THE INSECTS
Structure and Function
R. F. CHAPMAN
Assistant Director and Chief of Research,
Centre for Overseas Pest Research, London
and
Visiting Professor, Department of Zoology,
University of Hull
FACHBEREICH 8IOI.QGIE (10)
der Techniscbe" Modischiii
D - 6100 D a r m s t a d t / 8. R. D.
o
HODDER AND STOUGHTON
LONDON SYDNEY AUCKLAND TORONTO
CONTENTS
Preface
v
SECTION A THE HEAD, INGESTION AND UTILISATION
OF THE FOOD
I. The Head and its Appendages .
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1.1 Head
1.2 Neck
1.3 Antennae
1.4 Mouthparts
II. Feeding .
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2.1 Feeding habits
2.2 Sense organs associated with feeding
2.3 Finding and recognising the food
2.4 Significance of food preferences
2.5 Conditioning to food
2.6 Feeding and ingestion
2.7 Control of feeding
2.8 The timing of feeding activity and amount eaten
2.9 Fungus-growing insects
2.10 Food storage
2.11 Social feeding
III. The Alimentary Canal .
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3.1 General structure
3.2 Foregut
3.3 Midgut
3.4 Hindgut
3.5 Innervation of the gut
3.6 Passage of food through the gut
3.7 Head glands
IV. Digestion and Absorption
4.1 Digestion
4.2 Absorption
4.3 Efficiency of food utilisation
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66
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CONTENTS
V. Nutrition
5.1 Dietary requirements
5.2 Storage
5.3 Micro-organisms
84
VI. The Fat Body and General Metabolism
6.1 Fat body
6.2 Intermediate metabolism
6.3 Respiratory metabolism
6.4 End products of catabolism
6.5 Metabolic rate
6.6 Control of metabolism
6.7 Luminescence
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VII. Colour
7.1 The nature of colour
7.2 Physical colours
7.3 Pigmentary colours
7.4 The colours of insects
7.5 Colour change
7.6 Significance of colour
VIII.
8.1
8.2
8.3
127
SECTION B THE THORAX AND MOVEMENT
The Thorax and Legs
Segmentation
Thorax
Legs
IX. Locomotion .
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9.1 Walking
9.2 Jumping
9.3 Crawling
9.4 Movements on the surface of water
9.5 Movement under water
X. The
10.1
10.2
10.3
10.4
10.5
10.6
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Wings
Occurrence and structure of wings
Modifications of the wings
Wing coupling
Articulation of the wings with the thorax
Sensilla on the wings and the haltere
Muscles associated with the wings
XI. Movement and Control of the Wings
11.1 Mechanisms of wing movement
11.2 Movements of the wings
11.3 Aerodynamics
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216
CONTENTS
11.4
11.5
11.6
Xi
Control of wingbeat
Stability in flight
Landing
XII. The Muscles .
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12.1 Structure
12.2 Control of muscular contraction
12.3 Patterns of muscular contraction
12.4 Energetics of muscle contraction
XIII. Flight Activity
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13.1 Factors limiting flight activity
13.2 Factors promoting take-off
13.3 Stimuli leading to landing
13.4 Speed of flight
*3-5 Types of flight
13.6 Migration
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SECTION C
THE ABDOMEN, REPRODUCTION AND
DEVELOPMENT
XIV. The Abdomen
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14.1 Segmentation of the abdomen
r14.2 Abdominal appendages
XV. The Reproductive System
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MALE
15.1 Anatomy of male internal reproductive organs
15.2 Spermatogenesis
15.3 Transfer of sperm to the seminal vesicle
FEMALE
15.4 Anatomy of female internal reproductive organs
15.5 Oogenesis
15.6 Resorption of oocytes
15.7 Ovulation
XVI. Mating Behaviour and the Transferof Sperm to the Female
MATING
16.1 Aggregation
16.2 Recognition and courtship
16.3 Pairing
16.4 Male aggression
SPERM TRANSFER
16.5 External reproductive organs of the male
16.6 Copulation
16.7 Insemination
16.8 Post-copulatory behaviour
16.9 Effects of male accessory glands on oogenesis and oviposition
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350
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CONTENTS
XVII. Oviposition and the Egg
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17. i Female genitalia: the ovipositor
17.2 Oviposition
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17.3 The egg
XVIII.
18.1
18.2
18.3
18.4
18.5
18.6
18.7
18.8
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378
Embryology
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Fertilisation
Maturation of the oocytes
Cleavage and formation of the blastoderm
Early development of the embryo
Movements of the embryo
Development of organ systems
Metabolic changes and control of organ development
Duration of embryonic development
XIX. U n u s u a l T y p e s o f D e v e l o p m e n t
19.1 Viviparity
19.2 P o l y e m b r y o n y
19.3 Parthenogenesis
19.4 Paedogenesis
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XX. Hatching and Postembryonic Development
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433
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HATCHING
20.1 Escape from the egg
20.2 Intermediate moult
POSTEMBRYONIC DEVELOPMENT
20.3
20.4
20.5
20.6
20.7
Numbers of instars
Growth
Types of development
Types of larvae
Heteromorphosis
XXI. Metamorphosis .
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21.1 The pupa
21.2 Development of adult features
21.3 Adult emergence
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473
SECTION D THE CUTICLE, RESPIRATION AND EXCRETION
XXII. The Integument .
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22.1 Epidermis
22.2 Basic structure of cuticle
22.3 Different types of cuticle
22.4 Moulting
22.5 Cuticle formation
22.6 Expansion of the new cuticle
22.7 Control of moulting and cuticle production
22.8 Functions of the cuticle
CONTENTS
Xlll
XXIII.
23.1
23.2
23.3
23.4
529
23.5
XXIV.
24.1
24.2
24.3
24.4
24.5
The Tracheal System and Respiration in Terrestrial Insects .
The tracheal system
Spiracles
Moulting the tracheal system
Gaseous exchange
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Other functions of the tracheal system
Respiration in Aquatic and Endoparasitic Insects .
Aquatic insects obtaining oxygen from the air
Insects obtaining oxygen from the water
Insects subject to occasional submersion
Respiration in endoparasitic insects
Haemoglobin
XXV. Excretion and Salt and Water Regulation
25.1 Excretory organs
25.2 Nitrogenous excretion
25.3 Excretion of ingested organic molecules
25.4 Maintenance of haemolymph ionic levels
25.5 Water regulation
25.6 Other functions of the Malpighian tubules
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SECTION E THE NERVOUS AND SENSORY SYSTEMS
XXVI.
26.1
26.2
26.3
26.4
The Nervous System
Structure of the nervous system
Physiology of the nervous system
Integration in the nervous system
Learning
607
XXVII.
27.1
27.2
27.3
27.4
27.5
27.6
The Eyes and Vision
Occurrence and structure of compound eyes
Reception of light
Functioning of the eye
Dorsal ocelli
Stemmata,
Dermal light sense
642
XXVIII. Sound Production
28.1 Mechanisms and the sounds produced
28.2 Significance of the sounds produced
28.3 Control of sound production
XXIX.
29.1
29.2
29.3
29.4
Mechanoreception
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Mechanoreceptor neurones
Trichoid sensilla
Campaniform sensilla
Chordotonal organs
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XIV
CONTENTS
29.5 Stretch receptors
29.6 Statocysts
29.7 Pressure receptors
XXX.
30.1
30.2
30.3
Chemorecption .
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Olfaction
Contact chemoreception
Common chemical sense
XXXI.
31.1
31.2
31.3
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Temperature and Humidity
Temperature
Humidity
Cryptobiosis
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736
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SECTION F THE BLOOD, HORMONES AND PHEROMONES
XXXII. The Circulatory System
781
32.1 Structure
32.2 Circulation
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XXXIII. The Haemolymph
33.1 Haemocytes
33.2 Connective tissue
33.3 Plasma
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XXXIV. The Endocrine Organs and Hormones
34.1 Endocrine organs
34.2 Dispersal of hormones
34.3 Mode of action of hormones
34.4 Chemical nature of hormones
34.5 Hormones and their functions
34.6 The rabbit flea and hormones
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XXXV.
35.1
35.2
35.3
35.4
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Exocrine glands, pheromones and defensive secretions .
The nature of exocrine secretions^
Structure of exocrine glands
Pheromones
Defensive secretions
Taxonomic Index.
Subject Index
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818
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895