Cathy Zhang HSBH1005 Human Development AGEING AND HEALTH
Development is considered an active process of change
• Engage/interact with the environment
• Not something that happens to you; you are in control/responsible for it
• Physical, social, emotional/psychological and cognitive
Development stages vary between individuals and depend on whether the growth is physical or psychological
• Physical development is based on biological changes and focuses on changes relating to sexual
maturity à propagating species
Erikson’s Stages of Psychosocial Development
Approximate
Age
0 – 1.5 years
Crisis
Adequate resolution
Inadequate resolution
Trust/Mistrust
Insecurity, anxiety
1.5 – 3 years
Autonomy/Self Doubt
3 – 6 years
Initiative/Guilt
6 - puberty
Competence/Inferiority
Basic sense of safety
Perception of self as agent
capable of controlling own
body/making things happen
Confidence in oneself as
initiator/creator
Adequacy in basic social
and intellectual skills
Adolescence
Identity/Role Confusion (who you
are vs. who you are in relation to
others)
Comfortable sense of self as
a person
Early adult
Intimacy/Isolation
Capacity for closeness and
commitment to others
Middle adult
Generativity/Stagnation
Late adult
Ego integrity/Despair
Focus of concern beyond
oneself to family, society,
future generations etc.
Sense of wholeness; basic
satisfaction with life
Feelings of inadequacy
to control events
Feelings of lack of selfworth
Lack of self-confidence,
feelings of failure
Sense of self as
fragmented, shifting,
unclear sense of self
Feeling of aloneness,
separation; denial of
need for closeness
Self-indulgent concerns,
lack of future orientation
Feelings of futility,
disappointment
There is no universally accepted model for human development
When studying development or working with patients/clients from different developmental ages, we talk about
the different aspects of development separately
It is not enough to examine a person in isolation. They live within a particular context that affects their health,
development and decisions
There has been research into generational health – the health of one generation compared to another
• First step is to define the generations
• Challenge in defining generations is that the change in society occurs more rapidly as time passes
and pre-existing, set time periods (e.g. one generation = 20 years) don’t apply i.e. greater variation
within a generation
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
Prenatal development – process by which a baby develops inside the mother’s womb
• Takes about 38 weeks
• Divided into germinal period, embryonic period and foetal period
• Has huge implications for health in later life
1 Cathy Zhang Low birth weight (<5lbs = 50% increased chance of dying from heart disease or stroke later in
life)
o Relationships exist after controlling for income and education
o Relationship between birth weight and cardiovascular disease is stronger for people with lowweight-to-height ratio (stunted growth)
o High birth weight (>8lbs) newborns had an increased risk of breast cancer (overweight babies
are usually born from overweight expectant mothers who release excess oestrogen which
alters breast tissue thus increasing the risk of breast cancer in the newborn)
o Risk factors influence adult health but can be prevented by following a healthy lifestyle
Germinal period – begins with conception and ends when blastocyst is fully implanted into uterine tissue
• Conception – egg is fertilised by sperm à zygote
• Zygote travels along the fallopian tube toward the uterus
• Becomes a blastocyst and implants into the wall of the uterus
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Embryonic period – lasts from implantation until about 8 weeks from conception/10 week of pregnancy
• Developing the foundations of a healthy baby
• Blastocyst continues to divide rapidly after implantation
• Differentiation – cells begin to take on different functions e.g. division between cells that will form the
placenta and the cells that will form the baby
• Gastrulation – forms ectoderm (forms external tissues and brain), mesoderm (internal tissues,
heart, bones) and endoderm (digestive tract, bladder, internal organs)
• Embryogenesis – all processes of embryo development until it becomes a foetus
Foetal period – takes place from end of embryonic period until birth
• Most notable development during this stage is dramatic change in size
o
Babies prewired for survival
• Infants reveal remarkable abilities to obtain information through their senses and react to it
• Are well suited to respond to adult caregivers and to influence their social environments
• Infants are born with a repertory of reflexes that provide many of their earliest behavioural responses
to the environment
• E.g. when something brushes against an infant’s cheeks, they turn their head in that direction. This
rooting reflex allows newborns to find their mother’s nipples. When an object is placed in their mouths,
infants begin to suck. This sucking reflex allows infants to begin feeding
• Infants can hear even before birth and newborns prefer to listen to their mothers’ voices rather than
the voices of other women.
Maturation – the process of growth typical of all members of a species who are reared in the species’ usual
habitat.
Teratogens – environmental factors that cause structural abnormalities in a developing foetus:
• Dose (how much/how long)
• Heredity
• Other negative influences
• Age
o Zygote: even the smallest teratogenic effect could kill the zygote as all cells will die
o Embryonic period: period of most damage as this is the foundation of vital organs
o Foetal period: lower risk of damage as most organs are formed except for brain, eyes and
genitals, which are at risk
Alcohol
Foetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS) – wide set eyes, smaller eyelids, upturned
nose, thin upper lip, smaller head, mental retardation, delays in physical
development
Foetal Alcohol symptoms (less exposure to alcohol) – similar but milder
2 Cathy Zhang Caffeine
Cocaine/Heroin/Methadone
Tobacco
Maternal disease
Radiation
Pollution
symptoms
>3 cups of coffee – low birth weight, potential miscarriage, baby with withdrawal
symptoms e.g. vomiting, irritability
Restricts placental blood flow and oxygen supply to foetus à Low birth weight,
physical defects, heart/breathing problems and addiction
Miscarriage, premature births, low birth weight, impaired heart beat, respiratory
problems and predisposition to developing cancer later in life
Physical abnormality, low birth weight, miscarriage, mental retardation
DNA mutation, physical defects, small head
Mercury à brain damage; Lead à physical/cognitive delays in development
Other maternal factors:
• Exercise – over-exercise can lead to newborns with low birth weight
• Nutrition – malnutrition in the first trimester can cause miscarriage and physical defects, second
trimester can lead to underweight newborns and third can cause delays in brain and physical
development. Malnutrition also affects the immune system development and newborns may be more
susceptible to respiratory problems
• Emotional stress – significance of social support e.g. classes, family, husband etc.
Childbirth
• A ‘natural’/prepared childbirth involves: classes, relaxation and breathing techniques and a labour
coach
• The ideal position for delivery is sitting upright with knees bent as this position increases flow of
oxygen and psychologically, the mother is able to see her baby being born as a result of her physical
exertion
• Although there are risks of complications in home births compared to giving birth in hospital, the
crucial aspect is the presence of qualified health professionals.
APGAR Scale – the physical condition of a newborn baby
• Doctors perform the check at 1 minute and 5 minutes after birth
• Appearance (colour), Pulse, Grimace (muscle tone), Activity (reflexes), Respiration
• Score >7 = good physical condition
• Score 4-6 suggests baby needs help with breathing
• Score <4 indicates the baby is in serious danger
NOTES ON READING
COGNITIVE AND SOCIAL DEVELOPMENT
Cognitive Development – the process of acquiring knowledge and increasingly advanced thought process
that enable problem-solving abilities from early infancy throughout the lifespan
Psychosocial Development – the acquisition of social attitudes and skills, from infancy through maturity, that
are influenced by the individuals’ social environments and their own personality
Theory & Model of Cognitive Development – Jean Piaget
• Jean Piaget (1896-1980) – most well known theorist of Cognitive Developmental Theory
• Piaget (1952) proposed that children pass through 4 increasingly sophisticated cognitive stages of
development
• His stages did not account for social and cultural influences on learning, which Lev Vygotsky argued
for (1896-1934)
• Both Piaget and Vygotsky’s theories have strengths and weaknesses
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