Civil Rights Landmarks
Display CompiledbythestaffoftheOfficeofStudentAc9vi9esandLeadershipDevelopment,WesleyanUniversity
SlaveryinNorthAmerica
1654-June19,1865?
Fourhundredyearsago,in1607,Jamestown,VA,thefirstpermanentseKlementbyEuropeansinNorthAmericawasfounded.In1610,JohnRolfeintroducedastrain
oftobaccowhichquicklybecamethecolony’seconomicfounda9on.By1619,morelaborwasneededtosupportthetobaccotradeand“indenturedservants”were
broughttothecolonyincludingabout20Africans.Asof1650,therewereabout300"Africans"livinginVirginia,about1%ofanes9mated30,000popula9on.They
weres9llnotslaves,andtheyjoinedapproximately4000whiteindentured"servants"workingouttheirloansforpassagemoneytoVirginia.Theyweregranted50
acreseachwhenfreedfromtheirindentures,sotheycouldraisetheirowntobacco.
SlaverywasbroughttoNorthAmericain1654,whenAnthonyJohnson,inNorthamptonCounty,convincedthecourtthathewasen9tledtothelife9meservicesof
JohnCasor,aBlackman.Thiswasthefirstjudicialapprovaloflifeservitude,exceptaspunishmentforacrime.AnthonyJohnsonwasaBlackman,oneoftheoriginal20
broughttoJamestownin1619.By1623,hehadachievedhisfreedomandby1651wasprosperousenoughtoimportfive"servants"ofhisown,forwhichhewas
granted250acresas"headrights".
However,theTransatlan9cslavetradefromAfricatotheAmericashadbeenaroundforoveracenturyalready,origina9ngaround1500,
duringtheearlyperiodofEuropeandiscoveryofWestAfricaandtheestablishmentofAtlan9ccoloniesintheCaribbeanandSouthand
NorthAmericawhengrowingsugarcane(andafewothercrops)wasfoundtobealucra9veenterprise.Slaveswereusuallycapturedby
AfricantribesinraidsoropenwarfareorpurchasedfromotherAfricantribes.Manytribeswerehappytogetridoftheirenemiesby
capturingandsellingthemfortradegoods--usuallywhiskey,swords,gunsandgold.Itisbelievedthatabout11millionmen,womenand
childrenweretransportedinshipsacrosstheAtlan9ctovariousportsintheAmericas,mostlytoBrazilandtheislandsintheCaribbean SlaveSale
from1500to1850.
inMaryland
Theimporta9onofslavesintotheUnitedStateswasbannedin1808,bywhich9mebetween300,000-500,000hadbeenimported.Subsequentslaveswerenearlyall
bornintheUnitedStates.By1800,nearlyallslaveryinnon-southernstateshadbeenbanned,withVermontbeingthefirststatetodosoin1791.
SlaveryinNorthAmerica(con9nued)
1654-June19,1865?
However,condi9onswereunconscionable.Between1700and1865therewereveryfewrealrestric9onsoftheconductofamastertowardhisslave,exceptthosethat
flowedfromwhat,atthe9me,wouldbeconsidered"Chris9andecency",andsocialnorms.
Around1750,Quakersbegantofightfortheaboli9onofslavery.Beginningaround1825,slavesandWhiteaboli9onists,begantogaingroundintheirstrugglefor
independence.SlavesintheUnitedStateswhoescapedownershipwouldokenmaketheirwaynorthwithWhiteandBlackaboli9onistsupporttothenorthernpartof
thecountryorCanadathroughwhatbecameknownasthe"UndergroundRailroad".TheRussellHouse,hereatWesleyanwasonestoponthe“Railroad.”Famous
ac9veaboli9onistsoftheU.S.includeWilliamLloydGarrison,HarrietTubman,NatTurner,FrederickDouglassandJohnBrown.
TheAmericanCivilWarbeganin1861whenelevensouthernstatesdeclaredtheirsecession,largelyovertheques9onof
aboli9on.Atfirst,AbrahamLincolnreversedaKemptsatemancipa9onbySecretaryofWarCameronandGeneralsFremont
andHunterinordertokeeptheloyaltyoftheborderstatesandtheWarDemocrats.Lincolnthentriedtopersuadetheborder
statestoaccepthisplanofgradual,compensatedemancipa9onandvoluntarycoloniza9on,whilewarningthemthatstronger
measureswouldbeneededifthemoderateapproachwasrejected.OnlytheDistrictofColumbiaacceptedLincoln'sgradual
plan.Thus,onJanuary1,1863,LincolnissuedtheEmancipa9onProclama9on,freeing,atleastonpaper,allslavesintheUnited
States.Slaverywascons9tu9onallyabolishedbytheThirteenthAmendmenttotheUnitedStatesCons9tu9onintheUnited
Statesin1865,freeingover4millionslaves.TheCivilWarresultedinthelossofabout600,000lives.
OnJune19,1865,alsoknownasJuneteenth,UnionGeneralGordonGrangerand2,000federaltroopsarrivedonGalvestonIsland,Texastotakepossessionofthestate
andenforceformerslaves’newfreedoms.ItisbelievedthatthiswasthelastplaceintheUnitedStatestoreceivethenewsoftheEmancipa9onProclama9on,twoand
halfyearsakeritwasmade.
Sojourner:WitnessofTruth
(IsabellaBaumfree~1797-1883
Theworlddidn’tknowherasSojournerTruthwhensheentereditinthelate1790’s.Borntoslaveparents,IsabellaBaumfree,aswasthenamegiventoher,grewup
ontheColonelJohannesHardenberghestateinSwartekill,inUlsterCounty,aDutchseKlementinNewYork-astatethatallowedslaveryun9lanemancipa9ondecree
waspassedin1827.
IsabellawasoneofthirteenchildrenborntoElizabethandJamesBaumfree,whowereforcedtoliveinthecramped,drakycellarsoftheirmasters.Herearliest
memorieswereofhardshipanddepriva9on.ShespokeDutchun9lshewassoldfromherfamilyaroundtheageof9.In1808,JohnNeelypurchasedheralongwitha
herdofsheep,for$100.Neely’swifeandfamilyonlyspokeEnglishandbeatIsabellafiercelyforthefrequentmiscommunica9onsandbecauseofthiscrueltreatment,
shelearnedtospeakEnglishquickly.Itwasalsoduringthis9methatshebegantofindrefugeinreligionandbeganherjourneywithGod.
Overthenextfewyears,shewasboughtandsoldbyasuccessionofmasters.Tiredoftheuncertaintythatfilledherlife,Isabella
decidedtotakeac9on.Withthehelpofherfather(consideredafreemanasaresultofillness)whointercededonherbehalftoatavernowner,shewaspurchasedfor
$105.Althoughtheworkatmospherewascrudeandmorallyques9onable,itwasasaferhavenforher.Butayearandahalflater,in1810,Isabellawasonceagainsold
toanewmasterinNewYorkstate,andcon9nuedtosuffermanyhardships.
Some9mearound1815,shefellinlovewithafellowslavenamedRobert.Robert’sownerforbadetherela9onshipbecausehedidnotwanthisslavehavingchildren
withaslavehedidnotown.OnenightRobertvisitedIsabella,butwasfollowedbyhisownerandson,whobeathimsavagely,boundhimanddraggedhimaway.
Robertneverreturned.Isabellahadadaughtershortlyaker,namedDiana.In1817,forcedtosubmittothewillofanewowner,JohnDumont,shemarriedanolder
slavenamedThomas.Theyhadfourchildren:Peter,James,ElizabethandSophia.
In1799,thestateofNewYorkbegantolegislatethegradualaboli9onofslaves,whichwastohappenonJuly4,1827.DumonthadpromisedIsabellafreedomayear
beforethestateemancipa9on“ifshewoulddowellandbefaithful.”However,herenegedonhispromise,claimingahandinjuryhadmadeherlessproduc9ve.
Sojourner:WitnessofTruth(con9nued)
(IsabellaBaumfree~1797-1883
Isabelladecidedshecouldnolongerliveunderthesecondi9ons.Shebegantomakeplanstoescapewithherinfantdaughter,Sophia,andwasforcedtoleaveher
otherchildrenbehind.Inlateryears,shespokeofhowGodremainedwithherduringthisuncertain9me,givingherdirec9onanddeclared,“Ididnotrunoff,forI
thoughtthatwicked,butIwalkedoff,believingthattobeallright.”
Duringherflighttofreedom,aQuakercouple,IsaacandMariaVanWagenen,learnedofherpredicamentandtookherinun9lthestate’s
emancipa9ontookeffect.BecauseoftheVanWagenen’sbenevolence,shebegantolearnwhatitmeanttolovethosewhohadoppressedher
andhadalife-changingreligiousexperience-becoming“overwhelmedwiththegreatnessoftheDivinepresence”,andwasinspiredtopreach.
Nowthatshewasfinallyfree,shemovedtoNewYorkCityandfoundworkasadomes9cservantandsoonbecameac9veinaMethodistchurch.
LaterjoiningtheAfricanMethodistEpiscopaldenomina9on,shedidvolunteersocialworkhelpingformerslaves.OnJune1,1843,shechanged
hernameto‘Sojourner[Traveler}Truth’andtoldfriends,“TheSpiritcallsme[East],andImustgo....theLordgavemeTruth,becauseIwasto
declarethetruthtothepeople.”Shewanderedinrela9veobscurity,dependingonthekindnessofstrangers.In1844,shejoinedthe
NorthamptonAssocia9onofEduca9onandIndustryinMassachuseKs,foundedbyaboli9oniststopromotecoopera9veandproduc9velabor.
Theywerestronglyan9-slavery,religiouslytolerant,women’srightssupporters,andpacifistinprinciples.Shebegandicta9nghermemoirsto
OliveGilbert,oneoftheAssocia9on’smembers.TheNarra(veofSojournerTruth:ANorthernSlavewaspublishedprivatelyin1850byWilliam
LloydGarrison.Itgaveherincomeandincreasedherspeakingengagements.In1854,attheOhioWomen’sRightsConven9oninAkron,Ohio,
shegavehermostfamousspeech,withthelegendaryphrase,“Ain'tIaWoman?”.
Sojournerwaswellintoher60swhentheCivilWarbrokeout,butshesolicitedsuppliesfortheUnionArmy’sBlackvolunteerregiments.ShemetPresidentLincolnin
1864.Shealsoservedasacounselorinthena9onalFreedmen’sAssocia9onforayear,helpingemancipatedslavesgetestablishedinthe“newWest.”Shecon9nued
toteachandlectureakerthewar.Whenatlastshere9red,SojournermovedtoBaKleCreek,Michigan,whereshediedonNovember26,1883.IsabellaBaumfreenot
onlylekagivenbirthnamebehind,butalsoamagnificentlegacy.
Excerptstakenfromadapta9onsof“GreatWomeninAmericanHistory”,byRebeccaPriceJanney.
TheUndergroundRailroadinMiddletown
TheUndergroundRailroadwasanetworkofroutesbywhichAfricanslavesinthe19thcenturyUnitedStatesaKemptedtoescapetofreestates,orasfarnorthas
Canada,withtheaidofaboli9onists.OtherroutesledtoMexicooroverseas.Atitsheightbetween1810and1850,anes9mated30,000to100,000peopleescaped
enslavementviatheUndergroundRailroad,thoughCensusfiguresonlyaccountfor6,000.
Theescapenetworkwas"underground"inthesenseofundergroundresistancebutwasseldomliterallysubterranean.TheUnderground
Railroadconsistedofclandes9neroutes,transporta9on,mee9ngpoints,safehousesandotherhavens,andassistancemaintainedby
aboli9onistsympathizers.Theseindividualswereorganizedintosmall,independentgroupswho,forthepurposeofmaintainingsecrecy,
knewofconnec9ng"sta9ons"alongtheroutebutfewdetailsoftheirimmediatearea.Escapedslaveswouldpassfromonewaysta9onto
thenext,steadilymakingtheirwaynorth.Thediverse"conductors"ontherailroadincludedfree-bornBlacks,whiteaboli9onists,former
slaves(eitherescapedormanumiKed),andNa9veAmericans.Churchesandreligiousdenomina9onsplayedkeyroles,especiallytheReligious
SocietyofFriends(Quakers),Congrega9onalists,Wesleyans,andReformedPresbyteriansaswellasbreakawaysectsofmainstream
denomina9onssuchasbranchesoftheMethodistchurchandAmericanBap9sts.
In1820,97slavesand7,844freepeopleofcolorlivedinConnec9cut.Accordingtothe1830census,Middletown’spopula9onwas6,892.MapofGeneral
Oftheseresidents,209werepeopleofcolor,allofthemfree.Freedom,however,didnotautoma9callybringbasicrights.Educa9onandrouteonthe
vo9ngrightswerehardtocomebyinConnec9cutintheearly19thcentury.AlthoughtherewerenomoreslavesinMiddletownby1830, Underground
slaverywasnotfullyabolishedinthestateun9l1848.
Railroad
SlaverywasaburningissueinNewEnglandinthe1830s.In1831,thesameyearthatJehielBeman,firstregularpastorattheA.M.E.CrossStreetChurch,broughthis
familytoMiddletownandWesleyanUniversitywasfounded,WilliamLloydGarrisonbeganpublishinghisan9-slaverypaper,TheLiberator.Garrisonwasindeedheard
inMiddletown.
TheNewEnglandAn9-SlaverySociety(laterknownastheAmericanAn9-SlaverySociety)wasfoundedinBostonin1832,andthecausespreadthroughouttheNorthin
responsetoGarrison’scall.Withinjustfiveyears,thereweretwenty-ninean9-slaverysocie9esinConnec9cutalone.
TheUndergroundRailroadinMiddletown(con9nued)
JehielBemanwas9relessinhisfightagainstslavery.AfoundingmemberoftheMiddletownAn9-SlaverySocietyin1834,hebecameoneofitsfivemanagers.Bothof
hissons,AmosandLevereK,werealsoac9veinthecause.ClarissaBeman,LevereK’swife,wasoneofthefoundersofMiddletown’s
ColoredFemaleAn9-SlaverySocietyinthesameyear.Thisgroupwasoneoftheearliestwomen’saboli9onistsocie9esintheUnited
States.CrossStreetChurchwassocloselyalliedwiththean9-slaverymovementthatitwasknownas“FreedomChurch”inthisperiod.
Amorehiddenaspectoftheaboli9onistmovementwastheundergroundrailroad.SeveralMiddletownci9zens,bothwhiteandBlack,
servedasundergroundrailroadconductors,shelteringslaveswhowerefleeingtheSouthinsearchoffreedominCanadaorelsewhere.
Withthepassageofthe1850Fugi9veSlaveLaw,theneedfortheundergroundrailroadincreased.Alongwithprominentwhiteci9zens
JesseBaldwinandBenjaminDouglas,JehielBemanandhissecondwife,Nancy,servedasundergroundrailroadconductorsakerthey
returnedtoMiddletownin1854,andperhapsbefore.CrossStreetChurchwasverylikelyawaysta9onontherailroad.
Middletownwashometoaboli9onists,bothBlackandwhite,aswellastopro-slaveryfac9ons,andtothosewhobelievedthatBlack
emigra9ontoAfricaheldtheanswertoendingracialstrife.In1835,CrossStreetwasthesceneofanan9-Black,an9-aboli9onistriot.
LevereKBemanwrotethatCrossStreetwas“crowdedwiththoseworsethanSouthernbloodhounds.”Wesleyan’sfirstPresident,
WillburFisk,amemberofthemostly-whiteColoniza9onSociety,believedthatslaverywaswrong,butmaintainedthatthesolu9onto
theproblemofslaverylayinthevoluntaryemigra9onofBlackstoAfrica,ratherthanintheaboli9onistmovement.MostBlack
HarrietTubman,
Americans,includingtheBemans,deploredtheac9vi9esoftheColoniza9onSociety.Inthesummerof1831,Blackpeoplegatheredfamousconductor
attheCrossStreetChurchtoprotestcoloniza9on.AmosBemanwaselectedsecretaryofthegroup,andwrote,“WhyshouldweleaveontheUnderground
thisland,sodearlyboughtbytheblood,groansandtearsofourfathers?Trulythisisourhome,hereletusliveandhereletusdie.”Railroad
BlackWomen&TheSuffrageMovement1848-1923
“Thereisnoslave,aBerall,likeawife…Poorwomen,pporslaves…Allmarriedwomen,allchildrenandgirlswho
liveintheirfather’shouseareslaves”~MaryBoykinChestnut,ADiaryfromDixie,1861
WhenWoodrowWilsonarrivedinWashington,D.C.onMarch3,1913,heexpectedtobemetbycrowdsofpeoplewelcominghimforhisinaugura9onasUnited
StatesPresidentthenextday.Butveryfewpeoplecametomeethistrain.Instead,hundredsofthousandsofpeoplelinedPennsylvaniaAvenuetowatchaWoman
SuffrageParade.
Todemandtheirrighttovote,fivethousandwomenhadunitedundertheleadershipofsuffragist,
AlicePaul,andmarchedthroughWashingtononthedaythatwouldgivemaximumexposuretotheircause.
Womendemandedsuffrageasearlyas1848.TheSenecaFallsconven9oninJulyof1848,broughttogether
twohundredwomenandfortymen,includingfeministsElizabethCadyStantonandLucre9aMoK,tomake
theclaimforfullci9zenship.Thedelegatesbelievedwomentobeci9zensnotlimitedinanywaytotheir
rolesaswivesormothers.Inthelanguageofthefoundingfathers,theywrote,“Weholdthesetruthsto
beself-evidentthatallmenandwomenarecreatedequal.”TheyrejectedVictoriandomes9cityandits
separa9onofwomenandmenintoprivateandpublicspheres,respec9vely.ItwasatSenecaFallsthatthesuffragemovementfirstbegan.
Asthemovementprogressed,othersspokeloudly,includingSusanB.Anthony,whostated,“IwillcutoffthisrightarmofminebeforeIwilleverworkordemandthe
ballotfortheNegroandnotthewoman.”WhiteandBlackwomenfoughtamongandbetweenthemselvesoverthebestcourseofac9on.SojournerTruth,whohad
alreadyexperiencedherownpersonalstruggletowardfreedomfromslavery,remainedunwaveringinhersupportofwomen’srights.Inheruniqueway,Sojourner
commentedontheissuein1867,whenfemalesuffragewass9llverymuchbeingdebated:“IfeelthatIhavetherighttohavejustasmuchasaman.Thereisagreat
s9raboutcoloredmengewngtheirrights,butnotawordaboutthecoloredwomen;andifcoloredmengettheirrights,andcoloredwomennottheirs,thecolored
menwillbemastersoverthewomen,anditwillbejustasbadasitwasbefore.”
BlackWomen&TheSuffrageMovement1848-1923(con9nued)
“Thereisnoslave,aBerall,likeawife…Poorwomen,pporslaves…Allmarriedwomen,allchildrenandgirlswho
liveintheirfather’shouseareslaves”~MaryBoykinChestnut,ADiaryfromDixie,1861
WomanSuffrageAssocia9on(NWSA)andtheAmericanWomanSuffrageAssocia9on(AWSA).ThevastmajorityofAmericanwomen,BlackandWhite,didnotbelong
toeitherorganiza9on.Theyseemedtoacceptsociety’sclaimthattheytrulywereapoli9calbeingsandbelongednotinthevo9ngbooth,butathome,takingcareof
theirfamilies.Somehousewivesevendenouncedfemalesuffrage,claimingthatifwomenweretovotedifferentlyfromtheirhusbands,domes9cunrestwouldsurely
follow.
Duringthelastquarterofthenineteenthcentury,WhiteandBlackwomen,however,didreturntotheirroleassocialreformers.Thelargestandbestknownwasthe
Woman’sChris9anTemperanceUnion,(WCTU)foundedin1874.TheirpoliciesencouragedseparateBlackandWhiteunions,butatleastoneWhitewoman,Amelia
Bloomer,campaignedagainstracismwithinthemovement,andsomeBlackwomendidrisetoposi9onsofprominence.FrancesHarper,forone,wasmosteffec9vein
recrui9ngBlackwomentothecauseandwaseventuallyappointedtothena9onaloffice.
AmongBlackwomenwhowerestaunchsuffragistswasAnnaJuliaCooper,bestknownforherstatement:“OnlytheBLACK
WOMANcansaywhenandwhereIenterinthequietundisputeddignityofmywomanhood,withoutviolenceorspecial
patronage;thenandtherethewholeNegroraceenterswithme.”Cooperwaspar9cularlyeffec9veinemphasizingtoBlack
womenthattheyrequiredtheballottocounterthebeliefthat“Blackmen’s”experiencesandneedswerethesameastheirs.
Despitetheracialdivisions,Blackwomenwerecollec9veintheircourageinthefightforequality.IdaB.Wells-BarneK,thejournalistwholedanan9-lynching
campaigninthelatenineteenthcentury,organizedtheAlphaSuffrageClubamongBlackwomeninChicagoandbroughtmemberswithhertopar9cipateinthe1913
suffrageparadeinWashington,D.C.Theorganizersofthemarchaskedthattheywalkattheendoftheparade.ShetriedtogettheWhiteIllinoisdelega9onto
supportheropposi9onofthissegrega9on,butfoundfewsupporters.Theyeitherwouldmarchattheendornotatall.Idarefusedtomarch,butastheparade
progressed,IdaemergedfromthecrowdandjoinedtheWhiteIllinoisdelega9on,marchingbetweentwoWhitesupporters.Sherefusedtocomplywiththe
segrega9on.
ExcerptstakenfromOneofDividedSisters:BridgingtheGapBetweenBlackandWhiteWomenbyMidgeWilson&KathyRussell,Anchor,1996—andPBS.org
HistoricallyBlackCollegesandUniversi9es:
AndaSpotlightonMaryMcLeodBethune,1875-1955
HistoricallyBlackCollegesandUniversi9es(HBCUs)arecollegesoruniversi9esthatwereestablishedbefore1964withtheinten9onofservingtheAfrican
Americancommunity.Therearemorethan100historicallyblackcollegesintheUnitedStates,locatedalmostexclusivelyinthesouthernandeasternstates.
SouthernUniversityisthelargestHBCUandoneofthemostpres9giousuniversi9es.LocatedinLouisiana,SouthernUniversityhascampusesinBatonRouge,New
Orleans,Shreveport,theSouthernUniversityLawCenterandtheSouthernUniversityAgriculturalandExtensionCenter.SouthernUniversityhasbecometheonly
HBCUsystemintheUnitedStateswithanenrollmentofover15,000students.TheSystemencompassesfiveins9tu9onsofferingtwo-year,four-year,graduate,
professional,anddoctoraldegrees.
CheyneyUniversityinCheney,Pennsylvaniahasbeenknownforgradua9ngprominentalumnithroughitseduca9onandjournalismdepartments.
Cheyney,foundedin1837,istheoldestHBCU,establishedforthepurposeofeduca9ngyouthofAfricandescent.
HamptonUniversitywasfoundedin1868andislocatedinHampton,Virginia.Withanendowmentofmorethan$185.8million,Hamptonisone
ofthewealthiestHBCUs.Theschoolconfersapproximately848undergraduatedegreesyearlyandconsistentlyranksinthetop10ingradua9ng
AfricanAmericanswithdegreesinbiology,businessadministra9on,communica9ons,English,journalism,pharmacy,nursingandpsychology.Hampton
University
HowardUniversity,locatedinWashington,D.C.,isoneofthemostprominenthistoricallyBlackhighereduca9onins9tu9onsintheUnitedStates.HowardUniversityis
acomprehensive,research-oriented,privateuniversityprovidinganeduca9onalexperienceofexcep9onalqualitytostudentsofhighacademicpoten9al.Par9cular
emphasisisplaceduponprovidingeduca9onalopportuni9estopromisingBlackstudents.HowardhasproducedmoreAfricanAmericandoctoratedegreeholdersthan
anyotherins9tu9onintheworld.HowardistheonlyHBCUtomaketheU.S.NewsandWorldReport’stop100collegesanduniversi9es.
FloridaA&MUniversitywasannouncedasthebestschoolforAfricanAmericansin2006bytheBlackEnterprisemagazine.Foundedin1887astheStateNormal
CollegeforColoredStudents,thevenerableHBCUoffers62bachelorsdegreesin103majors/tracksand36master’sdegreesin56majors/tracks.
HistoricallyBlackCollegesandUniversi9es:(con9nued)
AndaSpotlightonMaryMcLeodBethune,1875-1955
FloridaA&MUniversitywasannouncedasthebestschoolforAfricanAmericansin2006bytheBlackEnterprisemagazine.Foundedin1887astheStateNormal
CollegeforColoredStudents,thevenerableHBCUoffers62bachelorsdegreesin103majors/tracksand36master’sdegreesin56majors/tracks.
XavierUniversityofNewOrleans,Louisianaisthetopschoolinthena9onintheplacementofBlackstudentsintomedicalschoolsandhasthelargestnumberofBlack
undergraduatesreceivingdegreesinbiologyorlifesciences.Xavieralsohasthe
dis9nc9onofbeingtheonlyhistoricallyBlackandCatholicuniversityintheWesternHemisphere.
NorthCarolinaCentralUniversity(NCCU)isarapidlygrowingins9tu9on.ItisthefirstliberalartscollegeforAfricanAmericansinthecountry.ItsSchoolofLawis
rankedasoneofAmerica’stoplawschoolsinthena9onbythePrincetonReview.Withastudentpopula9onof9,000,NCCUistheninthlargestHBCU.NCCUalsohas
thehighestHBCUgradua9onrateinNorthCarolina.In2005,NCCUrankedthirdinNorthCarolinainadmiwngthemostNa9onalMeritScholars.
MaryMcLeodBethunewasbornin1875toformerslavesinMayesville,SouthCarolina.Shedevotedherlifetoensuringtherighttoeduca9on
andfreedomfromdiscrimina9onforAfricanAmericans.Shebelievedthatthrougheduca9on,Blackscouldbegintoearnalivinginacountry
thatopposedracialequality.In1904,BethuneopenedtheDaytonaNormalandIndustrialIns9tuteforNegroGirls.Bethuneneverrefusedto
educateachildwhosefamilycouldnotaffordtui9on.Therewasobjec9onduringBethune’s9metotheeduca9onofBlackchildren,buther
zealanddedica9onwonoverskep9csofbothraces.BethunealsoopenedahighschoolandahospitalforBlacks.In1923,Bethuneoversaw
thehighschool’smergerwiththeCookmanIns9tute,therebyformingtheHBCUBethune-CookmanCollege.ShehelpedintegratetheRed CrossandbecamepresidentoftheNa9onalAssocia9onofColoredWomen,formedtheNa9onalCouncilofNegroWomen,andin1940,
BethuneservedasVPoftheNAACP.
RosaParks
AndtheMontgomeryBusBoycoK
ManyhaveheardasimplifiedversionoftheRosaParksstory,asanisolatedincidentinwhichsherefusedtogiveupherseat
becauseshewas9red,ul9matelyresul9nginbusdesegrega9on.Inreality,stepstoorganizeagainstbussegrega9onhadbegun
yearsbefore,andtheboycoKwasacoordinatedeffortthatinvolvedapproximately40,000peopleandoverayearofsacrifice.
TherehadbeennumerousinstancesofBlacksrefusingtoobeythesegrega9onlawsonpublictransporta9onthroughoutthe
1940s.TheWomen’sPoli9calCouncil(WPC)wasformedin1949,akerJoAnnGibsonwasmadetoleaveanalmostemptybus
forrefusingtomovetotheback.By1955,theWPChadmembersineveryschool,andinfederal,stateandlocaljobs,and
accordingtoGibson,itsPresident,“weknewthatinamaKerofhours,wecouldcorralthewholecity”.TheWPChadmetwith
themayorofMontgomeryinMayof1954,andfolloweditupinwri9ng,askingforchangestothebussegrega9onprac9cesand
informinghimthatifcondi9onsonthebussesdidnotchange,ci9zenswouldstageaboycoK.Shestatedthatwiththree-fourths
oftheridersbeingAfricanAmerican,thebusseswouldnotbeabletofunc9onwithouttheirpatronage.Whencondi9onsdid
notchange,theWPCwaitedfortherighteventtoserveasthecatalystfortheboycoK.Threeopportuni9esarosein1955when,
atdifferent9mes,awomanwasarrestedforrefusingtogiveupherseatonabustoawhiteperson.When,onDecember1,
RosaParkswasarrested,theleadersknewthe9mewasright.
RosaParkswasoneofthefirstwomeninMontgomerytojointheNa9onalAssocia9onfortheAdvancementofColoredPeople(NAACP),andhadservedasits
secretaryforyears.Shehadlearnedaboutunionstruggles,hadworkedtodesegregatethelocalschoolsandhaddefiedthebussegrega9onlawsinthepast.
Shehadtherespectofthecommunity,andthestrengthtodealwiththeresultantpublicity,pressureandhos9lity.Whensherefusedtogiveupherseatinthe
“colored”sec9on,sheactedwithfullknowledgeofwhatshewasdoingandthepoten9alconsequences.
RosaParks(con9nued)
AndtheMontgomeryBusBoycoK
CommunityleaderscalledforaonedaybusboycoKforDecember5,thedayofhertrial.WhentheboycoKwasasuccess,theleadershipformedtheMontgomery
ImprovementAssocia9on(MIA).TheychoseDr.Mar9nLutherKingJr.,anewmembertothecommunity,astheirleader.Atamassmee9ngthatevening,itwas
decidedtocon9nuetheboycoK.Thousandswalkedorfoundothermeansoftravelforwork,schoolandshopping,andasystemofcarpoolswascreated.
Driversandpassengerswereoken9cketedorarrested,andmanyboycoK
supporterswerethreatenedwiththelossoftheirjobsandharassedbylocal
governmentofficials.
In1955,theFederalInterstateCommerceCommissionbannedsegrega9ononinterstate
trainsandbuses.OnFebruary1,1956,theMIAfiledsuitintheU.S.DistrictCourt
challengingthecons9tu9onalityofbussegrega9oninMontgomery.Thesuitnamed
otherBlackwomen,notRosaParks,astheplain9ffs.Laterthatmonth,over100protestors,
includingDr.King,werearrestedfor“hindering”abus.InJune,thecourtruledinfavorof
theMIA,andthecityappealedthedecisiontotheU.S.SupremeCourt.Inmid-November,
theSupremeCourtaffirmedtheDistrictCourt’sdecisionthatsegrega9ononbuseswas
uncons9tu9onal,andMontgomerybuseswerefinallydesegregatedonDecember20,1956.
TheboycoKhadlasted381days.
Forthefirst9me,blackpassengersboardthroughthefront
ofthebusandsitwheretheyplease.
SchoolDesegrega9on
Inelementaryandsecondaryeduca9on
Formorethanacentury,AfricanAmericansfoughtforequaleduca9onalopportunity.Thehistoryofthisstruggleisbestsummarizedthroughareviewoflegal
challenges.Theearliestreportedcasewasin1849,Robertsv.theCityofBoston.Parentspe99onedthattheirchildrenshouldbeallowedtoaKendschoolsinBoston
otherthanthesegregatedSmithSchool.However,thecourtruledthatitwassufficientthatprovisionshadbeenmadeforthe“coloredstudents”tohaveaschool.
Thenextmajorrulingcamein1896,intheSupremeCourtcasePlessyv.Ferguson,whichsupported“separatebutequal”segrega9onoftheraces.Thisdecisionwas
finallyoverturnedinBrownv.BoardofEduca9onofTopeka,Kansasin1954,whentheSupremeCourtunanimouslyruledthatsegrega9oninpublicschoolswas
uncons9tu9onal,andthatseparateeduca9onalfacili9esareinherentlyunequal.However,desegrega9onwasmetwithmuchresistance,par9cularlyinthesouthern
states.
Virginialegislatorspassedaresolu9onin1956thattheSupremeCourt’sdecisiontointegrateschoolswasincompa9blewiththestate
cons9tu9on,andgavethe
governorpowertoclosedownanyschoolsystemthataKemptedtodesegregate.
InLiKleRock,ArkansasinSeptemberof1957,GovernorOrvalFaubususedtheNa9onalGuardtoblocknineBlackstudentsfromentering
theall-WhiteLiKleRockCentralHighSchool.AlthoughPresidentEisenhowersentfederaltroopstointerveneonbehalfofthestudents,
whobecomeknownasthe“LiKleRockNine,”thethreatsandin9mida9oncon9nued.
WhentheCivilRightsActof1964wassigned,itprovidedthefederalgovernmentwiththepowerstoenforcedesegrega9onbydenying
federalfundstoanyprogramwhichdiscriminatedonthebasisofrace,color,religionorna9onalorigin.
In1968,inGreenv.CountySchoolBoardofNewKentCounty,Virginia,theSupremeCourtruledthatitwasuncons9tu9onalthatthecounty
wasopera9ngadualsystemofschools,andthatismustconverttoonesystem.
SchoolDesegrega9on(con9nued)
Inelementaryandsecondaryeduca9on
Its9pulatedthatschoolboardshaveadutytoeliminateimposedsegrega9on,andtointegrateschools.
In1971,theSupremeCourt,inSwannv.CharloKe-MecklenburgBoardofEduca9on,upheldbusingasatoolforintegra9ngpublic
schoolsandcorrec9ngracialimbalances.Court-orderedbusingplanscon9nuedinsomeci9esun9lthelate1990s.
Argumentsinsupportofachievingdiversityinpublicelementaryandsecondaryeduca9onsaythatitisacri9calperiodfortransmiwng
societalvalues,promo9ngdiscussionbetweentheracesandfosteringculturalunderstanding.However,in2006,theSupremeCourt
agreedtoheartwomajorcasesregardingprac9cesusedtomaintaindiverselearningenvironmentsinpublicschools,eventhoughthe
lowercourtshadupheldtheschooldistricts’prac9ces.Inbothcases,oneinSeaKleandtheotherinLouisville,parentsofWhite
studentssuedtheschooldistrictswhentheirchildrenwererefusedadmissionintopopularareaschools,claimingthatusingracein
studentassignmentsdeniedtheirrights.InNovemberof2006,MichiganpassedProposal2,whichbannedpreferen9altreatment,
claimingthataffirma9veac9onprogramsdenyqualifiedapplicants.AsofDecember2006,fourstateshavebannedaffirma9veac9on
policies:Michigan,California,Texas,andWashington.
CommunityOrganizingEfforts
1960-1964
AkerthesuccessfuloutcomeoftheMontgomeryBusBoycoKin1956,Mar9nLutherKingJr.wrotethebookStrideToward Freedom.Inthebookheexplainedthecrucialrolesthatbothnon-violenceanddirectac9onplayedinthesuccessat
Montgomery,layingthefounda9onforthelandmarknon-violentprotestsandcommunityorganizingeffortsoftheearly1960s.
Twosucheventsthatlekalas9ngimpressionontheCivilRightsMovementweretheLunchCounterSit-Insof1960andthe FreedomSummerof1964.
OnFebruary1,1960,fourfirst-yearstudentsfromtheNorthCarolinaAgriculturalandTechnicalCollege,FranklinMcCain,David
Richmond,JosephMcNeil,andEzellBlair,enteredanF.W.WoolworthCompanystoreinGreensboro,NorthCarolina,satatthe
lunchcounterandaskedtobeserved.Asblackmenatasegregatedlunchcountertheyknewthattheywouldnotbe,butthey
stayedsiwngsilentlyattheWoolworth’sun9lthestoreclosedthatevening.Thenextmorningwordhadspreadabouttheir effortsandtheyreturnedwithmediacoverageandagrowingnumberofprotestorswhohelpedtocon9nuetheirpeacefulsit-in.
Withintwoweeks,studentsin11ci9esheldsit-ins.Thestudentsalwaysremainednon-violentandforthesefirstfewweekswere
sparedanymajorharassment.Then,onFebruary27inNashville,sit-instudentswereaKackedbyagroupofWhiteteenagers.
WhenthepolicearrivedtheylettheWhiteteenagersgoandtheprotesterswerearrestedfor“disorderlyconduct”.Asstudents
werearrested,newgroupsofstudentsweretheretotaketheirplace,andallthatweretakeninthatdaywerefoundguiltyand
finedaccordingly.ByMayofthatyear,withsupportofMayorBenWest,Nashvillelunchcountersbeganintegra9ngandserving
Blacks.
ByAugustof`60sit-inshadaKractedover71,000par9cipantsandgeneratedover3,000arrests.Withinthese6monthsthesit-ins
hadendedrestaurantandlunch-countersegrega9onintwenty-sixsouthernci9es.Aconferenceofsit-instudentsthatOctober
resultedintheforma9onoftheStudentNonviolentCoordina9ngCommiKee(SNCC)whichwouldprovetobeacri9calgroup
throughouttherestofthecivilrightsmovement.
CommunityOrganizingEfforts(con9nued)
1960-1964
Inthesummerof1964,apresiden9alelec9onyear,akermonthsofworkonvoterregistra9oninthesouthernstates,SNCCdecidedtosend
volunteersintoMississippiforavoterregistra9ondrive.ItsoonbecameknownasFreedomSummer.ThegoalsofFreedomSummer,outlined
byRobertParisMoses,aleaderintheSNCC,weredetermined:expandblackvoterregistra9oninMississippi,organizeacons9tuted“Freedom
Democra9cParty”(MFDP)tochallengetheWhites-onlyMississippiDemocra9cparty,andestablishFreedomSchoolstoteachreadingand
mathtoblackchildren.
HundredsofpeoplegatheredinthenorthernstatestoprepareforthetriptoMississippi.OnJune21,thedayakerthefirstvolunteerslekfor
Mississippi,threeworkersdisappeared.ThebodiesofMichaelSchwerner,AndrewGoodman,andJamesChaneywerefoundtwomonthslater.
AllhadbeenshotandJamesChaney,theoneBlackmanofthegroup,hadbeenseverelybeaten.Inthetwomonthsthemenweremissing,FreedomClinicsand
FreedomSchoolshadbeenestablishedbytheothervolunteersthathadsafelymadeittoMississippi.Thediscoveryofthebodies,however,breathednewlifeintothe
effortsoftheSNCC.
TheirgoalwastotaketheMFDPtotheDemocra9cNa9onalConven9onthatsummerinAtlan9cCity.TheDemocra9cParty, however,wasnotconvincedthattheywereen9tledtotheseats.Akerlongdelibera9onsinvolvingPresidentJohnsonand SenatorHubertHumphrey,thepartywasofferedacompromiseoftwonon-vo9ngseatsnexttotheMississippidelegates.Despite
Mar9nLutherKing’ssupportofthecompromise,SNCCrefusedtheDemocra9cParty’sOffer.Theydid,however,makeapresence
attheconven9on,standingintheplaceoftheirremovedseatssingingfreedomsongs.
WhiletheMFDPdidnotfullyachieveitsgoals,itremindedBlackpeopleinMississippithattheycouldhavepoli9cal
awarenessandpower.In1964whentheircampaignbegan,6.7%ofvo9ng-agedBlacksinMississippiwereregistered
tovote,16.3%belowthena9onalaverage.By1969,thatnumberjumpedto66.5%,5.5%abovethena9onal
average.
MedgarEvers
July2,1925-June12,1963
BorninDecatur,Mississippi,MedgarEversaKendedschoolthereun9lhewasinductedintothearmy.EversfoughtfortheUnitedStatesin
WWII,however,hefoundthatuponhisreturntohiscountry,authori9esdiscriminatedagainstEversandfivefriendsbecauseoftheirskin
color,pushingthemawayatgunpointfromalocalelec9on.Despitethis,Everswentontopursueadegreeinbusinessadministra9onfrom
AlcornStateUniversity.Hewasac9veinathle9csandextracurricularac9vi9es,contribu9ngtothefootballandtrackteams,thedebateteam
andservingaspresidentofthejuniorclass.
HemarriedclassmateMyrlieBeasleyonDecember24,1951,andcompletedhisdegreethefollowingyear.ThecouplemovedtoMound
Bayou,Mississippi,whereT.R.M.HowardhiredEverstosellinsuranceforhisMagnoliaMutualLifeInsuranceCompany.Howardwasalso
thepresidentoftheRegionalCouncilofNegroLeadership(RCNL),acivilrightsandselfhelporganiza9on.Evers’involvementwithRCNL
gavehimcrucialtraininginac9vism.HehelpedorganizeRCNL’sboycoKofservicesta9onsthatdeniedblacksuseoftheirrestrooms.TheboycoKersdistributed
bumpers9ckerswiththeslogan“Don’tbuygaswhereyoucan’tusetherestroom.”Eversappliedtothethen-segregatedUniversityofMississippiLawSchoolin
February1954.Whenhisapplica9onwasrejected,EversbecamethefocusofaNAACPcampaigntodesegregatetheschool,acaseaidedbytheU.S.SupremeCourt
decisioninBrownvs.BoardofEduca(onthatsegrega9onwasuncons9tu9onal.InDecember1954,EversbecametheNAACP’sfirstfieldofficerinMississippi.
AkermovingtoJackson,Mississippi,EverswasinvolvedinaboycoKcampaignagainstWhitemerchantsandwasinstrumentalineventuallydesegrega9ngthe
UniversityofMississippiwhenthatins9tu9onwasforcedtoenrollJamesMeredithin1962.
Intheweeksleadinguptohisdeath,Eversfoundhimselfthetargetofseveralthreats.Hispublicinves9ga9onsintothemurderofEmmeKTillandhisvocalsupportof
ClydeKennardlekhimvulnerabletoaKack.OnMay28,1963,amolotovcocktailwasthrownintothecarportofhishome,andseveraldayslater,hewasnearlyrun
downbyacarakerheemergedfromtheJacksonNAACPoffice.
Civilrightsdemonstra9onsacceleratedinJacksonduringthefirstweekofJune1963.
MedgarEvers(con9nued)
July2,1925-June12,1963
Alocaltelevisionsta9ongrantedEvers9meforashortspeech,hisfirstinMississippi,whereheoutlinedthegoalsoftheJacksoncivilrightsmovement.Followingthe
speech,threatsonEvers’lifeincreased.
OnJune11,1963,Everspulledintohisdrivewayakerreturningfromanintegra9onmee9ngwherehehadconferredwithNAACPlawyers.Emergingfromhiscarand
carryingNAACPt-shirtsthatread,“JimCrowMustGo,”Everswasstruckinthebackwithabulletthatricochetedintohishome.Hestaggered30feetbefore
collapsing,dyingatalocalhospital50minuteslater.EverswasmurderedjusthoursakerPresidentJohnF.Kennedy’sspeechonna9onaltelevisioninsupportofcivil
rights.
Mournedna9onally,EverswasburiedonJune19inArlingtonNa9onalCemeteryandreceivedfullmilitaryhonorsinfrontofacrowdofmorethan3,000people.The
pastchairmanoftheAmericanVeteransCommiKee,MickeyLevine,saidattheservices,“NosoldierinthisfieldhasfoughtmorecourageouslythanMedgarEvers.”
OnJune23,ByronDeLaBeckwith,amemberoftheWhiteCi9zen’sCouncilandKuKluxKlan,wasarrestedforEvers’murder.Duringthecourseofhisfirst1964trial,
BeckwithwasvisitedbyformerMississippigovernorRossBarneKandone-9meArmyMajorGeneralEdwinA.Walker.AllWhitejuriesdeadlockedtwicethatyearon
Beckwith’sguilt,allowinghimtoescapejus9ce.Inresponsetothemurderandmiscarriageofjus9ce,musicianBobDylanwrotethesong“OnlyaPawninTheirGame”
aboutEversandhisassassin.MorerecentlyrapperImmortalTechniquewroteaboutthebloodofMalcolmXandMedgarEversinthesong“CrossingtheBoundary.”
Evers’legacyhasbeenkeptaliveinavarietyofways.In1970,MedgarEversCollegewasestablishedinBrooklyn,NYaspartoftheCityUniversityofNewYork.
In1994,30yearsakerthetwoprevioustrialshadfailedtoreachaverdict,Beckwithwasagainbroughttotrialbasedonnew evidenceconcerningstatementshehadmadetoothers.BeckwithwasconvictedonFebruary5,1994,akerlivingasafreeman
for3decadesakerthemurder.Beckwithappealedunsuccessfully,anddiedinprisoninJanuary2001.The1996filmGhostsofthe
Mississippitellsthestoryofthe1994trial.Evers’wife,Myrliebecameanotedac9vistinherownright,eventuallyservingas chairwomanoftheNAACP.Evers’brotherCharlesremainedinvolvedinMississippiCivilRightsforyearstocome.In2001,Myrlie
andMedgar’soldestsondied.EversissurvivedbyhiswifeMyrlie,adaughterandason.
TheEvershomeamuseum
MalcolmX:LifeandDeath
1925-1965
MalcolmX,originallyMalcolmLiKle,wasborninOmaha,Nebraska.AkermovingtotheMidwestwithhisfamilyatayoungage,hesuffered
greattragedywiththeallegedsuicideofhisfatherandthesubsequentins9tu9onaliza9onofhismother.Akerspendinghisremaining
childhoodyearsinfosterhomeswithhissiblings,Malcolmdroppedoutofmiddleschool,andafewyearslatermovedtoBostonandfound
workonthestreetsasashoe-shiner,drugdealer,gamblerandburglar.
ItwaswhileservingatenyearsentenceinprisonforburglarythatMalcolmXbecamepassionatelycommiKedtofurtheringhiseduca9on.It
wasalsoatthis9methatMalcolm’sbrotheralertedhimtotheteachingsoftheNa9onofIslam(NOI)andencouragedMalcolmtoconvertto
theMuslimfaith.IntriguedbytheNOI,MalcolmbeganstudyingtheworkofElijahMuhammadwhopreachedaboutsystemicoppressionand
foughtforaworldseparatefromoneinhabitedbyWhitepeople.
Bythe9meMalcolmXwasreleasedfromprisonhewasadevoutfollowerandsoonakermee9ngMuhammadandagreeingtoworkforNOI,changedhissurnameto
“X”.Thechangewasintendedtosymbolizethesheddingofwhathethoughtofashisslavenameaswellasthe“x”thatmanyslavesreceivedasabrandontheirupper
arm.
MalcolmXwassoonappointedasaministerandna9onalspokespersonforNa9onofIslam.Hewasalsocharged
Withestablishingnewmosquesaroundthecountry.HereturnedtoBostonandbecametheMinisteroftheNOI’s
Temple#11.HewasalsoselectedtoleadtheNOI’smosque#7onLenoxAvenueinHarlemandiscreditedwith
otherestablishmentsinDetroit,MichiganandPhiladelphia,Pennsylvania.Hispublicspeakingandmedia
appearancesalsocontributedtoincreasedawarenessandinterestintheNa9onofIslam.Infact,MalcolmXis
largelycreditedwiththeincreaseintheNOImembershipfrom500in1952to30,000in1963.
Thepublicnatureofhiswork,however,ledtheFBIandna9onalgovernmenttopayverycloseaKen9onto
MalcolmX.AtcertainpointstheNOIorganiza9onsMalcolmXwasinvolvedinwereinfiltratedbytheFBIandthegroup’scommunica9onsandac9vi9eswereheavily
monitored.
MalcolmX:LifeandDeath
1925-1965
Intheearly1960’sMalcolmwasmadeawareofaccusa9onsofadulteryagainstElijahMuhammad.ThewomenwhoMuhammadwassaidto
haveextramaritalaffairswithwereallwomenwithintheNa9onofIslamorganiza9onandtheshockofthenewsprovedtobeadifficulttest
ofMalcolmX’sfaith.Uponconfirma9onoftheserumorsfromMuhammad,MalcolmXwasnotonlyhurtbythedecep9onofhismentor,
butfeltguiltforleadingsomanypeopleintoanorganiza9onthathenowbelievedtobedecei€ul.
Soonakerthisdiscovery,MalcolmXwassilencedfor90daysbynoneotherthanElijahMuhammadforpubliclycri9cizingJohnF.Kennedy
directlyakerhisassassina9on.Whileherespectedtheorder,itwasnotlongakerthathepubliclyannouncedhissepara9onfromtheNa9on
ofIslamandfoundedhisownreligiousorganiza9on,theMuslimMosque,Inc.
Akerspending9meonapilgrimagetoMecca,SaudiArabia,sharinghisbeliefsandvisionswithpeopleofalldifferentcultures,MalcolmXreturnedtotheUnited
Stateswithanewenergyandvisionforhiswork.HebegantonotonlydirecthisworktowardsAfricanAmericansbuttopeopleofallracesandethnici9es.Hepreached
abouthumanrights,freedom,ac9on,andcommunitybuilding.Whilere-establishinghimself,however,theoldtensionswiththeNa9onofIslamweres9llfesteringand
rumorsbeganthatMalcolmXhadbeentargetedforassassina9on.AKemptsweremadeonhislifeandthreatsweremadeagainsthiswife,BeKy,andfourdaughters.
InFebruaryof1965hisfamilyhomewasfirebombed,andwhileeveryonemadeitoutalive,noonewaseverchargedwiththecrime.
Itwasonlyoneweeklater,onFebruary21,1965,inManhaKan’sAudubonBallroomwhenthreemen
rushedMalcolmXonstageduringaspeakingengagementandshothim159mesatcloserange.Hewas
pronounceddeaduponarrivalatNewYork’sColumbiaPresbyterianHospital.Laterthatyearhiswife
BeKygavebirthtotheirtwindaughters.Threemen,TalmadgeHayer,Norman3XButler,andThomas
15XJohnson,wereallconvictedofthemurderinMarchof1966.
ThelegacyofMalcolmXandhisworkhaveinspiredandinformedmanyothersintheirfightforsocialjus9ceandequality.Hehasbeenimmortalizednotonlyinhis
work,“TheAutobiographyofMalcolmX”,butinotherbooks,documentaries,andmovies,andremainsahistoricalfigureadmiredbyallgenera9ons.
Vo9ngRights:SelmatoMontgomeryMarches
February18th–March25,1965
Intheearly1960s,Selmawasafocalpointforvo9ngrights.Halfofthecity'sresidentswereBlackbutonlyonepercentwere
registeredtovotebecausetheregistra9onboardonlyopeneddoorsforregistra9ontwodaysamonth,arrivedlateandtook
longlunches.
TheSelmatoMontgomerymarchesforvo9ngrightsrepresentedthepoli9calandemo9onalpeakofthemoderncivilrights
movement.LedbyJohnLewisandHoseaWilliams,themarchesweretheculmina9onofthevo9ngrightsmovementlaunched
byAmeliaBoyntonRobinsonandherhusband.
OnFebruary18th,1965,followingwhatbeganasapeacefuldemonstra9onforvo9ngrights,JimmyLeeJacksonwasshotin
thestomachbyastatetrooperwhiletryingtodefendhismotherand82yearoldgrandfatherfrompoliceaKacks.Hewas
arrestedandchargedwithassaultandbaKerybeforehewastakentothehospital.HediedonFebruary26.
On"BloodySunday,"March7,1965,some600civilrightsmarchersheadedeastoutofSelmaonU.S.Highway80.Theygotonly
asfarastheEdmundPeKusBridgesixblocksaway,wherestateandlocallawmenaKackedthemwithbillyclubsandteargasand
drovethembackintoSelma.AmeliaBoyntonRobinsonwasbeatenandgassednearlytodeath—herphotoappearedonthe frontpageofpapersandnewsmagazinesaroundtheworld.Seventeenmarcherswerehospitalized,leadingtothenamingofthe
day"BloodySunday".
Twodayslater,onMarch9,1965,Mar9nLutherKing,Jr.leda"symbolic"marchtothebridge.Then,civilrightsleaderssought
courtprotec9onforathird,full-scalemarchfromSelmatothestatecapitolbuildinginMontgomery.FederalDistrict
CourtJudge
FrankMinisJohnson,Jr.,weighedtherightofmobilityagainsttherighttomarchandruledinfavorofthedemonstrators.
Vo9ngRights:SelmatoMontgomeryMarches(con9nued)
February18th–March25,1965
Akerthesecondmarch,JamesReeb,awhiteUnitarianUniversalistministerfromBostonwhohadcomeforthesecond
marchandhadagreedtostay,wasaKackedwithaclubinfrontoftheSilverMoonCafé,ahangoutforwhites.Beingturned
backbythesmalllocalhospitalinSelma(reportedtobefullatthe9me),Reeb'scompanionswereforcedtotakehimto
UniversityHospitalinBirmingham,twohoursaway.ReebdiedonThursday,March11,atUniversityHospitalwithhiswife
byhisside.
StudentNonviolentCoordina9ngCommiKeespokespersonStokelyCarmichaelwasreportedassaying,“Whatyouwantis
thena9ontobeupsetwhenanybodyiskilled…butitalmost[seemsthat]forthistoberecognized,aWhitepersonmust
bekilled.”
OnSunday,March21,1965,about3,200marcherssetoutforMontgomery,walking12milesadayandsleepinginfields.Bythe9metheyreachedthecapitolon
Thursday,March25,1965,theywere25,000-strong.
Followingthispowerfuldemonstra9on,ViolaLiuzzoandLeroyMotonweredrivingindividualsbacktotheairport.Ononeofthesetrips,acar
offourWhitemen,seeingthisWhiteWomanandaBlackMan,shotatthecar.Violawashittwiceintheheadanddiedinstantly.Leroywas
uninjured.Threeofthefourmenwerearrestedandcharged.Thefourth,anundercoverFBIagent,tes9fiedagainstthem.
Lessthanfivemonthsakerthelastofthethreemarches,PresidentLyndonJohnsonsignedtheVo9ngRightsActof1965.AmeliaBoynton Robinsonwaspresentduringtheceremony.
Jackson,Reeb,&LiuzzoarememorializedinamonumentoutsidetheBrownChapelwhereeachofthemarchesbegan.
TheeventsarealsobrilliantlywriKenaboutinthebookSelmaLord,Selma:GirlhoodMemoriesoftheCivilRightsDaysbySheyannWebb&
RachelWestNelsonwhotookpartinthemarchesattheagesof11&12.
MarchonWashingtonforJobsandFreedom
August28,1963
Wri%enbyShmuelRoss
TheMarchonWashingtonforJobsandFreedomtookplaceinWashington,D.C.,onAugust28,1963.AKendedbysome250,000
people,itwasthelargestdemonstra9oneverseeninthena9on'scapital,andoneofthefirsttohaveextensivetelevision
coverage.
1963wasnotedforracialunrestandcivilrightsdemonstra9ons.Na9onwideoutragewassparkedbymediacoverageofpolice
ac9onsinBirmingham,Alabama,whereaKackdogsandfirehoseswereturnedagainstprotestors,manyofwhomwereintheir
earlyteensoryounger.Mar9nLutherKing,Jr.,wasarrestedandjailedduringtheseprotests,wri9nghisfamous"LeKerFrom BirminghamCityJail,"whichadvocatescivildisobedienceagainstunjustlaws.Dozensofaddi9onaldemonstra9onstookplace
acrossthecountry,fromCaliforniatoNewYork,culmina9ngintheMarchonWashington.PresidentKennedybackedaCivilRightsAct,whichwasstalledinCongress
bythesummer.
TheMarchonWashingtonrepresentedacoali9onofseveralcivilrightsorganiza9ons,allofwhichgenerallyhaddifferent
approachesanddifferentagendas.Thestateddemandsofthemarchwerethepassageofmeaningfulcivilrightslegisla9on;
theelimina9onofracialsegrega9oninpublicschools;protec9onfordemonstratorsagainstpolicebrutality;amajorpublic-
worksprogramtoprovidejobs;thepassageofalawprohibi9ngracialdiscrimina9oninpublicandprivatehiring;a$2anhour
minimumwage;andself-governmentfortheDistrictofColumbia,whichhadaBlackmajority.
PresidentKennedyoriginallydiscouragedthemarch,forfearthatitmightmakethelegislaturevoteagainstcivilrightslaws
inreac9ontoaperceivedthreat.
MarchonWashingtonforJobsandFreedom(con9nued)
August28,1963
Onceitbecameclearthatthemarchwouldgoon,however,hesupportedit.Themarchwasalsocondemnedbysomecivilrightsac9vists,includingMalcolmX,who
feltitpresentedaninaccurate,sani9zedpageantofracialharmony.
ThetwomostnoteworthyspeechescamefromJohnLewisandMar9nLutherKing,Jr.LewisrepresentedtheStudentNonviolentCoordina9ngCommiKee,ayounger,
moreradicalgroupthanKing's.JohnLewis’sspeechstated:
“Therevolu9onisathand,andwemustfreeourselvesofthechainsofpoli9calandeconomicslavery.Thenonviolentrevolu9onis
saying,‘Wewillnotwaitforthecourtstoact,forwehavebeenwai9nghundredsofyears.WewillnotwaitforthePresident,nor
theJus9ceDepartment,norCongress,butwewilltakemaKersintoourownhands,andcreateagreatsourceofpower,outsideof
anyna9onalstructurethatcouldandwouldassureusvictory.’Forthosewhohavesaid,‘Bepa9entandwait!’wemustsay,‘Pa9ence
isadirtyandnastyword.’Wecannotbepa9ent,wedonotwanttobefreegradually,wewantourfreedom,andwewantitnow.We
cannotdependonanypoli9calparty,fortheDemocratsandtheRepublicanshavebetrayedthebasicprinciplesoftheDeclara9onof
Independence.”
King'sspeechremainsoneofthemostfamousspeechesinAmericanhistory.Hestartedwithpreparedremarks,sayinghewasthere
to"cashacheck"for"Life,LibertyandthePursuitofHappiness,"whilewarningfellowprotestersnotto"allowourcrea9veprotestto
degenerateintophysicalviolence.Againandagain,wemustrisetothemajes9cheightsofmee9ngphysicalforcewithsoulforce."But
thenhedepartedfromhisscript,shikingintothe"Ihaveadream"themehe'dusedonprioroccasions,drawingonboth"theAmerican
dream"andreligiousthemes,speakingofanAmericawherehischildren"willnotbejudgedbythecoloroftheirskinbutbythecontent
oftheircharacter."Hefollowedthiswithanexhorta9onto"letfreedomring"acrossthena9on,andconcludedwith:“Andwhenthis
happens,whenweallowfreedomtoring,whenweletitringfromeveryvillageandeveryhamlet,fromeverystateandeverycity,we
willbeabletospeedupthatdaywhenallofGod'schildren,Blackmenandwhitemen,JewsandGen9les,ProtestantsandCatholics,
willbeabletojoinhandsandsinginthewordsoftheoldNegrospiritual,"Freeatlast,freeatlast.ThankGodAlmighty,wearefreeatlast."
TheLegacyofandMemorialtoDr.King
Dr.KingwasassassinatedonApril4th,1968,buthislegacyisenduring.Hewasiden9fiedina2005pollasthethirdgreatestAmericanofall9me.CivilRights
movementsforthepastfivedecadeshavebeenmodeledonhisleadershipandhecon9nuestobeaninspira9ontopeopleworldwide.
King'swife,CoreKaScoKKing,wasaleaderbothduringhislifeandcon9nuedtobeac9veinmaKersofsocialjus9ceandcivilrightsun9lher
deathin2006.ThesameyearMar9nLutherKingwasassassinated,sheestablishedtheKingCenterinAtlanta,Georgia,dedicatedto
preservinghislegacyandtheworkofchampioningnonviolentconflictresolu9onandtoleranceworldwide.Shewasac9veinnumeroussocial
jus9cemovementsincludingthean9-apartheidmovementsofthe1980s,animalrights,women’srightsandwasaleaderofmergingthecivil
rightsmovementsofpeopleofcolorandlesbian,gayandbisexualpeople.
Despitetheangerofmanyreligiousleaders,Mrs.KingcalledonthecivilrightscommunitytojoininthestruggleagainstHomophobiaand an9-gaybias."Homophobiaislikeracismandan9-Semi9smandotherformsofbigotryinthatitseekstodehumanizealargegroupofpeople,
todenytheirhumanity,theirdignityandpersonhood",Kingstated."Thissetsthestageforfurtherrepressionandviolencethatspreadalltoo
easilytovic9mizethenextminoritygroup."
Mar9nLutherKing’schildrenhavealsobeenac9veinnumeroussocialjus9cemovements.DexterKingservedastheKingCenter's
presidentun9l2004andMar9nLutherKingIIIiscurrentlythepresident.Daughters,Bernice&YolandaKing,havebothspoken
worldwideregardingsocialjus9ceandhavebeeninvolvedinnumerousmovements.
Dr.King’slikenessandwordsareu9lizedinmanyplacestocallforjus9ceandhislegacyandthatofotherleadersismemorialized
aroundtheworld.Notably,in1989,aCivilRightsMemorialwasdedicatedinMontgomery,ALbytheSouthernPovertyLawCenter.
TheLegacyofandMemorialtoDr.King(con9nued)
TheCivilRightsMemorial,designedbyMayaLin(whoalsodesignedtheVietnamVeteransMemorial),wasinspiredbyDr.King'squota9on“...wewillnotbesa(sfied
un(ljus(cerollsdownlikewatersandrighteousnesslikeamightystream....",fromtheIHaveaDreamspeech.Thetableisetchedwiththenamesofthe40people
whodiedbetween1954and1968inthestruggleforcivilrightsandthewallbehindthetableisetchedwiththequote.Waterrunssmoothlyoverboththetableand
thewall.
In1996,AlphaPhiAlphafraternitywasauthorizedbytheUSCongresstopursuethecrea9onofana9onal
monumenthonoringDr.King.Thememorialwillbeonlytheseconddedicatedtoanon-presidentintheareaofthe
Na9onalMall.ItwasdesignedbyaSanFranciscobasedfirmandthegroundbreakingceremonywasheldon
November13th,2006.
Thewebsiteforthememorialstates,“Thismemorialisnotdesignedtobeexperiencedinasinglewaywithone singlemessage,butratheritistohaveabroadaccessibility,appealingtoallofthesenseswithdiverse,repe99ve
andoverlappingthemes.”Itusesthenaturalelementsofwater,stone,andtreestorepresentthethemesofjus9ce,democracyandhope.
Nichesatthemonumentwillbededicatedtootherswhogavetheirlivestothemovement.Thewebsitegoesontosay,
“Indeferencetotheunfinishednatureofthemovement,arandomnumber[ofniches]willbelekopenandincomplete,
allowingaddi9onalnichestobededicatedatalaterpointin9me.Thesesemicircularnave-likespacesareintendedto
engagepersonalcontempla9onandquietreflec9on,andwillbedirectlyaccessiblefromtheupperwalkway.Eachspace
willbehewnfromrock,withroughedgesontheoutside,andsmoothstoneontheinside("roughplacesmadeplain").”
Moreinforma9onaboutthememorialcanbefoundatwww.mlkmemorial.org