically thin. Clasts are rounded to very angular (average subangular), which may be due
to colluvial input from steep valley walls.
Fan sediments consist of alternating beds of matrix-supported and weakly imbricate clast-supported beds. Beds are
between 10 and 30 cm thick, have irregular contacts and
include a few beds of crossbedded or massive sand. Clasts
are commonly subangular to very angular, indicating very
short transport distances.
MODERN SEDIMENTS
Marine and Organic Deposits
Mass-Wasting Deposits
Mass wasting is a significant process in the hilly White
Bay area. Rockfalls are the most common type of mass
wasting, but debris flows and other processes are also active.
The scars of both recent and much older rockfalls are evident along the shores of White Bay (Plate 5) and in some
areas homes have been built on the base of fan-shaped bouldery rockfall deposits (e.g., the Coney Arm area). The communities of The Beaches and Galeville in southern White
Bay are built on rocky beaches originally derived from rockfall deposits. These deposits form narrow, cone-shaped fans
that have built out a short distance into White Bay where
wave action has smoothed them into level beaches at and
near sea level. The presence of old landslide scars above
these communities would suggest that these locations are
not attractive construction sites.
Fluvial Deposits
Alluvial deposits include horizontally bedded floodplain and fan sediments. Both consist of moderately to wellsorted, matrix- or clast-supported pebble to cobble gravel;
some boulder gravel beds are present and a sandy matrix is
most common.
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Modern beach deposits are located only in sheltered
coves and at river mouths and generally consist entirely of
coarse, rounded cobble gravel. Most are pocket beaches, but
one barachois beach forms a barricade across the end of
Saltwater Pond. At Hampden and Sops Arm, muddy tidal
flats have developed at the river mouths.
Bogs are abundant in the region, but are generally
small; string bogs are present, but rare.
GLACIAL HISTORY
Evidence of the last (late Wisconsinan) glaciation was
found in the White Bay area. Ice flowed across the entire
study area, changing its flow directions as glaciation and
deglaciation progressed. Till was deposited beneath the ice,
and was reworked by meltwater in some areas when the ice
retreated. In the southern part of the study area, west of
Upper Indian and Micmac ponds, eskers are found, which
suggests that this is the only part of the study area where ice
stagnated during deglaciation; elsewhere, ice flowed actively during glacial retreat. Marine sediments and glaciomarine
features such as deltas indicate that there were a number of
different deglacial sea-level stands in the region. Ice flow
and the sea-level record are discussed in more detail below.
S.J. McCUAIG
Figure 3. Former ice-flow directions in the White Bay area, as determined by striation evidence. 1: earliest identified flow
direction, 2: later flow from a major ice source to the south, 3: last ice-flow directions, from smaller ice caps centred on Baie
Verte and Long Range peninsulas.
Ice Flow
Ice flow is determined from various ice-flow indicators,
including striations and the provenance of clasts within till.
Striations in the region occur on fresh, unweathered surfaces, which suggest that they are all related to the most
recent glaciation; they are best preserved in fine-grained
rocks. In the White Bay region, bedrock bedding or schistosity is commonly vertical, which means that striations are
not present in many areas.
The ice-flow history of the surveyed area is complex
(Figure 3). The earliest flow (Flow 1) was eastward or
southeastward out of the Long Range Mountains but it did
not extend across White Bay. If ice had crossed White Bay,
then distinctive clasts from the western side of the bay (e.g.,
carbonates from the Coney Arm Group) should be found in
tills east of the bay. However, none were found. All of the
erratics and till clasts on the east side of the bay can be
ascribed to local bedrock sources. Flow 1 was identified
from striations that are older than Flow 2, but, only five such
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CURRENT RESEARCH, REPORT 03-1
sites were found. As a result, Flow 1 is poorly constrained.
A similar early ice-flow event was identified by Liverman
(1992) and by Vanderveer and Taylor (1987), however.
The next flow event in the White Bay area was northward and north-northeastward along White Bay (Flow 2,
Figure 3). Flow was from a major ice centre south of the
study area, so Flow 2 probably represents ice flow at the glacial maximum. Striations marking this flow event are common but much less so than those representing later ice flow.
The last ice-flow phase is shown as Flow 3 (Figure 3).
There are 14 striation sites from which the relative age of
this event was determined. A gradual drawdown of ice into
White Bay (indicated by younger striations that are more
strongly oriented toward the bay than older ones), along
with overall ice retreat, changed the locations of the major
ice caps: they shifted from south of the study area to new
locations on the Baie Verte Peninsula and over the Long
Range Mountains. This caused ice flow to become northwestward or southeastward into the bay from the surrounding uplands. The change in ice-cap locations was gradual,
and ice-flow directions slowly changed as a consequence.
This is indicated at several sites that exhibit three separate
striation sets, each successive set becoming more strongly
oriented toward White Bay.
The evidence of a north-northeastward flow (Flow 2) is
in agreement with the findings of previous workers (see
MacClintock and Twenhofel, 1940; Heyl, 1937; and Vanderveer and Taylor, 1987). Vanderveer and Taylor (op. cit.)
also identified Flow 1. Flow 2 may be comparable to Liverman’s (1992) Phase 2 flow and Flow 3 is the same as his
Phase 3 event.
General ice-flow directions as indicated by clast provenance are shown in Figure 4. Bedrock belts are oriented
northeast–southwest, and vectors are shown approximately
perpendicular to the belts, although actual ice flow may
have been at smaller angles to them. The clast lithology iceflow vectors mainly reflect the last phase of ice flow. They
show that Flow 3 was the most dominant mover of debris.
The earlier northward flow is rarely apparent, but this may
be an artifact of drawing the vectors perpendicular to the
belts, thus eliminating most clast provenance evidence for
northward flow.
Clast provenance also shows that transport distances
were variable (Figure 4), from approximately 1 to 20 km for
some vectors that extend off the map area in the east.
Sea Level
In locations bordering White Bay, several geomorphic
288
features record a series of former higher sea-level stands
(Figure 5). The highest stand (the regional marine limit) is
70 m above present sea level, which is the elevation of
topset beds in a delta near Western Arm. Another delta near
the town of Sop’s Arm is graded to 60 m asl. Two deltas at
Sop’s Arm and another at Jackson’s Arm formed at the next
sea-level stand, which was 40 m asl. This stand occurred at
11 200 ± 100 years BP (marine shells in an ice-proximal
delta at Jackson’s Arm; Blake, 1988). Sea-level stands of 30
m are indicated by deltas and by marine terraces on both
sides of White Bay. This stand is dated at 10 200 ± 100 years
BP (based on marine shells southwest of Corner Brook
Pond; Blake, 1988) on the west side of the bog. Six different features represent a 20 m stand, mainly terraces cut into
glaciomarine sediments. Several raised beach deposits in the
Coney Arm and Western Arm/Purbeck’s Cove areas are evidence of 10 m stands on both sides of the bay.
The deltaic deposits, in particular, provide much information about the area’s sea-level history. A number of raised
deltas at different levels at Sop’s Arm indicate that meltwater flow was continuous throughout deglaciation and sealevel fall. The paleoflow directions of these deltas are southeast, south and southwest (Figure 5), which is unexpected if
the Main River valley was the main source of meltwater. In
addition, the ‘Backwards Delta’ at Corner Brook Pond is
problematic. The delta’s foreset bed orientation indicates
that water flowed upvalley. This is an unusual situation, as
glaciers generally retreat upvalley, and their meltwaters flow
downvalley toward the sea. The result is a delta with foreset
beds that dip towards the ocean. The ‘Backwards Delta’,
however, contains foreset beds that dip away from the
ocean.
If there was ice in Sops Arm when the ‘Backwards
Delta’ formed, it would deflect glacial meltwater along Corner Brook Valley, which would account for an upvalley flow
direction. The presence of glaciomarine terraces graded to
20 m and a delta graded to 30 m on the opposite side of
White Bay indicates that White Bay at least was ice-free
during these two sea-level stands. Due to isostatic tilting,
these two stands may relate to the 30 m and 40 m stands on
the west side of the bay, or perhaps the 40 m and 60 m
stands. Either way, the indication is that the entire bay was
ice-free during the 40 m stand on the west side of the bay,
and likely during the 20 m stand when the Backwards Delta
formed. An ice readvance would have to have occurred after
the 40 m stand for ice in Sops Arm to be blocking the outlet
of the Corner Brook Pond valley. Another possible model is
that there was no ice in Sops Arm, but there was another
meltwater river issuing from Jackson’s Valley. The Main
River meltwater river would have flowed to the southeast, as
the Main River does today. The Jackson’s Valley meltwater
river would have flowed to the southwest. The combined
S.J. McCUAIG
Figure 4. Former ice-flow directions in the White Bay area, as determined by till clast lithologies. Longer arrows indicate
longer (approximate) transport distances. Clast lithologies were not recorded in areas lacking arrows.
vector flow would have been roughly south, and a very large
delta would likely develop. If that is the case, then a major
delta was forming in the Sop’s Arm area throughout
deglaciation and continued to prograde and incise itself as
sea level fell. It began forming prior to 11 200 ± 100 years
BP, the time of the 40 m sea-level stand. The delta was
building out toward the Corner Brook Pond area at 10 200
years BP, when sea level was 30 m above present, based on
a 14C date on marine shells (Blake, 1988). Some time after
this, sea level fell to 20 m above present, and the delta had
built at least as far south as Corner Brook Valley. The southern part of the delta built out toward what is now Corner
Brook Pond, effectively damming this area and creating a
glacial lake. The modern pond is a remnant of this lake. A
lack of features other than beaches related to the 10 m stand
may mean that glaciofluvial deposition had ceased by this
time. In Holocene time, much of the Sop’s Arm delta must
have been eroded away.
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CURRENT RESEARCH, REPORT 03-1
Figure 5. Landforms marking former sea levels. Number beside feature is elevation above sea level in metres, rounded to the
nearest 5 m. Highway 420 is included for reference.
Two other major deltas are ice-contact features that
form major dams. The Jackson’s Arm delta dams Jackson’s
Pond to the west so that the pond drains northeastward to
Great Coney Arm (Plate 6). Purbeck’s Fiord contains two
unnamed lakes that are dammed by the Purbeck’s Cove
delta. Drainage has cut through the delta, the only possible
path to the ocean from this steep-sided valley.
290
The sea-level history for the area includes sea-level fall,
followed by sea-level rise (Liverman, 1994; Quinlan and
Beaumont, 1981). No evidence of sea-level rise was documented in this study. Offshore work (e.g., multibeam
bathymetry) is needed to determine the extent of late sealevel rise in the White Bay area.
S.J. McCUAIG
lower elevations. Several deltas, marine terraces and raised
beaches indicate former sea-level stands at 70, 60, 40, 30, 20
and 10 m asl. The 40 m stand happened at 11 200 years BP
and the 30 m stand 10 200 years BP. Evidence for sea-level
rise was not identified in this study.
Modern deposits include fluvial, beach and tidal flat
sediments, mass-wasting and bog deposits. Rockfalls are
common along White Bay’s steep walls.
Till samples taken during this study are currently being
analyzed for geochemistry. This data will be released later in
2003.
Plate 6. Jackson’s Arm ice-contact delta. Note Jackson’s
Pond behind it, which has been dammed by the delta. Development has occurred mainly on the delta surface, rather
than on the rocky hillsides.
IMPLICATIONS FOR MINERAL
EXPLORATION
There are a number of facts about the region’s Quaternary history and geology that would be useful to explorationists planning to use till geochemistry in the area.
1. The area has a complex ice-flow history.
2. The last flow event (ice flow directed toward White
Bay from surrounding uplands) moved most of the
sediment.
3. Transport distances are variable, from 1 to 20 km.
4. There is only one till unit.
5. Fan or ribbon-shaped dispersal trains are expected.
6. Sampling in marine, fluvial and glaciofluvial settings should be avoided. These include valley bottoms and areas below the 70 m asl marine limit.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
Evidence of the last glaciation was found in the White
Bay area. During ice build up, ice flowed toward White Bay
from the Long Range Mountains, but did not cross the bay.
At the height of the last glaciation, ice flowed north-northeastward along White Bay. Later, ice drawdown in the bay
and thinning ice resulted in ice caps developing on either
side of the bay. As a result, ice flow gradually shifted until
ice was flowing into the bay from either side at roughly right
angles to it.
Most till deposition occurred in the southern part of the
study area, where it is thicker and contains numerous large
boulders; ice probably stagnated in this area. Elsewhere, till
is thin and discontinuous. Exposed bedrock is common at
high elevations and along the coast. Glaciofluvial and
glaciomarine sediments are uncommon, occurring only at
ACKNOWLEDGMENTS
Amy Newport provided excellent field assistance and
Martin Batterson and Dave Taylor were the expert second
helicopter till-sampling team. Sid Parsons and Gerry Hickey helped with logistics and Dave Leonard and Terry Sears
drafted all or part of many of the figures. Dave Liverman,
Martin Batterson and Trevor Bell provided helpful reviews
of the manuscript.
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