Volume 11 • Issue R9
HAND: FINGERNAILS, INFECTIONS, TUMORS,
AND SOFT-TISSUE RECONSTRUCTION
Bridget Harrison, MD
Michael Dolan, MD
Michel Saint-Cyr, MD, FRCS(C)
Reconstructive
www.SRPS.org
Editor-in-Chief
Jeffrey M. Kenkel, MD
Editor Emeritus
Fritz E. Barton, Jr, MD
Contributing Editors
R. S. Ambay, MD, DDS
R. G. Anderson, MD
S. J. Beran, MD
S. M. Bidic, MD
G. Broughton II, MD, PhD
J. L. Burns, MD
J. S. Chatterjee, MRCS
A. Cheng, MD
J. Cheng, MD
C. P. Clark III, MD
H. J. Desai, MD
M. Dolan, MD
R. W. Ellison, MD
R. Ghaiy, MD
D. L. Gonyon, Jr, MD
A. A. Gosman, MD
J. R. Griffin, MD
K. A. Gutowski, MD
R. Y. Ha, MD
F. Hackney, MD, DDS
B. Harrison, MD
L. H. Hollier, MD
R. E. Hoxworth, MD
B. A. Hubbard, MD
J. E. Ireton, MD
K. Itani, MD
J. E. Janis, MD
R. K. Khosla, MD
C. J. Langevin, MD
J. E. Leedy, MD
J. A. Lemmon, MD
A. H. Lipschitz, MD
J. H. Liu, MD, MSHS
R. A. Meade, MD
M. Morales, MD
D. L. Mount, MD
K. Narasimhan, MD
A. T. Nguyen, MD
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R. J. Rohrich, MD
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M. Schaverien, MRCS
M. C. Snyder, MD
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30 Topics
Reconstruction
Breast Reconstruction
Cleft Lip and Palate
Craniofacial Anomalies
Eyelid Reconstruction
Facial Fractures
Hand: Congenital Anomalies
Hand: Extensor Tendons
Hand: Flexor Tendons
Hand: Peripheral Nerves
Hand: Soft Tissues
Hand: Wrist, Joints, Rheumatoid Arthritis
Head and Neck Reconstruction
Lip, Cheek, Scalp, and Hair Restoration
Lower Extremity Reconstruction
Microsurgery
Nasal Reconstruction
Plastic Surgery of the Ear
Trunk Reconstruction
Vascular Anomalies
Wounds and Wound Healing
Cosmetic
Blepharoplasty
Body Contouring
Breast Augmentation
Brest Reduction and Mastopexy
Brow Lift
Facelift
Neuromodulators and Injectable Fillers
Lasers and Light Therapy
Rhinoplasty
Skin Care
Selected Readings in Plastic Surgery (ISSN 0739-5523) is a series of monographs
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information, please visit our web site: www.SRPS.org.
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SRPS • Volume 11 • Issue R9 • 2016
HAND: FINGERNAILS, INFECTIONS, TUMORS, AND
SOFT-TISSUE RECONSTRUCTION
Bridget Harrison, MD*
Michael Dolan, MD†
Michel Saint-Cyr, MD, FRCS(C)‡
*Department of Plastic Surgery, University of Texas Southwestern
Medical Center at Dallas, Dallas, Texas
†West Tennessee Bone and Joint Clinic, Jackson, Tennessee
‡Department of Plastic Surgery, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, Minnesota
FINGERNAILS
Extending to the most distal point of the mobile digit,
the fingernail is exposed to a variety of injuries: traumatic,
infectious, and vascular. Their treatment frequently is
devalued compared with the reconstruction of proximal
structures, but neglect or carelessness can result in longterm aesthetic and functional difficulties.
Anatomy and Physiology
Nail anatomy is closely linked with the physiology
and pathology of the nail unit. The nail plate
provides substantial aesthetic and functional
importance, serving to protect the underlying
sterile and germinal matrix and aid in gripping
fine objects. The nail plate is made of a keratinous
material produced as cells of the germinal matrix
die and are pressed upward.1 In its absence, 2-point
discrimination and sensation tend to decrease.
However, Jansen et al.2 found that nails longer than
0.5 cm beyond the tip of the finger decrease grip
strength and limit finger flexion.
Underlying the nail plate are the sterile and
germinal matrices. The germinal matrix produces
90% of the nail by volume. On average, fingernails
grow 3 mm per month (or 0.1 mm per day) and
toenails grow approximately 1 mm per month.
Growth generally is not affected by climate, height,
or weight but can be stunted by poor nutrition.3
The germinal matrix is composed of dividing germ
cells from the proximal nail fold to the lunula and
extends down to periosteum. The cells retain their
nuclei to the level of the lunula, which produces the
white color of that area. Distal to the lunula is the
sterile matrix, which is responsible for nail adherence
and thickening of the distal nail. At this level, the
cell nuclei disintegrate and the nail becomes clear.
The loss of nuclei is why it is referred to as the sterile
matrix. Rugae of the sterile matrix run longitudinally
and increase surface area and adherence.4
Distal to the sterile matrix and the free nail
margin is the hyponychium. The surrounding soft
tissue is referred to as the perionychium, and the
perionychium bordering the lateral nail edges is the
paronychium (Fig. 1).5 An infection of this area,
discussed later, is termed paronychia. Proximally, the
nail fold is covered by a layer of epidermis commonly
referred to as the cuticle, or eponychium. Loss of this
protective layer can result in irregularities of the nail
plate and loss of nail shine.
Injuries
Fingertip injuries are exceedingly common, and
the nail bed itself is a frequent site of injury. Injury
or destruction of the matrices can result in nail
deformation, abnormal growth, or complete nail
1
SRPS • Volume 11 • Issue R9 • 2016
Eponychium
Lunula
Nail fold
(dorsal roof and ventral floor)
Pulp
0
No injury
1
Laceration
2
Crush
3
Loss—distal transverse
4
Loss—palmar oblique partial
5
Loss—dorsal oblique
6
Loss—lateral
7
Loss—complete
Hyponychium
Ventral (sterile) matrix
Intermediate (germinal) matrix
A
Eponychium
Lunula
Nail
Ventral
(sterile)
matrix
B
Intermediate
(sterile)
matrix
Figure 1. Anatomy of the nail shown in sagittal (A) and
dorsal (B) views. (Modified from Brucker and Edstrom.5)
loss. Acute injury to the nail plate or bed requires
determination of the mechanism of injury and
evaluation of the underlying structures. Fingertip
injuries have also been classified by Allen6, Tamai,7
and Evans and Bernardis.8 Evan and Bernardis
reported using the Pulp Nail Bone classification,
which classifies injuries based on those three
components of the fingertip (Fig. 2).8 Crush injuries
result in compression of the nail bed between the
hard distal phalanx and nail plate, often producing
stellate lacerations and subungual hematomas.
Avulsion injuries can result in removal of the nail
plate and/or nail bed.6−9
Bleeding underneath the nail bed results in
a subungual hematoma, which can be managed by
observation, trephination, or removal of the nail
plate and laceration repair. Although traditional
thought recommended removal of the nail plate
for any hematoma exceeding 50% of the nail bed,
a systematic review of the literature found no
randomized controlled trial comparing nail bed
2
0
No injury
1
Sterile matrix laceration
2
Germinal + sterile matrix laceration
3
Crush
4
Proximal nailbed dislocation
5
Loss—distal third
6
Loss—distal two thirds
7
Loss—lateral
8
Loss—complete
Bone
0
No injury
1
Tuft
2
Comminuted non-articular
3
Articular
4
Displaced basal
5
Tip exposure
6
Loss—distal half
7
Loss—subtotal (tendon insertions intact)
8
Loss—complete
Figure 2. The Pulp Nail Bone classification of fingertip
injuries. (Modified from Evans and Bernardis.8)
SRPS • Volume 11 • Issue R9 • 2016
exploration with trephination and no evidence for any
difference in final nail cosmesis or complication rate
between the techniques.10 If nail bed repair is elected,
the nail plate is removed and the nail bed typically
is repaired with 6.0 chromic suture. Replacement of
the nail plate beneath the fold is another common
practice, but its replacement has not been found to
affect nail regrowth or final appearance.11
Promising results have also been observed with
the use of dermal adhesives in nail bed repair. In a
randomized controlled trial comparing repair with
6-0 chromic sutures versus 2-octylcyanoacrylate
(Dermabond; Ethicon, Somerville, NJ), Strauss
et al.12 found no difference in cosmesis. However,
Dermabond significantly decreased the time required
for nail bed repair. Its use in children has also been
successful, although 27 of 30 pediatric patients
experienced simple transverse lacerations.13
When nail bed injury is extensive or involves
partial or total loss of the sterile matrix, splitthickness matrix grafting from an uninvolved finger
or toe can be performed. If the avulsed part has been
retained, it can be replaced as a graft. This technique
can be successful even with exposed bone of the
distal phalanx.14 Split-thickness sterile matrix grafts
generally perform better than grafts of the germinal
matrix.15 Germinal matrix grafts must be of full
thickness to include the basilar layer of proliferative
cells. Higher success is obtained when the germinal
matrix is grafted in conjunction with other nail
elements as a composite graft.16 The donor site is then
covered with a split-thickness skin graft.
In cases with substantial loss of germinal matrix,
consideration should be given to primary nail bed
ablation. When performing an ablation, the intimate
relationship of the terminal extensor tendon to
the germinal matrix must be appreciated, with the
two structures being separated by only 1.2 mm.17
Visualization of the insertion of the terminal extensor
tendon represents the proximal limit of excision.
Microvascular nail transfer is the definitive method
for replacing the entire nail matrix, but to obtain
improved cosmesis at the recipient site, a notable
defect is created from the donor. Artificial dermis has
been described to improve donor site morbidity,18
but the indications for this challenging procedure are
limited and patients must be well versed on the risks
and potential complications.19,20
Nail Deformities
Although a variety of systemic disorders can result in
nail abnormalities, the plastic surgeon is most likely
to be presented with posttraumatic deformities such
as a hook nail, pincer nail, or split nail (Fig. 3). A
hook nail arises when the nail curves volarly during
growth. This can occur after fingertip amputation
when the remaining nail bed is sutured to volar skin
or granulation tissue results in contraction. For this
reason, the nail bed should not be used to cover an
amputated tip. A hook nail can also arise secondary
to a malpositioned distal phalanx fracture with volar
angulation.21 Correction might require scar release
and full-thickness skin graft, V-Y flap, or shortening
of the nail bed to the length of the bone to provide
support.
Lateral hooking, when severe and progressive,
is known as a pincer nail. The cause of a pincer nail is
not always known, but its progression can cause pain
and discomfort. Treatment methods include wedge
resection of the midportion of the phalanx, lateral
dermal grafts, or surgical extirpation and nail bed
ablation.
A split nail can occur as a result of a
longitudinal scar in the germinal matrix or injury to
the sterile matrix. If the split is narrow, scar excision
and primary closure might be possible. Larger splits
require grafting for correction.
A
B
C
Figure 3. Hook (A), pincer (B), and split (C) nails.
3
SRPS • Volume 11 • Issue R9 • 2016
INFECTIONS
Sixty percent of all hand infections are the result of
trauma, 30% result from human bites, and 10%
result from animal bites.22 Hand infections account
for approximately 20% of all admissions to hand
surgery units and often are accorded a lower level
of significance than warranted. When the infection
is appropriately treated, the patient returns to
optimal function in a short time. If the infection is
inadequately treated, the patient is resigned to pain,
stiffness, and disability. Amputation is sometimes
required in extreme cases.
Microbes and Antibiotic Selection
The most frequent pathogen involved in hand
infections is Staphylococcus aureus, with an increasing
trend toward methicillin-resistant species.23,24 Current
recommendations do not require prophylaxis for
methicillin-resistant S. aureus (MRSA) in all patients,
but individual factors and local antibiograms should
be considered. In a retrospective review of 159 hand
infections treated in the operating room during an
11-year period, Imahara and Friedrich25 identified
intravenous drug use as the only independent risk
factor for community-acquired MRSA infections.
However, the Centers for Disease Control
recommend empiric coverage of MRSA infections
if the local rate of MRSA exceeds 15%,26 a rate that
is not uncommonly exceeded in recent reports.
Outpatient coverage can reasonably be obtained with
trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole, clindamycin, or a
long-acting tetracycline.
When selecting an antibiotic, one needs to
consider the severity of the infection, suspected
organism, and patient characteristics. High-level
resistance to clindamycin has been reported, especially
in patients with antibiotic exposure within 3 months
and in those who have recently undergone surgery.27
Rifampin frequently is added to antibiotic regimens
to cover MRSA, but little evidence supports this
practice.28 Rifampin has been found to be effective
when combined with Linezolid for implant-associated
infections,29 but the extension of this practice to all
MRSA infections has not been established. Bactrim
4
is effective in treating MRSA30 but does not provide
adequate coverage of group A streptococci (Table 1).
Infections with Streptococcus species present rapidly,
with marked cellulitis and possibly lymphangitis.
Although an antistaphylococcal penicillin or firstgeneration cephalosporin adequately covers S. aureus,
streptococci are better covered by penicillin.
Infections associated with intravenous drug use,
diabetes mellitus, bites, and farm injuries are more
frequently polymicrobial with gram-negative, grampositive, and anaerobic species.31−33 Although alphahemolytic streptococcus and S. aureus are the most
commonly isolated pathogens in human bite wounds,
Eikenella corrodens is found in up to one-third of
cases.34 Pasteurella multocida can be found in domestic
animal bite wounds and scratches.35 These wounds
usually are adequately covered by the addition of
penicillin to an agent effective against the other grampositive organisms36 or amoxicillin-clavulanic acid.37
Prophylactic Antibiotics
Five independent studies have shown that
prophylactic antibiotics are not useful for
uncomplicated hand lacerations,38−42 and they are
not recommended for routine hand trauma. Even
among mutilating injuries sustained on the farm,
Fitzgerald et al.31 failed to identify improvement
from prophylactic parenteral antibiotics. In cases of
open fractures, an orthopaedic study43 identified a
benefit of the use of a short course of first-generation
cephalosporins and appropriate fixation. Antibiotics
should be administered within 6 hours of injury.44,45
For elective hand surgery, the role of
prophylactic antibiotics is limited. Hoffman and
Adams46 recommended antibiotics for the following
procedures: 1) soft-tissue reconstructive procedures with
large flaps, 2) total elbow or wrist implant arthroplasty,
3) procedures of long duration, 4) complex open hand
trauma with wound contamination and extensive softtissue and bony injury, and 5) procedures longer than
2 hours in duration. A common factor of the above
procedures is prolonged operative time, which has
repeatedly been shown to significantly increase infection
rates (P < 0.0001).47,48 Still, although Bykowski et al.49
SRPS • Volume 11 • Issue R9 • 2016
Table 1
Empiric Antibiotic Treatment for Some Common Hand Infections
Infection
Cellulitis/lymphangitis
Paronychium/felon
Antibiotic
Likely Organisms
First-generation cephalosporin
Streptococcus pyrogenes,
or antistaphylococcal penicillin
Staphylococcus aureus
Dicloxacillin
S. aureus, anaerobes
or first-generation cephalosporin
Flexor tenosynovitis
b-Lactamase inhibitor
or first-generation cephalosporin
and penicillin; consider ceftriaxone
Deep space infection
b-Lactamase inhibitor
or first-generation cephalosporin
and penicillin
Human bite wound
Dog or cat bite wound
S. aureus, streptococci,
anaerobes;
Neisseria gonorrhoeae
S. aureus, streptococci, gramnegative bacilli, anaerobes
b-Lactamase inhibitor
S. aureus, streptococci,
or first-generation cephalosporin
and penicillin
Eikenella corrodens, anaerobes
b-Lactamase inhibitor
S. aureus, streptococci,
or first-generation cephalosporin
and penicillin
Pasteurella multocida
from aerobic and anaerobic cultures
and special cultures—fungi,
mycobacteria, viruses—as indicated
associated surgical site infections with longer procedure
times, smoking status, and diabetes mellitus in a review
of 8850 patients, prophylactic antibiotics did not affect
infection rates in those subgroups.
Antibiotics have been shown to reduce infection
rates in large joint replacements,50,51 although Shapiro52
argued that smaller, non-metallic prostheses, such as
those used in the hand, might be more resistant to seeding.
Because of the marked morbidity associated with implant
infection, prophylaxis is commonly used when
implanting prostheses.
Management
Although the spectrum of acute bacterial hand
infections is broad, the management principles are
similar for all and can be summarized as follows:
•• rest, elevation, and immobilization in
position of function
•• adequate drainage of all loculations of
pus and débridement of necrotic tissue
•• antibiotics, determined by sensitivities
•• treatment with broad-spectrum
antibiotics until cultures are available
•• tetanus prophylaxis for all
penetrating wounds
•• early, aggressive hand therapy
Common Bacterial Infections
Hand infections can be acute or chronic, but the
overwhelming majority of them are acute. Of the
acute infections, the overwhelming majority are
bacterial in origin.
Cellulitis
Cellulitis is a common superficial infection of the
hand that presents as erythema, swelling, pain,
and occasional lymphangitis or vesicle formation.
Cellulitis occurs most commonly on the dorsal aspect
5
SRPS • Volume 11 • Issue R9 • 2016
of the fingers and metacarpals, and beta-hemolytic
streptococcus is the usual pathogen. Treatment
includes rest, elevation, splinting, and antibiotics.
Paronychia
Paronychia is an infection of the lateral soft-tissue
fold surrounding the fingernail. Paronychia is
initiated by the introduction of bacteria between
the nail and its surrounding structures. This usually
is caused by minor trauma, such as nail biting and
manicures. It frequently is reported that S. aureus
is the most frequent isolate in paronychia. Studies
have shown anaerobic bacteria to be present alone
or in combination in a large percentage of cases of
paronychia,53 likely because of the frequency
of contact of the oral secretions with the
inciting wound.
Paronychia initially begins as erythema,
swelling, and discomfort at the nail fold, sometimes
with fluctuation and frank purulence. If paronychia
is detected early, warm soaks, elevation, and
oral antibiotics can be sufficient treatment. Oral
cephalexin, clindamycin, and amoxicillin-clavulanate
are effective against most pathogens isolated from
paronychia.54 Although no trials have compared
antibiotic therapy alone versus surgical drainage, in
the presence of an obvious abscess, drainage generally
is recommended.55
Different methods for drainage have been
described.56,57 Superficial infections can be drained
easily with an 11 blade or elevation of the nail fold
with the tip of a 21- or 23-gauge needle. If pus is
present underneath the nail, however, most hand
surgeons remove a portion or all of the nail plate
(Fig. 4).58 If nail plate removal is indicated, incision
of the dorsal nail fold can facilitate removal and
drainage. Two incisions are made at right angles to
the nail fold, at the 5 o’clock and 7 o’clock positions,
to elevate it completely from the nail bed in the
region of the infection (Fig. 5).59,60 Accurate placement
of the incisions minimizes the chance of subsequent
eponychial retraction.
6
Occasionally, paronychia becomes a chronic
problem, perhaps from secondary mycobacterial or
fungal infections, which more commonly occur in
immunosuppressed patients, diabetics, and patients
with cancer. Chronic paronychia also occurs in patients
with frequent exposure to irritants and allergens.61
With this condition, the cuticle separates from the
nail plate exposing the region to potential bacterial
and fungal pathogens. Although chronic paronychia
was previously thought to be a predominantly fungal
infection caused by Candida albicans, the role of this
pathogen has recently been questioned.62
Before initiating treatment, alternative diagnoses
must be considered. Considering the chronicity of
the lesion, entities such as squamous cell carcinoma
(SCC), malignant melanoma, and metastatic lesions
should be considered.63,64 Treatment should begin
with avoidance of contact irritants. Although Candida
has been targeted in the past, topical steroids have
been shown to be more efficacious than systemic
antifungals.62 Refractory chronic paronychia might
require marsupialization or excision of the proximal
nail fold. The nail fold can be marsupialized by
excision of a crescent of tissue down to the germinal
matrix, which is then left to close by secondary
intention.65 Alternatively, the entire proximal nail fold,
including the cuticle, can be excised.66
Pulp Space Infection (Felons)
A felon is an infection of the pulp of the distal finger.
The anatomy of the pulp is unique, with hundreds
of longitudinal septa anchoring the tip to the distal
phalanx (Fig. 6).58 When infection is present, the
septa can compartmentalize an infection and preclude
adequate drainage if the septa are not fully ruptured.
Most felons are precipitated by some sort
of penetrating trauma, and radiographs should be
obtained of all felons and carefully evaluated for
foreign bodies. If a felon does not respond to therapy
or if strong evidence indicates that a non-radiopaque
foreign body is embedded in the pulp, ultrasonography
might reveal a foreign body not seen on conventional
radiographs. S. aureus is the most common pathogen
in felons,67 but gram-negative organisms have also
SRPS • Volume 11 • Issue R9 • 2016
been reported. Gram-negative organisms should be
considered in immunosuppressed patients. Cases of
pulp space infection have also been reported to occur
in diabetics who developed felons after checking their
blood sugar level by fingerstick.68
Paronychia
Figure 4. Drainage of paronychia. (Modified from
Conolly.58)
Figure 5. Incisions in eponychium. (Modified from Zook
and Brown.60)
Nail plate
Germinal matrix
Dorsal roof
Eponychium
Hyponychium
Sterile matrix
Periosteum
Fat pad and fascial septa
Sterile matrix
Paronychium
Artery
Nerve
Fascial septa
Figure 6. Anatomy of the fingertip. (Modified from
Conolly.58)
If a pulp infection is observed early, it might
simply be a case of localized cellulitis or a small
superficial abscess. Localized cellulitis and small
superficial abscesses can be treated with orally
administered antibiotics, rest, and elevation or
with local drainage as indicated. In a case of true
felon, the patient presents with the entire pulp red,
swollen, and markedly tender. The patient usually
complains of a severe throbbing pain, particularly
when the finger is dependent. The pain is caused
by increased tissue pressure, which is caused by
the unyielding septa (essentially a compartment
syndrome of the pulp). At that stage, adequate
drainage and antibiotics are required for treatment.
Late presentation or incomplete therapy can result in
a compromise of the blood flow to the pulp, which
can result in necrosis of the soft tissues, tenosynovitis,
septic arthritis, and even osteomyelitis.69
Many incisions have been recommended for
the drainage of felons. If it is pointing, the felon
should be drained at that site. Careful palpation
with a small blunt probe often determines a point of
maximal tenderness, and the incision should be made
at that site. The pulp must be explored immediately
volar to the phalanx but dorsal to the neurovascular
structures. The fibrous septa are ruptured to allow
complete drainage of the infected space. Good results
are achieved with a longitudinal midline palmar
incision that does not cross the distal interphalangeal
(DIP) joint (Fig. 7).58,70 The incision heals well and
usually does not produce a hypersensitive scar on the
pulp. A dorsal mid-axial hockey stick incision can be
used but should be placed on the noncontact side of
the digit and should not extend around the tip of the
finger. If this incision is used, care must be taken to
preserve the neurovascular bundles.
7
SRPS • Volume 11 • Issue R9 • 2016
Pus pocket
The hallmarks of flexor tenosynovitis were
first established by Kanavel76 and constitute the four
cardinal signs that bear his name:
•• fusiform swelling of the digit
•• partially flexed posture of the digit
Digital artery
and nerve
Figure 7. Drainage of a felon. (Modified from Conolly.58)
Tenosynovitis
Tenosynovitis is an infection within the sheaths that
form the gliding surfaces around the tendons in the
hand. It is almost exclusively a disease of the flexor
tendons, although extensor tenosynovitis has also
been described. Reports of extensor tenosynovitis
more commonly involve atypical organisms, such
as tuberculosis or blastomyces.71−73 Although
tenosynovitis rarely is life-threatening, delayed or
inappropriate treatment can lead to devastating
consequences. The delicate gliding surfaces of the
tendon sheaths can be destroyed by infection,
resulting in a stiff and painful finger. Even more
prolonged delay in treatment can allow the sheath
to rupture, with spread of the infection to any of the
spaces of the palm or to the adjacent bone. Prolonged
infection increases pressure in the sheath and can
thereby lead to ischemic rupture of the tendon via
inhibition of extrinsic blood flow.74
Most cases of tenosynovitis begin with
penetrating trauma, and in such cases, the most
common infectious agent is S. aureus. Some cases are
caused by hematogenous dissemination, particularly
of gonococcal infections, and this possibility should
be considered in cases with no history of antecedent
trauma.75
8
•• tenderness along the entire flexor sheath
•• pain along the entire flexor sheath with
passive extension of the digit
The sensitivity and specificity of these signs
have not been validated, and authors77−80 have
reported variations in the most commonly seen
sign. In a study of 75 patients with purulent flexor
tenosynovitis, Pang et al.77 found that fusiform
swelling was most common (97%). All patients in
a report by Dailiana et al.78 experienced tenderness
along the flexor tendon sheath and pain with passive
extension. Diagnosis is first and foremost clinical, but
in situations of uncertainty, ultrasonography might
be of benefit.79,80 Ultrasonography can show swelling
of the tendon and peritendinous fluid.
Michon81 classified flexor tenosynovitis
into three stages that can be used to describe and
document the clinical presentation. In the first stage,
the tendon sheath becomes distended with exudative
fluid. In the second stage, further distension occurs
with purulent fluid. In the third stage, the tendon
becomes nonviable and necrosis of the tendon and
pulleys is present.
Once the diagnosis of tenosynovitis has been
made, treatment must be instituted promptly. Very
early cases can undergo a trial of intravenously
administered antibiotics, splinting, and elevation.
That mode of treatment, however, should be selected
with caution. The patient should be observed closely,
and if marked improvement is not noted within
12 to 24 hours, treatment should progress to
surgical drainage.
When surgical drainage is deemed necessary
based on initial presentation or failure to improve,
two methods are available. Early cases can be
irrigated through incisions in the sheath just
proximal to the A1 pulley and at the distal flexor
sheath. A small catheter is then placed (Fig. 8).82−84
In general, irrigation does not need to continue
SRPS • Volume 11 • Issue R9 • 2016
postoperatively. Lille et al.85 found no difference in
functional outcomes with continued irrigation. If the
patient fails to respond to treatment or if the sheath
cannot be cleared of purulence at initial exploration,
open drainage must be performed. The sheath is
opened widely via a midlateral incision to maintain
coverage of the tendon sheath and is copiously
irrigated.86 The wound is closed loosely or left open
for delayed closure. Active range-of-motion exercises
are begun with the first dressing change on the ward.87
In the event that the thumb or little finger is
involved with tenosynovitis, the infection can extend
proximally to involve either the ulnar or radial bursa.
The two bursae communicate through the space of
Parona, between the pronator quadratus and flexor
digitorum profundus tendons. When infection spreads
through this communicating space, a horseshoe
abscess can form. This will cause proximal pain and
swelling and might necessitate incisions in the ulnar
and radial bursa and carpal tunnel release.88
Deep Space Infection
A variety of “spaces” have been described in the hand.
In reality, the spaces are potential and become notable
only when infected, as they become loculations of
purulent material. They include the thenar space,
midpalmar space, hypothenar space, subtendinous
space or Parona space, dorsal subcutaneous space,
dorsal subaponeurotic space, and interdigital web
spaces (Fig. 9).59,84 The spaces often are confused
with the compartments of the hand, which are the
four dorsal interossei, three volar interossei, thenar,
hypothenar, and adductor pollicis compartments.
Infection in the deep spaces begins most
frequently with a penetrating injury, the most
commonly identified isolate being S. aureus. An
antistaphylococcal agent can be used for initial
antibiotic therapy unless gram stain at the time of
drainage suggests another organism. Nonsurgical
management has no place in the treatment of deep
space infections. As clearly described in the preantibiotic era by Kanavel,89 the key to treatment of
deep space infections is precise drainage of the abscess,
guided by knowledge and respect for the surrounding
and involved structures.
Figure 8. Closed irrigation for flexor tenosynovitis.
(Modified from Brown and Young.84)
Thenar space
Midpalmar septum
Midpalmar space
Hypothenar septum
Figure 9. Deep spaces of the hand. (Modified from
Brown and Young.84)
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SRPS • Volume 11 • Issue R9 • 2016
Both thenar and midpalmar space infections
usually present with diffuse hand swelling, especially
on the dorsum. This is because the volar skin is
more limited by tight fascial attachments, whereas
dorsally, there is room for expansion. Thenar space
infections usually are characterized by the thumb
being held in an abducted position, with pain over the
adductor muscles and pain on extension or attempted
opposition of the thumb. Drainage of the abscesses
must not only respect the proximity of neurovascular
structures, primarily the radial bundle to the index
finger and the ulnar bundle to the thumb, but also
must prevent scarring across the thumb-index web
(Fig. 10).84
A midpalmar infection causes loss of palmar
concavity, with fingers often held in flexion. The
midpalmar space, exclusive of the flexor tendon
sheaths, allows free spread of infection along fascial
planes to deeper areas in the hand. Its boundaries
are the fascia over the second and third interosseous
muscles, the oblique midpalmar septum radially, the
hypothenar septum ulnarly, and the flexor sheaths of
the long, ring, and small fingers volarly. The fingers
might be held in a semi-flexed posture with pain
during passive extension. Hypothenar space infections
are less common and are localized to an area defined
by the hypothenar septum ulnarly, the periosteum of
the fifth metacarpal dorsally, and the palmar fascia and
fascia of the hypothenar muscles volarly.
Osteomyelitis
Osteomyelitis of the bony structures of the hand
is a relatively infrequent infection because of the
extensive blood supply to the region,90 but its effects
can be devastating. Nearly half of all fingers with
osteomyelitis ultimately require amputation, with
many more remaining stiff or nonfunctional.91
Osteomyelitis can present after penetrating or crush
wounds or can spread from an adjacent infection,
hematogenous seeding, or treatment of fractures.
The incidence of osteomyelitis after internal
fixation of open hand fractures is reportedly 0 to
2.5%.92 For osteomyelitis in this setting, Balaram
and Bednar93 recommended implant removal and
surgical cultures from the affected bone and soft
10
tissue. Débridement of infected soft tissue and bone
is performed. Antibiotic spacers are placed in the
defect, and external fixation can be applied before
wound closure.94 Positive cultures are treated with 4
to 6 weeks of antibiotic treatment. After successful
treatment, spacers can be removed and autologous
grafting can be performed.
Overall, S. aureus is the most common
infecting organism, but polymicrobial infections are
common after penetrating trauma or open injuries.
Hematogenous osteomyelitis and postoperative
infections are more likely to be caused by a single
organism.95 The best test for diagnosing osteomyelitis
under such circumstances is direct evaluation of the
bone in an operative setting, with a biopsy performed
during the same procedure. The biopsy also
provides a culture to guide the antibiotic therapy. A
superficial swabbing of the wound is inadequate for
diagnosis or culture, because the pathogens obtained
by that technique might not accurately reflect
the microbiology of the infected bone. Although
conventional radiographs should be obtained to
identify foreign bodies and other pathological
conditions, they are unreliable in the diagnosis of
osteomyelitis.96 Three-phase bone scans and tagged
white blood cell scans are more accurate but are
expensive, time-consuming, and limited by acuity of
the infection and other local inflammatory processes.
Magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) is frequently
used for diagnosis, but sensitivity and specificity
have been reported to range from 60% to 100%
and from 50% to 90%, respectively.97 Diagnosis
can be confused with noninfectious inflammatory
conditions, bone contusion, healing fractures,
osteonecrosis, and metastasis.
Septic Arthritis
Infection of the joint spaces of the hand can
cause a devastating loss of hand function because
it can quickly lead to joint degeneration or
osteomyelitis.98,99 Septic arthritis can present as a
primary site of infection or as a complication of
another hand infection, the most common of which
is an acute flexor tenosynovitis. Isolated septic
arthritis can occur either by direct inoculation or
SRPS • Volume 11 • Issue R9 • 2016
A
B
C
D
Figure 10. Incisions for drainage of deep space infections. A, Thenar space. B, Mid-palmar space. C, Hypothenar
space. D, Collar button abscess. (Modified from Brown and Young.84)
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SRPS • Volume 11 • Issue R9 • 2016
by hematogenous spread from a distant infection.
Distant sites of recent infection must be sought,
particularly in the patient with no history of
trauma.100 In children, monoarticular arthritis
often is caused by hematogenous spread from a
distant infection. In addition to Streptococcus and
Staphylococcus species, Haemophilus influenzae must be
considered to be a common potential pathogen and
covered appropriately. In the sexually active patient,
particularly those younger than 40 years with no
history of direct inoculation, gonococcal arthritis
must be suspected.101
Septic arthritis in the hand presents as a locally
tender, erythematous, and swollen joint. Because
of the swelling and pain, the joint is held in the
position that maximizes its volume, approximately
30 degrees of flexion in the interphalangeal joints
and full extension in the metacarpophalangeal
(MCP) joints. The joint is particularly tender with
any passive motion. Arthrocentesis of the joint can
be performed as a diagnostic maneuver. Treatment
consists of elevation, parenteral antibiotics, and
incision and drainage of the joint.102 Treatment
with open irrigation and débridement is standard,
but arthroscopic approaches in the wrist have been
described as achieving good results.103 Depending on
the severity of the infection, irrigation of the joint
for 48 to 72 hours might also be required. Based on
a review of 40 consecutive cases of septic arthritis in
the hand or wrist, Kowalski et al.104 recommended
a short course (<1 week) of parenteral antibiotics
supplemented with oral therapy for an additional 2
to 3 weeks.
Views differ on the subject of immobilization
versus mobilization. Wittels et al.105 showed the
benefits of early mobilization in a study of septic
arthritis in 40 hand joints. Boustred et al.106 also
reported achieving good results with mobilization
with 24 hours of surgical drainage but suggested
primary arthrodesis for patients who present after
10 days of onset of symptoms. The recommendation
was supported by data from Curtiss,107 Roy and
Bhawan,108 and Smith et al.,109 who found irreversible
changes in the articular cartilage by 7 days of sepsis
and chondrocyte death within 24 to 48 hours.
12
Bite Wounds
Human Bite Wounds
Bites to the human hand account for 20% to 30%
of all hand infections, and the majority are human
bites. The clenched-fist injury is associated with a
high incidence of complications, including stiff joints
and even amputations.110,111 The injury is sustained as
the clenched fist strikes the mouth of another person,
and the tooth frequently impales the metacarpal
heads. The key point in understanding the potential
of the underlying pathological condition is that the
site of penetration of the various layers is relative to
the position of the fist at the moment of impact (Fig.
11).112 The hand must be assessed in the clenched-fist
position to allow accurate assessment of the depth
of injury.
The patient presenting early with a laceration
or puncture has minimal inflammation. Radiography
might reveal a fracture of the metacarpal head, air
within the joint, or, occasionally, a foreign body such
as a broken tooth.113 The patient presenting late has
a red, swollen, painful hand and can have associated
lymphangitis and regional lymphadenitis. The
patients are constitutionally unwell, with fever and
elevated white cell count, and are in serious danger
of osteomyelitis, septic arthritis, and severe joint
damage.114 Radiographic examination of the patients,
in addition to looking for a chip fracture or foreign
body, is directed at early signs of osteomyelitis or
abscess formation within the bone.115
In the majority of cases, cultures yield S.
aureus,116 but early reports were limited by failure
to include anaerobic cultures. With adequate
cultures, other organisms commonly encountered
include alpha- and beta-hemolytic streptococci,
Eikenella corrodens, Bacteroides gracilis, Prevotella, and
Peptostreptococcus.117
The clenched-fist wound to the MCP joint
is a notoriously underestimated and undertreated
injury. All patients with clenched-fist wounds should
be managed with splinting, elevation, antibiotics,
and wound exploration.118,119 In grossly septic joints,
irrigation can be continued postoperatively for 48
to 72 hours. Early motion (48−72 hours) should be
advocated considering that stiffness is one of the more
difficult complications to treat.
SRPS • Volume 11 • Issue R9 • 2016
Animal Bite Wounds
A
B
Figure 11. A, Tooth pierces clenched fist, penetrating
skin, tendon, joint capsule, and metacarpal head. B,
When finger is extended, four puncture wounds do not
align. (Modified with permission from Lister.112)
Studies120,121 have shown that uncomplicated
bite wounds (not involving the joint capsule or
articular surface), when seen within 12 hours, can
be adequately managed on an outpatient basis.
Treatment involves wound exploration, vigorous
irrigation, débridement, and supplementation with
orally administered antibiotics to be implemented
only for compliant patients. The addition of
appropriate intravenously or orally administered
antibiotics is necessary to ensure eradication of the
causative organism. Amoxicillin and clavulanic
acid have been shown to be effective in treating
human and animal bites.122 Tetanus vaccination and
immunoglobulin should be administered as indicated.
If the aggressor’s hepatitis B status is unknown,
consider an accelerated course of the hepatitis
B vaccine.123
Domestic dogs are responsible for 90% of all animal
bites. More than half the dog attacks involve young
children, and of the resulting wounds, approximately
half are to the hands and forearms. Dog bites become
infected less often than do human or cat bites.117
A dog’s jaws can exert a force of 150 to 450 psi,
which is sufficient to devitalize tissues. The resulting
wound can be a puncture, laceration, avulsion,
crush, or combination. As with the human bite,
the most common pathogens isolated are a mixture
of aerobes (including Pasteurella multocida) and
anaerobes.124 Pasteurella infection should be suspected
in cases of acute onset of cellulitis, lymphangitis,
and serosanguineous or purulent discharge from a
hand wound within 24 hours of a dog or cat bite.125
Fortunately, P. multocida is sensitive to penicillin.
Most dog bite wounds can be thoroughly
irrigated with normal saline, have the margins sharply
excised (especially over joints, tendons, vessels, and
nerves), and have the edges loosely approximated
with sutures. Paschos et al.126 found no difference in
infection rate between primary suturing and nonsuturing, whereas the cosmetic appearance of the
sutured wounds was notably better. Most of the
organisms commonly encountered in dog saliva are
sensitive to penicillin, so a 5-day course of orally
administered penicillin should be prescribed.127
Penicillin-allergic patients can be treated with
clindamycin and a fluoroquinolone or clindamycin
and trimethoprim-sulfamethoxazole.128 The tetanus
status of the patient and the rabies status of the
animal should be verified and treated as appropriate.
Domestic cat bites account for only 5%
of animal bite wounds to the hand but are more
likely to become infected than dog bites. This can
be attributed to the configuration of the animal’s
dentition. Cat teeth are long and sharp, and the
injury subsequently inflicted tends to be a deep
puncture wound, which can inoculate deep structures
and lead to delay in diagnosis.129 Markedly less
devitalization of tissues occurs with a cat bite
compared with a dog bite, but location over a joint
or tendon sheath should increase concern.130 Wound
closure is controversial, and although primary
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SRPS • Volume 11 • Issue R9 • 2016
closure has been reported without subsequent
complications,131 deep wounds, noncompliant
patients, and late-presenting injuries might be better
managed open. Antibiotic choices are similar to those
used for dog bites.
Atypical Mycobacterial Infections
The three major atypical mycobacteria involved
in hand infection are Mycobacterium marinum,132
Mycobacterium kansasii,133−135 and Mycobacterium
terrae.136,137 M. marinum is the most common
mycobacterial species to infect the hand. It lives in
warm water environments and has been cultured
from contaminated swimming pools, fish tanks, piers,
boats, and stagnant water. It is endogenous to fresh
and saltwater marine life. M. marinum survives best
at 31°C, and for that reason, it produces infections on
the extremities rather than deep body cavities.138 M.
kansasii infection is associated with exposure to soils,
whereas M. terrae infection should be suspected with
patients involved in farming. These organisms can
cause infection even in immunocompetent patients.
Infections with Mycobacterium occur after
a break in the integrity of the skin, often from a
mild abrasion on the dorsum of the hand or over
the interphalangeal or MCP joints of the fingers.
Infection of the hand progresses through a spectrum
of indolent skin ulcers through subcutaneous
granulomata with sinus tracts, tenosynovitis (flexor
and extensor), and septic arthritis or osteomyelitis.
Remote exposure must be identified because lesions
appear after an incubation period of 2 to 4 weeks.139
Early clinical diagnosis of mycobacterial
infections is made only with a high index of
suspicion. When mycobacterial infection is suspected,
cultures should be obtained at both 31°C and 37°C;
otherwise, M. marinum infections can be missed.
Positive cultures for mycobacterial strains take at least
6 weeks for identification; therefore, treatment can
be instituted on the basis of granulomata shown by
histological examination or on the basis of acid-fast
bacilli seen on a smear.
Treatment of superficial disease can be
successful with chemotherapy alone. No single or
14
combination of agents has been shown to be the
treatment of choice. Success has been reported with
tetracycline,140 ciprofloxacin,141 and clarithromycin.142
The largest study to date,143 from Hong Kong,
suggested that chemotherapy alone might be
applicable to more extensive disease; the authors
reported a worse prognosis with severe disease
regardless of the treatment option. Generally, deeper
disease treatment also requires surgery with radical
synovectomy and more specific antimycobacterial
therapy with rifampicin and ethambutol for up to 2
years. The optimal duration of treatment, however,
is unknown. If surgery is indicated, physiotherapy
should begin promptly.
Viral Infections
Herpetic Whitlow
Herpes simplex virus (HSV) infection of the hand
was first described by H. G. Adamson in 1909. It can
be caused by a primary or recurrent infection with
either HSV-1 or HSV-2, but subtypes are clinically
indistinguishable. It tends to occur in three distinct
patient subgroups. The first group is adolescents
with genital herpes, who tend to be infected with
HSV-2.144 The remaining groups tend to be infected
with HSV-1. The second group is children with
oral gingivostomatitis,145 and the third group is
adult health care professionals—including dentists,
anesthesiologists, surgeons, and nurses—who deal
directly with potentially infected oral and respiratory
secretions.146
Herpetic infection of the hand initially declares
itself with a prodromal phase of approximately 72
hours’ duration, with severe pain or tingling in the
affected digit, and then erythema and swelling.
This is called herpetic whitlow. During the ensuing
hours to days, vesicles appear and coalesce, often
around the eponychium and lateral nail fold. It is
at that stage that the viral infection is most likely
to be mistaken for a bacterial felon or paronychia.
However, the pulp usually is not tense, as it would be
in a case of bacterial felon. Associated lymphangitis
can be present. The natural history of untreated,
uncomplicated herpetic whitlow is complete
resolution within 3 weeks. Viral shedding, however,
SRPS • Volume 11 • Issue R9 • 2016
occurs during the first 12 days and corresponds
with the peak of infectivity.147 Reactivation of latent
virus occurs in only approximately 20% of hand
patients.148,149 It is not normally as severe as the
primary infection and lasts for 7 to 10 days.
Diagnosis is primarily clinical but can be
confirmed by viral culture, serum antibody titers,
Tzanck smear, and viral polymerase chain reaction.
Viral culture is the most sensitive diagnostic test but
can require 1 to 4 days for results. The Tzanck smear
is easily performed by unroofing a vesicle and taking
scrapings with a scalpel but identifies only 50% to
60% of culture-proven herpetic infections.150
The treatment of herpetic infections of the
hand is primarily nonsurgical. Of note, surgical
intervention can both delay diagnosis and expose
the patient to other pathogens.151 Rest, elevation,
and anti-inflammatory analgesia are the mainstays
of treatment. A total daily dose of 1600 to 2000
mg of orally administered acyclovir can prevent
or shorten symptom duration and viral shedding
if administered at the onset of the prodrome, but
optimal treatment duration is unknown.152,153 For
immunocompromised patients, aggressive therapy
with intravenously administered acyclovir might be
warranted in an attempt to prevent life-threatening
viremia or meningitis.154
Verruca Vulgaris
The most frequent viral infection of the hand
is caused by human papillomavirus. Human
papillomavirus subtypes 2 and 4 cause verruca
vulgaris, or common warts. Warts occur in up to
10% of children and young adults, most commonly
between the ages of 12 and 16.155 Forty percent of
warts can be expected to clear without treatment,156
but pain and aesthetic appearance can prompt
consultation.
Many over-the-counter preparations contain
salicylic acid, and evidence exists for a better cure rate
(75%) over placebo (48%).157 Higher concentrations
can be prescribed by a physician, but improved
efficacy compared with over-the-counter preparations
has not been proven. Cryotherapy is also an effective
treatment, but multiple treatments usually are
required for resolution. Imiquimod, bleomycin,
and systemic retinoids have all been used to treat
warts, but side effects are notable and limit
widespread application.
TUMORS
Several authors158−162 have presented excellent reviews
of the spectrum of hand neoplasms, including
their incidence, causes, anatomic distribution, and
management, which almost always involves surgical
remova1. Only the more common hand tumors are
discussed herein. The overwhelming majority of hand
masses are benign, and true neoplasms are rare in the
hand (Table 2).158
Soft-Tissue Tumors
Ganglia
Ganglia are the most common benign tumors in the
hand.163,164 Although trauma is commonly thought
to be implicated in the development of ganglia, a
traumatic antecedent has been documented in only
a small percentage of patients. The pathogenesis
is thought to be mucoid degeneration of fibrous
connective tissue in joint capsules or tendon sheaths
occurring idiopathically or secondary to injury
or irritation. Ganglia are two to three times more
common in women than in men. The usual clinical
presentation is that of a mass with or without pain.
Occasionally, occult ganglia present as paresthesias or
weakness from nerve compression.165−167
Dorsal wrist ganglia—The dorsum of the
wrist accounts for 70% of all ganglia in the hand
and wrist. In the dorsum of the wrist, the ganglion
usually overlies the scapholunate ligament. Clay
and Clement168 noted the pedicle of the ganglion to
arise from that site in 76% of patients. The cause of
dorsal wrist ganglia is still uncertain. Some attribute
underlying peri-scaphoid ligamentous instability,169
but this might be a sequelae of surgical treatment of
the ganglion.
Volar wrist ganglia—Volar wrist ganglia arise
from the flexor carpi radialis tendon sheath or the
15
SRPS • Volume 11 • Issue R9 • 2016
Table 2
Grading of Bone and Soft-tissue Tumors of the Hand158
Benign (G0)
Low-grade Sarcomas (G1)
High-grade Sarcomas (G2)
Bone
Enchondroma
Giant-cell tumor
Osteosarcoma
Osteochondroma
Desmoplastic fibroma
Ewing’s sarcoma
Fibrous dysplasia
Chondrosarcoma (low-grade)
Lymphoma
Osteoid osteoma
Parosteal osteosarcoma
Chondrosarcoma
Bone cysts
Angiosarcoma
Hemangioma
Myeloma
Osteoblastoma
Soft Tissue
Ganglion
Desmoid
Synovioma
Giant cell tumor
Liposarcoma (low-grade)
Malignant fibrous histiocytoma
Fibrosarcoma (low-grade)
Liposarcoma (high-grade)
Kaposi’s sarcoma
Rhabdomyosarcoma
(tendon sheath)
Lipoma
Neurolemmoma
Epithelioid sarcoma
Chondromatosis
Clear cell sarcoma
Glomus tumor
Angiosarcoma
Hemangiopericytoma
Malignant schwannoma
radioscaphoid, scapholunate, or scaphoid-trapeziumtrapezoid joint. Ultrasonography can delineate
the origin preoperatively. The ganglion is in close
proximity to the radial artery, which can cause it to
be bilocular.
Flexor tendon sheath ganglia—Flexor tendon
sheath ganglia arise from the volar flexor tendon
sheaths in the vicinity of the MCP joint. They
present as small, hard, tender tumors on the volar
aspect of the MCP joint or proximal phalanx but do
not move with the tendon. Etiology is unknown, and
they require excision only if symptomatic, excising a
small cuff of the tendon sheath.170 Recurrence rates
are lower with direct excision, but the most costeffective treatment for flexor tendon sheath ganglia is
two aspirations before excision.171
Mucous cysts—Ganglia arising in association
with tendons and joints on the dorsal aspect of
16
fingers can originate from the extensor tendon itself
or from the joint capsule. Mucous cysts can produce
a deformity of the nail plate from pressure on the
nail bed. The etiology of these cysts is unclear, and
various surgical approaches have been successful.
Brown et al.172 reported their experience with 26
nail deformities occurring secondary to mucous
cysts of the DIP joint managed by excision of the
cyst and débridement of associated osteophytes. No
recurrences occurred during the follow-up period,
and residual nail deformity in eight patients was
negligible. However, cyst excision and osteophyte
removal might not be necessary for treatment
considering that success has been reported with
simple osteophyte removal,173 raising and resiting
a flap over a suspected leakage point from the DIP
joint without cyst or osteophyte excision,174 and
simple dorsal capsulectomy.175
SRPS • Volume 11 • Issue R9 • 2016
Pathological anatomy—Depending on its
origin, a ganglion typically has a uni- or multilocular
main cyst that communicates with smaller intraarticular cysts through a tortuous, continuous,
one-way valvular system of ducts. Microscopic
examination of the ganglion wall typically reveals
compressed collagen fibers with no evidence of cells
of epithelial or synovial origin.176,177 The cyst contains
viscous mucoid material consisting of glucosamine,
albumin, globulin, and hyaluronic acid.
Management—Calif et al. reviewed the
natural history of wrist ganglia in children and noted
that 27 of 29 lesions resolved spontaneously within
an average of 9 months. A conservative approach to
ganglia is therefore advocated for young patients,
unless the ganglion is atypical or does not resolve
within a year. Management of wrist ganglia in adults
is controversial. The literature supports a spontaneous
regression rate of 58%,179 whereas treatment of all
types is associated with recurrence rates from less than
1% to 64%.180
178
Treatment of wrist ganglia is indicated only
in the event of substantial discomfort or deformity.
Although surgery is the mainstay of treatment,
various nonoperative techniques have been advocated.
Zubowicz and Ishii181 reported 85% success rates
with up to three aspirations; however, with each
subsequent aspiration, failure is more likely. Varley et
al.182 reported less promising results, with only 33%
success with either aspiration or aspiration combined
with steroid injection. Injection of hyaluronidase has
also been proposed, with the theoretical advantage of
making the cyst permeable to the concurrent injection
of steroid. Despite good results reported by Paul and
Sochart,183 a prospective, randomized clinical trial
comparing hyaluronidase injection and aspiration
with surgical excision found a recurrence rate of 77%
with injection and aspiration compared with 24%
after surgery.184 Sclerotherapy with phenol,185 OK432, and hypertonic saline186 has been described, but
benefit over surgical excision has not been proven and
sclerotherapy carries risks associated with sclerosant
injections.179,187
Arthroscopic resection of wrist ganglia has been
associated with a lower188 or equivalent189 recurrence
rate compared with open resection. It can also
identify the exact origin of the ganglion and other
intra-articular pathological conditions.190 Previously,
excision of the cyst stalk was thought to be necessary
to prevent recurrence,191 but this is not a universally
accepted risk factor.192
Giant Cell Tumors of Tendon Sheath
Giant cell tumors are the second most frequent
type of hand tumor after the ganglion cyst. They
typically occur in the fingers of 30- to 50-yearold patients and are slightly more common in
women.193 They have many names and have been
variably referred to as pigmented villonodular
tenosynovitis, myeloplax tumors, fibrous xanthoma,
xanthosarcoma, and localized nodular synovitis.
No evidence has shown that repeated hemorrhage,
friction, or cholesterol imbalance contributes
substantially to the development of giant cell tumors,
and only approximately one-third of patients provide
histories of trauma or surgery to the region. Pain and
tenderness are not prominent features, but prolonged
unchecked tumor growth interferes with mechanical
function of the hand. Approximately 5% of patients
experience associated sensory disturbances.194
The clinical presentation of a giant cell tumor
of the tendon sheath is that of a lobulated, mottled,
yellow subcutaneous mass. Although the diagnosis
usually is evident clinically, MRI and ultrasonography
have been described as adjuncts in the preoperative
assessment of extensive tumors.195,196 Histological
examination reveals stromal cells, multinucleated giant
cells, and lipid laden foam cells. Cell proliferation is
polyclonal and non-neoplastic.197 Giant cell tumors of
the tendon sheath are considered benign but can erode
bone by pressure and/or can infiltrate the overlying
dermis. Bony invasion has been described and requires
enucleation and curretage.198
Treatment is complete local excision, ensuring
total clearance of the volar joint recess. Recurrences
unfortunately are common, especially in the fingers.
Reported recurrence rates vary from 4% to 44%.199,200
The lowest recurrence rate was reported by Kotwal et
al.,201 who applied radiation after excision. Extensive
17
SRPS • Volume 11 • Issue R9 • 2016
recurrences can necessitate arthrodesis of the affected
joint in that resection of violated ligaments and joint
capsule might be required. Despite infiltrative growth
patterns, rapid recurrence, and a frequently confusing
histological appearance, no report of metastases of
a giant cell tumor of the tendon sheath has been
presented.202
Glomus Tumors
Glomus tumors are benign hamartomas of the normal
glomus apparatus, which consists of neuromyoarterial
structure involved in the regulation of cutaneous
circulation.203 Glomus tumors usually are smaller
than 1 cm in diameter (often measuring only a few
millimeters) and classically present with the triad
of pain, pinpoint tenderness, and cold sensitivity.
Transillumination is a simple and useful clinical test.
Other clinical tests include the Love test (exquisite
localized pain with pinpoint pressure), the Hildreth
test (reduction of pain and tenderness with application
of a proximal tourniquet),204 and the cold test (pain
with application of cold water or an ice cube).205 The
most common site of presentation is subungual, but
glomus tumors occasionally occur on the volar surface
of a digit. Approximately one-fourth of all glomus
tumors are multiple206 and have been associated with
neurofibromatosis.207 Ultrasonography208,209 and
MRI210,211 aid in diagnosis and can detect
multiple tumors.
Treatment is by excision. A balance between
exposure to examine for multiple lesions and
complete tumor removal must be achieved with the
minimization of iatrogenic nail bed injury. The surgical
approach can be transungual, with removal of the nail
plate, or lateral subperiosteal. The major problems
after surgical treatment are a high recurrence rate and
residual nail deformity.212−214
Neurilemomas—Neurilemomas, or schwannomas,
are the most common solitary tumors of neural cell
origin in the hand and are particularly prevalent
in middle-aged patients.216 Neurilemomas begin
as asymptomatic nodular swellings without
associated sensory or motor abnormalities. Patients
with neurofibromatosis type I can suffer from
multiple schwannomas. When surgically exposed,
neurilemomas are seen to have a dumbbell shape and
to lie eccentric to the nerve fiber proper. Histologically,
they are made up of spindle cells with large nuclei
called Antoni type A. Less cellular regions are termed
Antoni type B areas. Excision involves enucleation
under magnification so as to preserve nerve fibers
that fan out over the tumor. Recurrences are rare, and
malignant degeneration is not a clinical feature.
Neurofibromas—Unlike neurilemomas,
neurofibromas can intimately proliferate within nerve
fibers, producing functional abnormalities and making
excision more difficult without division of the nerve.
They occur in three forms: localized, dermal, and
plexiform. Clinically, they are indistinguishable from
schwannomas.217 Histologically, neurofibromas show
weaker S-100 and Leu-7 staining compared with
schwannomas. Malignant degeneration in the absence
of NF-1 is rare. Plexiform neurofibromas, seen more
commonly in NF-1, have a high risk for progression
to malignancy.218−220 Consequently, a mass in this
patient population that changes rapidly in size, causes
an associated neurological deficit, or becomes painful
should undergo incisional biopsy.
Peripheral Nerve Tumors
Granular cell tumors—Although most
commonly reported to occur in the tongue, 10%
to 20% of granular cell tumors are found in the
upper extremity.221 They present as small, nontender, subcutaneous masses that can cause pain or
pruritus and are more common in women and blacks.
Histologically, they are composed of large, elongated
cells with periodic acid-Schiff-positive granules.222
Complete excision usually is curative. Recurrence and
malignancy are rare but have been reported.223,224
True neural cell tumors in the hand are rare (2%−5%
incidence),215 which can result in their neglect or
inappropriate management. They typically are slow
growing and sometimes asymptomatic.
Malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumors—
Previously referred to as neurofibrosarcoma or malignant
schwannoma, malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumors
arise from the Schwann cell and account for 2% to 3%
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SRPS • Volume 11 • Issue R9 • 2016
of malignant hand tumors.225 Half are associated with
von Recklinghausen disease.226 Local extension and
hematogenous spread are common, resulting in a
poor prognosis. Wide excision or amputation of the
extremity is the recommended treatment.
Intraneural tumors of non-neural origin—
Intraneural tumors of non-neural origin include
lipofibromatous hamartomas, hemangiomas, ganglion
cysts, and lipomas.227 Lipofibromatous hamartomas
commonly occur within the 1st decade of life
and usually involve the median nerve. They can
result in macrodactyly, especially of the index and
middle fingers.228 Treatment involves carpal tunnel
release with or without neurolysis. Radial excision
is not recommended because severe sensory and
functional impairments can result. Macrodactyly
can be treated with amputation, wedge osteotomy,
or epiphysiodesis.229 Malignant degeneration has not
been reported.
Epidermal Inclusion Cysts
Epidermal inclusion cysts commonly occur on the
palmar surface of the hand or digits of patients
whose work or leisure activities predispose them
to penetrating hand injuries.230 The time from the
traumatic incident to cyst development varies from
months to years. Clinically, the lesions are firm,
spherical, and non-tender, but they can cause pain
from direct pressure or secondary infection. The cyst
wall consists of squamous epithelium with laminated
keratin, and the cyst material contains protein,
cholesterol, fat, and fatty acids.
Spontaneous rupture is common, but the lesion
often persists unless the cyst lining, contents, and
overlying puckered skin are surgically removed. Local
complications include infections and bone erosion.
Malignant Skin Tumors
SCC—Although basal cell carcinomas (BCC) are
the most common cutaneous malignancy overall,
squamous cell cancer is more common in the upper
extremity.231 SCC predominate among people with
fair skin and light hair color. The usual origin of
SCC is ionizing solar radiation. Other less common
causes of SCC are previous irradiation,232 burn scars,
exposure to arsenic compounds, and inherited genetic
disorders.233 The dorsum of the hand, with the highest
actinic exposure, is the most common site for SCC,
although the tumor has been reported to also occur
on the palms and subungually.234,235 Most textbooks
recommend excision with 1- to 2-cm margins, but
a recent trial236 of marginal excision for 32 patients
reported no recurrences at a follow-up of 31 months.
One case of possible metastasis was identified. Until
further information is available, however, margins
of 4 mm for lesions <2 cm and 6 mm for lesions >2
cm are recommended.237 If nodal metastasis or local
recurrence is evidenced, axillary lymphadenectomy
is recommended. The role of sentinel node biopsy in
cases of SCC is not yet defined in the literature. SCC
of the hand is an aggressive tumor prone to recurrence
and metastasis.238 The metastatic rate for SCC of
the hand is higher than elsewhere on the body,
particularly if the primary lesion involves the digital
web space.239
BCC—BCC are very uncommon tumors in
the upper extremity.240,241 Palmar variants have been
observed,242 especially in cases of Gorlin syndrome
(multiple nevoid BCC syndrome).243 BCC has been
reported to also occur subungually, in which case
differentiation from a subungual melanoma must be
made.244,245 Although BCC do not metastasize, they
are locally aggressive. Excision is the usual form of
treatment, although low-risk BCC can be treated with
topical immunomodulators, intralesional treatments,
or electrodessication and curettage.246
Melanomas—Of all cutaneous melanomas,
approximately 2% present on the hand.247 They are
palmar, dorsal, or subungual in location. Longitudinal
melanonychia or pigmented streaking of the nail plate
might warrant biopsy, particularly when >3 mm or
extending into the nail fold (Hutchinson sign).248
A study by Ridgeway et al.249 showed that the acral
histological subtype does not affect the disease-free
and overall survival. Tumor thickness remains the
only prognostic indicator. Slingluff et al.250 found that
acral melanoma has a strong racial predilection, carries
a grave prognosis, and arises from glabrous skin. In
that study, no survival difference was shown between
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SRPS • Volume 11 • Issue R9 • 2016
volar and subungual sites, nor did amputation make
a difference. Poor prognosis is likely related to later
diagnosis in the extremity.251
Melanoma requires wide excision or amputation
of the digit or hand, depending on location and
depth.252 The appropriate level of amputation has
not been determined, but there is a trend toward
more conservative resection. In 1982, Papachristou
and Fortner253 advocated amputation through the
carpometacarpal joint. In 1984, Finley et al.254
reported seven finger amputations distal to the MCP
joint (four just proximal to the DIP joint and three
just proximal to the proximal interphalangeal joint),
with no local recurrences. Quinn et al.255 showed
no difference in local recurrence for subungual
melanomas whether amputations were performed
proximal or distal to the interphalangeal joint of
the thumb or the middle of the middle phalanx
in the fingers. Similarly, no prospective study to
date has shown a survival or local control benefit
to prophylactic lymph node dissection, regional
perfusion, or immunotherapy.256,257 A recent
retrospective study, however, did suggest improvement
in long-term survival with lymph node dissection in
advanced stages.258 The use of sentinel lymph node
biopsy has grown markedly in recent years.259
Bony Tumors
Several authors260−263 have presented excellent reviews
of bony tumors of the hand. Treatment is based on
accurate diagnosis and staging of the lesions
(Table 3).158
Chondromas
Chondromas are the most common benign
cartilaginous tumors of the hand.264 Chondromas
that remain within the substance of the bone or
cartilage are called enchondromas. Enchondromas
favor the tubular bones of the hand, especially the
middle and proximal phalanges.265 Congenital
cartilaginous rests are implicated in their origin, and
the lesions are totally benign, with little tendency
toward malignant degeneration. Nelson et al.266
reviewed the literature and found only three welldocumented cases of chondrosarcoma arising from
enchondromas.
20
Enchondromas usually appear as welldemarcated round or oval swellings. A pathological
fracture often is the first indication of their presence.
In such cases, the fracture should be allowed to heal
before the enchondroma is treated. Radiographically,
enchondromas appear as radiolucent, symmetric,
expansile diametaphyseal lesions that do not involve
the epiphyses.
Treatment usually consists of curettage of the
tumor through a window in the cortex, with or
without cancellous bone grafting. Injectable calcium
phosphate bone cement has also been described for
healed fractures or enchondromas without fractures267
and provides increased strength compared with
curettage alone.268 According to a retrospective review
of 102 enchondromas in 82 patients, Sassoon et
al.269 found that most patients achieve bony healing
regardless of the graft material used.
Multiple enchondromas—Multiple
enchondromas are rare in the hand and always
occur as part of a disseminated involvement (Ollier
dyschondroplasia).270 Multiple enchondromas
associated with hemangiomas are part of Maffucci
syndrome. The earliest clinical manifestations
of multiple enchondromatosis are swelling and
deformity of several bones.271 The tumors distort,
expand, and sometimes erode the bony cortex,
particularly in the diaphyses and metaphyses;
calcifications are seen in the translucent areas on
radiographs. Because at least 20% of multiple
enchondromas go on to become chondrosarcomas,272
wide excision is the treatment of choice, with
adjuvant radiotherapy to the malignant lesions.
Osteochondromas—Osteochondromas are the
most common cartilaginous neoplasm in the body
overall but are less common than enchondromas in
the hand.273 They are thought to arise secondary to a
defect within the periosteum and present as a bony
prominence.261 Radiographically, osteochondromas
appear as bony protuberances extending beyond
the metaphyseal cortex of the involved bone on a
narrow stalk. Management consists of observation or,
if symptomatic, surgical excision. The prominence
can result in tendon rupture or restricted range of
motion,274−276 and some authors recommend early
excision. Of distinct histology and clinical behavior
SRPS • Volume 11 • Issue R9 • 2016
Table 3
Enneking Staging System for Bone and Soft-tissue Tumors
and Their Indicated Excision158
Stage
Grade (G)
Anatomic Location (T)
Metastases (M)
0
Benign (G0)
Any (T1 or T2)
None (M0)
IA
Low (G1)
Intracompartmental (T1)
None (M0)
IB
Low (G1)
Extracompartmental (T2)
None (M0)
IIA
High (G2)
Intracompartmental (T1)
None (M0)
IIB
High (G2)
Extracompartmental (T2)
None (M0)
III
Any grade
Any (T1 or T2)
Metastasis (M1)
is the Nora lesion, a parosteal osteochondromatous
proliferation with a high recurrence rate.
Consequently, more extensive resection is often
required.277
Bone Cysts
Aneurysmal bone cysts tend to show an equal sex
distribution and are more common during the 2nd
decade of life but before closure of the epiphyseal
plate. Aneurysmal bone cysts are eccentrically
placed in the metaphysis or diaphysis, are expansile
and lucent, and resemble a periosteal blowout.278,279
Curettage and bone grafting comprise the standard
treatment, but recurrence rates are high. Cryotherapy
and high-speed burring have been described to
decrease rates of recurrence.280 MRI findings of
aneurysmal bone cysts include a double-density fluid
level, septations, and low signal on T1-weighted
images, which are less frequent with unicameral bone
cysts.281 Unicameral, or simple, bone cysts rarely
occur in the hand. When they do occur, they can
be observed or, if the bone is at risk of pathological
fracture, treated with curettage and bone grafting.282
Osteoid Osteomas
Osteoid osteomas are benign osteoblastic tumors
that are uncommon in the hand.283 The lesion affects
male patients two to three times more often than
female patients, generally between the ages of 10 and
25 years. In the hand, osteoid osteoma occurs most
frequently in the distal phalanges.284,285 The cause
is unknown.
The nidus of an osteoid osteoma consists of
richly vascularized osteoblastic osteoid tissue rarely
larger than 1 cm. Clinical presentation is that of a
localized painful area over a tubular bone. Typically,
the pain is worse at night and is completely relieved
by aspirin. An increase in the size of the terminal
digit might occur. Radiographically, the lesion shows
a central area of lucency that can be surrounded by
a zone of sclerotic bone. Bone scintigraphy with
technetium 99 is of benefit in locating the nidus, and
Cp80 has also been used. Treatment involves complete
excision of the lesion or curettage.286
Osteoblastomas
Like osteoid osteomas, osteoblastomas rarely occur
in the hand and occur primarily in young patients.
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Whereas large bone osteoblastomas typically are
distinguished by their larger size, in the small bones of
the hand, size might not be a distinguishing factor.287
Because of the bone destruction accompanying
osteoblastomas, the differential diagnosis includes
osteoid osteoma, aneurysmal bone cyst, and malignant
tumors. Although curettage has been described, high
recurrence rates and malignant transformation suggest
the need for complete excision.288,289 Radiotherapy is
helpful in tumor cell control and might even aid
in healing.
The pathological subtypes of soft-tissue sarcomas297,298
and bone tumors299,300 have been reviewed by several
authors. Treatment protocols for both bony and softtissue extremity sarcomas have been reviewed.301−303
Combination therapy (wide excision, radiotherapy,
and chemotherapy) is now used for most high-grade
tumors and produces excellent local control rates
in some tumor types. Amputation is avoided and is
saved for the management of local recurrences. When
sarcomas fail, they tend to do so at distant sites. In
that circumstance, a functional hand provides a better
quality of life.
Giant Cell Tumors of Bone
Giant cell tumors are uncommon anywhere. They
represent approximately 5% or fewer of all primary
malignant bone tumors, and only 2% to 5% of giant
cell tumors occur in the hand.290 The lesion affects
patients primarily between the ages of 30 and 50
years and is virtually unknown in patients younger
than 20 years. Women with giant cell tumors slightly
outnumber men.
Clinically, the giant cell tumor is a solitary
lesion, often well advanced by the time it is noticed.
A constant dull pain heralds its presence, sometimes
preceded by swelling.291 Radiographically, it is seen
to involve the soft tissues. The epiphyseal end of
the bone is affected, with extension to the adjacent
metaphysis. The tumor is translucent, and the cortex
of the bone is noticeably thin. The clinical course is
long but localized. Sarcomatous degeneration averages
10%, but the lesion metastasizes in fewer than 15% of
cases.292,293
Treatment consists of curettage with adjuvant
phenol, cryotherapy, or polymethylmethacrylate to
reduce the recurrence rate. When soft-tissue extension
is present, en bloc resection is advised.294 The
recurrence rate depends on location and method of
treatment, ranging from a reported 0% with resection
to 65% with curettage alone.295,296 Amputation is
reserved for recurrent or highly malignant tumors.
Sarcomas
Sarcomas are very uncommon tumors in the hand.
22
Skeletal Sarcomas
Ewing sarcomas—Ewing sarcomas of the hand
or foot are not common, representing only 4% of all
Ewing sarcoma cases.304 The thumb and long finger
are most frequently affected.305 Ewing sarcomas
affect male patients twice as often as female patients,
usually in the 2nd decade. Radiographically, lytic
bone destruction with variably sclerotic matrix
and periosteal reaction is seen. A soft-tissue mass
often is present.306 Ewing sarcoma generally has a
poor prognosis, with metastasis present in 25% of
presenting cases.307 Still, neoadjuvant or adjuvant
chemotherapy improves survival and is recommended
nearly universally for this malignancy.308 Radiation
alone is not indicated, because it cannot control the
lesion. It is used when wide margins are not obtained
and when chemotherapy response is incomplete.309
Osteosarcomas—Osteosarcomas in the hand
are rare tumors, accounting for only 0.18% of all
osteosarcomas.310 Peak incidence is during the 2nd
decade of life, with a male-to-female ratio of 2:1. The
presenting complaint often is persistent, increasing
pain from a rapidly growing mass. The pathogenesis is
unknown. The lesions can arise de novo or can occur
secondary to a benign process. Osteosarcomas in
general tend to occur more frequently in association
with irradiated bone, Paget’s disease, fibrous dysplasia
of bone, giant cell tumor, solitary enchondroma,
multiple enchondromatosis, and multiple
osteochondromas.
SRPS • Volume 11 • Issue R9 • 2016
Radiographically, the borders of an osteosarcoma
are indistinct, but the lesion invariably involves the
cortex and generally transgresses it. Often, a large
contiguous soft-tissue mass is present. A combination
of destructive and proliferative new bone usually is
present, showing a streaked texture and a characteristic
sunburst pattern. Histologically, osteosarcoma has
a typical spindle-shaped cell pattern. Treatment has
changed from amputation to excision with a wide
margin plus adjuvant therapy. The 5-year overall
survival rate associated with osteosarcomas of the
upper extremity is approximately 67%.311
Chondrosarcomas—Chondrosarcomas are the
most common primary malignant bone tumors to
occur in the hand.312 They occasionally are associated
with osteochondromas and, to a lesser degree, with
multiple enchondromatosis,313,314 although the vast
majority of cases include no preexisting lesion.315,316
Chondrosarcomas characteristically occur in older
patients (age, 60−80 years) in the epiphyseal area
of the proximal phalanx or metacarpal. The clinical
course is slow, and metastasis is late.317,318 The tumor
presents as a progressively painful large mass near the
MCP joint. Treatment of choice is amputation or ray
resection. Histological interpretation of cartilaginous
lesions of the hand is difficult, and clinical and
radiological appearance (bone expansion, lytic areas of
bone destruction, soft-tissue swelling) often are more
reliable indicators of malignancy. Prognosis is good if
metastasis has not occurred.
Soft-Tissue Sarcomas
Soft-tissue sarcomas are an uncommon but important
group of hand tumors. They tend to occur in young
patients, are innocuous in presentation, often leading
to an incorrect diagnosis, and have protracted clinical
courses. They are prone to local recurrence, have
an unusually high incidence of lymphatic spread
and regional node metastases, and often metastasize
systemically late in their course. Deep tumors that
are firm and are 5 cm or larger should be considered
to be possible sarcomas until proven otherwise.319
Workup should include plain radiography and
MRI of the hand and computed tomography of the
chest. Standard treatment is wide surgical excision
or amputation, depending on the size and location
of the tumor. Radiation has been shown to reduce
local recurrence in randomized trials, but it does not
improve patient survival.320,321 Chemotherapy also
reduces recurrence rates and can improve overall
survival in selected tumors.322 The prognosis generally
is poor.
Epithelioid sarcomas—Epithelioid sarcomas are
the most common soft-tissue sarcomas of the hand.323
They have been associated with trauma in one-third
of cases.324 Lesions are notoriously insidious and often
mistaken for a benign inflammatory condition.325
Most lesions in the hand arise on the palm or volar
surface of the digits.326 Local recurrence is common,
as is distant metastasis. Treatment recommendations
are radical excision (often necessitating partial
amputation) and node dissection.327 Adjuvant therapy
can be of benefit, particularly in the setting of
metastatic disease.328
Malignant fibrous histiocytomas—Malignant
fibrous histiocytomas are the most common soft-tissue
sarcomas overall, often presenting in the 6th to 8th decade
of life.329 Lesions can be superficial or deep, single or
multinodular. Like epithelioid sarcomas, malignant
fibrous histiocytomas often are painless and slow
growing. Metastasis has been observed in 35% of
patients, with a 5-year survival rate of 65% overall.330
Treatment primarily is surgical resection, with
radiotherapy added unless a generous margin has been
excised. Neoadjuvant chemotherapy can be useful for
high-grade lesions.331,332
Rhabdomyosarcomas—Rhabdomyosarcomas
tend to involve the thenar eminence or interosseous
spaces. The alveolar subtype predominates in the
upper extremity, over the embryonal, botryoid, and
pleomorphic subtypes. An alveolar rhabdomyosarcoma is
a highly malignant, devastating tumor that presents as
a rapidly growing, deep mass in the palm of a child.319
Local recurrence is common, and it invariably is fatal
if not adequately treated. Metastatic involvement has
been noted in up to 50% of cases at presentation.333
Total excision of the tumor should be attempted, even
at the cost of function or cosmesis.334 The prognosis
for alveolar rhabdomyosarcoma has improved with
multi-modality therapy but is still poor because of its
marked tendency to spread.333
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SRPS • Volume 11 • Issue R9 • 2016
Synovial sarcomas—Synovial sarcomas arise in the
juxta-articular soft tissues (tendon, tendon sheath,
and bursa).335 A synovial sarcoma presents as a slowgrowing tumor on the volar surface of the hand, and
delay to presentation often is measured in years. Local
recurrence and/or metastatic disease is found in nearly
80% of patients.336 Surgical resection is the treatment
of choice, but it often is combined with radiation and
chemotherapy.337
Fibrosarcomas—Fibrosarcomas arise within the
deep subcutaneous space, fascial septa, or muscle
and present as insidiously growing deep masses.338,339
They primarily are adult malignancies, but infantile
fibrosarcomas can present at birth.340 Although the
adult and infantile fibrosarcomas are histologically
similar, they differ in a more rapid growth phase.
Treatment is wide excision or, when neurovascular
structures are compromised, amputation.341
Chemotherapy is recommended for locally extensive
disease, high-grade tumors, and metastatic disease.342
Clear cell sarcomas—Clear cell sarcomas, also
known as malignant melanomas of soft parts, are
uncommon tumors. A clear cell sarcoma presents as a
slow-growing, deep-seated mass attached to tendons,
aponeuroses, or fascia.343 Prognosis is poor, with a very
high rate of local recurrence and both lymphatic and
hematogenous dissemination.344 Complete surgical
resection is the standard of care for this tumor, which
often is chemoresistant.345
Kaposi sarcomas— Kaposi sarcoma presents as
a palpable, pigmented, non-painful lesion. The first
clinical signs are dark blue to violaceous macules on
the skin that are later replaced by infiltrative plaques
and finally by nodules measuring 0.5 to 3 cm in
diameter. Some of the lesions heal, and others coalesce
and ulcerate.346 The classic form is associated with
elderly men of Jewish and Mediterranean descent,
but a more aggressive form has been associated with
acquired immunodeficiency syndrome and human
T-lymphotropic virus type 3.
Kaposi sarcoma might respond to surgical
excision, radiation, and chemotherapy.347 The
prognosis varies according to the behavior of the
tumor. Fulminating lesions have a fatal outcome
within 6 to 12 months of diagnosis, whereas slower
growing tumors are compatible with 20-year survival.
24
Metastatic Tumors
Hand metastases are very uncommon and usually
are associated with a primary carcinoma in the lung,
gastrointestinal tract, or kidney.348 Despite their rarity,
metastatic tumors should be considered in the differential
diagnosis of inflammatory processes of the hand. The
distal phalanges are most often involved,349 and metastases
in those locations often are mistaken for felons or
paronychia.350−352
Amadio and Lombardi352 recommended palliative
treatment considering the median survival time of only
5 months. Amputation of a phalanx, digit, or ray is
recommended for most solitary phalangeal or metacarpal
lesions when survival is expected to exceed a few
months.353
SOFT-TISSUE RECONSTRUCTION
Fingertips
Because of their distal, unprotected location, fingertips
often are the subject of trauma and tissue loss. Goals in
fingertip reconstruction should include wound closure,
length preservation, optimization of sensory return, joint
preservation, and cosmesis.
Healing by Secondary Intention
Some authors suggest a cutoff of 1.0 cm2 for nonsurgical
management of fingertip injuries.354,355 Such treatment
is especially well suited to children and the elderly. The
wound is covered with a semi-occlusive or alginate
dressing, which can be left intact for 5 to 7 days and can
then be changed as necessary. Complete healing usually is
achieved in 1 to 2 months.356 Mennen and Wiese357 treated
extensive fingertip defects by using this method and
reported excellent functional and cosmetic outcomes. The
advantage of this treatment is that as the wound contracts,
it pulls proximal innervated pulp skin over the exposed
bone, resulting in a very small area of residual scar located
off the pressure area of the finger. However, if the same
technique is used to treat more dorsal fingertip defects
with involvement of the distal nail bed, the subsequent
wound contraction can lead to “parrot beaking” of the
nail, which can be difficult to correct secondarily.
SRPS • Volume 11 • Issue R9 • 2016
Even small amounts of exposed bone can be
managed conservatively. In a retrospective study
comparing conservatively treated fingertip amputations
with bone exposure with surgical intervention, results
were equivalent.358 However, when used for exposure of
more than a small bony tuft, secondary healing risks bony
desiccation and osteomyelitis.
Skin Grafts
Skin grafts commonly are used to repair fingertip defects.
They can be used as a temporizing measure with a view to
subsequent flap revision, or they can serve as the definitive
wound closure. In the former situation, split-thickness
skin is more appropriate because it has a more predictable
“take.” Similarly, large soft-tissue defects are resurfaced
with split skin because it tends to contract more than
full-thickness skin, thus keeping the resultant insensitive
area as small as possible.359 Split-thickness skin from the
hypothenar eminence or instep of the foot has a papillary
pattern that most closely resembles native fingertip skin.360
Beasley359 suggested full-thickness donor sites from the
groin to minimize the cosmetic deformity of the donor
site. Thenar or hypothenar full-thickness skin grafts have
an excellent texture match and do not hyperpigment as
groin skin tends to.361 Their size is limited by the necessity
to obtain primary closure of the donor site.
Although some spontaneous reinnervation of fullthickness skin grafts has been observed, any insensitive
or hyposensitive areas that remain theoretically limit the
application of skin grafts to the hand.362 However, Braun
et al.363 found no difference in functional outcomes or
2-point discrimination when comparing split-thickness
skin grafting with primary closure with skin flaps.
Flap Reconstruction
Loss of fingertip pulp greater than one-third the
length of the phalanx requires replacement of soft
tissue to support the distal nail. Beasley364 offered the
following guidelines for reconstruction in such cases:
•• Replacement soft tissue must have
good ultimate sensibility and be
capable of tolerating normal usage.
•• Secondary disfigurement must be
insignificant, with no functional loss
at the donor site.
•• The method must be safe, practical,
reliable, economical, and predictable
in results.
Beasley further listed three indications for local
flaps in the repair of fingertip amputations: 1) wound
bed unsuitable for revascularization of skin graft; 2)
need for subcutaneous tissue replacement in addition
to skin; 3) protection of vital structure, such as nerve.
Flaps for reconstruction of soft tissue of the
fingertip can be obtained from the same finger
(homodigital) or another finger (heterodigital)
or from local, regional, or distant sources.365−367
For a flap to be clinically useful, it must fulfill the
guidelines listed above and must be reliable and
simple to create. Common reliable flaps are discussed
in the sections that follow.
Homodigital Flaps
The most immediate source of tissue for fingertip
replacement is the same finger. The obvious
advantages are that it does not violate another normal
finger or part of the body nor does it immobilize
uninvolved joints. The tissue used must be outside
the zone of injury. The neurovascular integrity of the
finger should be maintained.
The tissue directly adjacent to the wound is the
closest source of flap tissue and forms the basis for
many traditionally popular flaps. The Atasoy volar V-Y
advancement is useful for dorsal oblique-to-transverse
amputations in cases in which the defect does not
exceed 1 cm (Fig. 12).368 After application of a volar
V-Y flap, 2-point sensitivity is decreased to approximately
75% of normal.369,370 The usefulness of the flap is vastly
improved by extending the proximal part of the
“V” past the DIP joint crease and into the middle
phalangeal segment and by elevating the flap as a true
bilateral neurovascular island flap on both pedicles,
which is known as the Tranquilli-Leali flap.371
In 1964, Moberg372 described a rectangular volar
advancement flap from the base of the thumb that can
be used in thumb tip reconstruction for defects <1.5
cm in axial length. The volar advancement flap is a
25
SRPS • Volume 11 • Issue R9 • 2016
true axial flap in that the incisions are placed dorsal to
the neurovascular bundles so as to include them with
the flap and restore normal sensation to the tip. The
tissue movement achieved in proportion to the extent
of the dissection is disappointing, and if too large a
defect is closed (>1 cm), flexion contracture of the
interphalangeal joint can occur. Several authors373,374
subsequently modified the method of mobilization,
incorporating a V-Y closure in the advancement to
make the flap more reliable. Alternatively, the flap
can be converted into a true island and the proximal
defect can be skin grafted.375
Snow376 applied the Moberg flap to the repair
of fingertip amputations, but dorsal tip necrosis and
an unstable pulp scar plagued the series. Macht and
Watson377 preserved the dorsal perforating vessels by
using a “spreading-dissecting” technique with which
the volar flap is not cut free except at its most distal
area. They reported no skin loss or joint stiffness
occurring in 69 transfers and 2-point discrimination
values within 2 mm of the contralateral normal finger.
Lateral advancement flaps have the potential to
offer the ideal fingertip reconstruction, replacing
“like with like” from the same digit. Unilateral
advancement flaps move tissue from directly adjacent
to the defect and maintain sensibility. The unilateral
V-Y flap was first described by Geisserndörfer378
in 1943 but has little cover potential. Bilateral
advancement flaps can also be used, as described by
Kutler379 in 1944 (Fig. 13).380 As with all homodigital
flaps, the potential exists for flap embarrassment if
damaged tissues or pedicles are used.
Reversed digital artery island flaps from the
proximal finger necessitate sacrifice of one digital
artery and rely on retrograde flow through an intact
anastomosis with the contralateral normal artery.381
These flaps require neurorrhaphy of a dorsal branch
to the contralateral digital nerve for optimal recovery
of sensibility.382 A preoperative digital Allen test is
essential to assess the patency of both arteries. Venous
drainage of the flaps is via the soft tissue around
the arterial pedicle, so the pedicle should not be
skeletonized.
The dorsal middle phalangeal finger flap, or flag
flap, can be raised on a short or long antegrade or
26
retrograde pedicle and can be used as a free flap,
an arterial and/or venous flow-through flap, or a
neurovascular flap.383,384 It was originally described by
Iselin385 in France but is now probably more useful in
coverage of thumb tip defects when harvested from
the proximal phalanx of the index finger.
Heterodigital Flaps
In 1951, Cronin386 first described the cross-finger flap
for fingertip reconstruction. The cross-finger flap
brings durable cover to exposed bone, joint, or flexor
tendons when homodigital flaps do not suffice.387
Blood supply of the cross-finger flap is random and
based on the subdermal plexus of an adjacent digit.
The flap can be based laterally, proximally, or distally,
depending on the most comfortable approximation
of donor digit to defect. The dorsum of the middle
phalanges of the index, middle, and ring fingers is
the most appropriate donor site in terms of joint
immobilization. Use of a cross-finger flap from the
volar aspect of the middle finger, rather than from
the thinner dorsal finger skin, provides better tissue
quality for resurfacing the pulp of the thumb.388
The technical points of cross-finger flap
elevation and transfer were detailed in 1960389 and
were illustrated by Lister390 in 1993 (Fig. 14). The
pedicle can be divided by the 8th or 9th day to lessen
the risk of joint stiffness from joint immobilization,
but many wait 2 to 3 weeks to ensure graft take.
Many variations of the cross-finger flap have
been described. The dorsal sensory branch can be
included in the flap and sutured to the digital nerve
of the injured fingertip, although that technique has
not been shown to improve the ultimate sensibility
of the flap.391 Dorsal defects can be repaired with the
reverse cross-finger flap, described by Pakiam392 (Fig.
15). Dorsal skin is elevated, exposing full-thickness
subcutaneous tissue. This fascial flap is then elevated
off the peritenon and transposed to the adjacent
dorsal defect. The method requires a full-thickness
skin graft to cover the recipient site. The originally
elevated donor skin is replaced in situ and sewn back
into place.
SRPS • Volume 11 • Issue R9 • 2016
A
B
C
Figure 12. Atasoy V-Y advancement flap. A, Skin incision and mobilization of triangular flap. B, Advancement of
flap. C, Closure with V-Y technique. (Modified from Atasoy et al.368)
27
SRPS • Volume 11 • Issue R9 • 2016
A
B
C
D
Figure 13. Kutler lateral V-Y advancement flaps. (Reprinted with permission from Lee et al.380)
Advantages of the cross-finger flap technique are
that the flap is easy to elevate and can include ample
quantities of similar tissue. Disadvantages are that it is
a two-stage procedure, a skin graft is required for the
donor site (which is obvious on the exposed dorsum
of the finger), stiffness of the involved digits is a
possibility, and 2-point discrimination values average
only 9 mm.393
In a study of 54 patients with cross-finger flaps,
Nishikawa and Smith394 found that despite recovery
of protective sensation, no patient had recovered
tactile gnosis. Maximal recovery of sensibility
occurs in those younger than 20 years, and 2-point
discrimination plateaus at 1 year. Contraindications
to the use of cross-finger flaps include arthritis,
Dupuytren’s contracture, and generalized
vasospastic syndromes.
Littler395and Tubiana et al.396 developed
the technique of interdigital transfer of pedicled
neurovascular island flaps. Pedicled neurovascular
island flaps have found their greatest application in
reconstruction of the ulnar thumb pulp, with median
nerve-innervated skin being transferred from the
ulnar pulp of the middle finger (less desirably, the
radial pulp of the ring finger).397,398 For the flap to
reach the tip of the thumb, the digital nerve must
be dissected well back and the proper digital artery
28
to the adjacent finger must be sacrificed. Cortical
misrepresentation remains a problem, and the
sensibility of the transferred skin has been variable in
several series.399,400
Holevich401 reported a pedicled island flap
from the dorsum of the index finger that is based
on the first dorsal metacarpal artery. It includes a
terminal branch of the radial nerve and can be used
to resurface a shortened thumb. A problem exists
with cortical interpretation, and the skin is not pulp
skin. Indications for the first dorsal metacarpal artery
flap have expanded, and it is reliably used for thumb
reconstruction, contracture release, and web space
reconstruction.402,403
Regional Flaps
In 1926, Gatewood404 first proposed a thenar flap for
resurfacing the tip of the index finger in one patient.
Thirty years later, Flatt405 presented his results with
a similar “palmar flap” in a large series of fingertip
reconstructions.
The classic thenar flap is based proximally to
ensure good venous return and to minimize proximal
interphalangeal joint flexion. Contracture can be
further controlled by placing the thumb in full
palmar abduction and bringing the MCP joint of the
SRPS • Volume 11 • Issue R9 • 2016
Figure 14. Elevation and transfer of dorsal cross-finger flap. Full-thickness skin graft should be sutured to edge of
defect adjacent to donor finger before flap is inset so that a “closed” system is created. (Modified from Lister.390)
A
B
C
D
Figure 15. Reverse cross-finger flap. A, Dorsal aspect of index finger has exposed tendon. Reverse cross-finger
flap is designed. Dorsal skin of long finger is de-epithelialized. B, Flap is elevated at level of paratenon and transposed, like a page in a book, over dorsal aspect of index finger. C, Both digits are covered with full-thickness skin
graft. Flaps are inset 2 to 3 weeks later. D, Representation of final outcome. (Modified from Pakiam.392)
29
SRPS • Volume 11 • Issue R9 • 2016
involved digit into full flexion.406 If designed properly,
the donor site usually can be closed primarily.407
Unlike the true palmar flap, the thenar flap is not
likely to produce joint stiffness postoperatively,
provided the pedicle is divided in approximately
10 days.
distally over the metacarpal head (Fig. 17). These
reverse dorsal metacarpal artery flaps are sustained by
interconnections between terminal branches of the
dorsal metacarpal arteries and the deep digital and
palmar arterial systems. Maruyama raised flaps on all
five dorsal metacarpal arteries and reported a largely
successful experience in eight cases.
Small Defects of the Hand or Digits
The flap now known as the Quaba flap is based
on a perforator from the dorsal metacarpal artery 0.5
to 1 cm proximal to the adjacent MCP joint (Fig.
18).418 The arc of rotation allows coverage of the dorsal
metacarpal, web, and phalangeal areas. Long flaps can
also reach volar web spaces.419
Homodigital Flaps
Lai et al.408 described the adipofascial turn-over flap
with which dorsal defects of the finger and hand
can be resurfaced by a flap of subcutaneous tissue
hinged on a pedicle that borders the defect. This flap
is especially useful in cases of abrasion injuries of the
DIP joint with exposed terminal extensor tendon.
The donor site is closed primarily, and the flap is
grafted (Fig. 16).409 Advantages include a one-stage
procedure, minimal donor-site morbidity, and avoidance
of damage to the volar digital arteries.410
Heterodigital Flaps
In addition to the flaps previously described, small
defects of the hand can be resurfaced by applying socalled venous flaps. Venous flaps consist of skin islands
raised on a single-vein pedicle from the dorsum of
the hand and are used to reconstruct either the dorsal
or volar surfaces of adjacent digits.411,412 When based
on the dorsum of the hand, the flap contains a dorsal
vein, perivenous areolar tissue, and the fascia of the
interosseous muscle.413
Earley414 detailed the anatomy of the second
dorsal metacarpal artery and reported various uses for
this neurovascular island flap hand reconstruction.
He and others415,416 broadened the applications of the
second dorsal metacarpal artery flap. Its main use involves
repair of radio-palmar and thumb defects or release of
first web space contractures. Distal flap necrosis can
occur if the flap extends beyond the proximal
interphalangeal joint.
Regional Flaps
Maruyama417 and Quaba and Davison418 elevated
skin islands from the dorsum of the hand, based
30
Large Defects of the Hands or Digits
Regional Flaps
The regional flaps applicable for resurfacing
the hand are based on the three major arteries of the
forearm: the radial, ulnar, and posterior interosseous
arteries.420 Yang et al.421 described the territory of the
radial forearm flap in 1981, and it was subsequently
used as a free flap by Song et al.422 in 1982. The
skin on the flexor surface of the forearm is relatively
hairless, thin, and pliable, which makes it ideal
for resurfacing the dorsum of the hand. It avoids a
contralateral donor site or need for attachment to
the groin. The radial forearm unit can be raised as
a composite of fascia-skin,423,424 fascia,425,426 bonemuscle-fascia-skin,427−429 or fascia-tendon-skin.430,431
Although initially used for contralateral hand
injuries, in 1984, Lin et al.432 noted ample retrograde
flow into the radial artery from the ulnar artery
via the deep palmar arch and proposed a “reverse”
forearm flap. The flap is nourished by this retrograde
circulation and can be elevated on its long pedicle for
reconstruction anywhere in the hand. The authors
described a crossover pattern of communicating
branches between the paired venae comitantes and
identified small superficial collateral branches of each
vein, which effectively bypass the valves. This system
enables the flap to be drained despite competent
valves. Even in cases of substantial hand trauma in
which the palmar arches are in question, the flap has
been successfully raised, based on communications
proximal to the wrist.433,434
SRPS • Volume 11 • Issue R9 • 2016
Turned-over flap
Flap base
Flap
Flap base
Defect
Skin graft
Incision
A
Closure
B
C
D
E
Figure 16. Surgical technique. A, Complex defect exposing dorsal aspect of distal interphalangeal joint. B, Design
of adipofascial flap. Base of flap is adjacent to defect. C, Development of distally based adipofascial flap. D, Flap is
turned over on itself to cover defect. E, Primary closure of donor site. Flap is covered with split-thickness skin graft.
(Modified from Al-Qattan.409)
The radial forearm flap has two main
disadvantages. Foremost is that a major vessel to the
hand is sacrificed, but Kleinman and O’Connell435
found that the only marked objective difference
between patients who had undergone flap transfer and
control patients was an 18% delay in reconstitution of
normothermia after cold stress testing. Reconstruction
of the vessel rarely is necessary.436,437 Even so,
Weinzweig et al.438 described a technique for elevating
a distally based fasciocutaneous flap with preservation
of the radial artery if ischemia is a concern and Braun
et al.439 similarly elevated a retrograde radial fascial
turn-down flap based on distal perforators of the
radial artery, leaving the main radial artery intact.
The unaesthetic and potentially unstable grafted
donor site of the radial forearm flap remains the major
detractor of this otherwise excellent flap.440 Skin graft
take usually is not a problem with flaps used for hand
reconstruction, because the flap is based proximally
over the muscle bellies. If the flap needs to be raised
in the distal forearm over the flexor tendons, graft
take can be improved by suprafascial dissection of
the flap.441 Many methods of improving the donor
site have been proposed, including direct closure,
full-thickness skin grafts, local flaps, acellular dermal
matrix, and tissue expansion.442−446 Split-thickness skin
grafting remains the standard at most centers.
Failure of the flap is most commonly related to
technical error in elevation or insetting. Care must be
taken to avoid kinking or compression of the pedicle
after its transposition.
In 1984, Lovie et al.447 described the ulnar
artery island flap, and 4 years later, they reported their
experience with this method for hand and forearm
reconstruction. The skin territory of the flap overlies
the proximal ulnar aspect of the forearm, which is
almost always hairless and less visible than the radial
border. The authors and others447−449 found that the
advantages of the ulnar flap were superiority in terms
of aesthetics, easier harvesting of bone and muscle
(flexor carpi ulnaris), direct closure of the donor site,
and less morbidity.
The posterior interosseous artery flap is based
on the communication between the anterior and
posterior interosseous arteries.450,451 The posterior
interosseous artery runs in a fascial septum between
the extensor carpi ulnaris and extensor digiti minimi
muscles, ulnar to the posterior interosseous nerve
(Fig. 19).452 Markings for exposure are made on a line
31
SRPS • Volume 11 • Issue R9 • 2016
Anterior
interosseus
artery
Ulna
Radius
Posterior
interosseus
artery
Extensor
carpi
ulnaris
Extensor digiti
minimi proprius
Figure 19. Cross-section of distally based posterior
interosseous island flap taken at middle one-third
of forearm. Posterior interosseous artery reaches
overlying skin in space between extensor carpi ulnaris
and extensor digiti minimi proprius. (Modified from
Landi et al.452)
II Dorsal metacarpal artery
Extensor
Extensor
II
III
II Dorsal interosseus muscle
Figure 17. Design of reverse dorsal metacarpal flap and
cross-section at distal flap. (Modified from Maruyama.417) 1
3
2
Figure 18. Arterial basis of distally based dorsal hand
flap is direct branch from dorsal metacarpal artery that
enters skin 0.5 to 1 cm proximal to adjacent MCP joint.
1, Dorsal carpal arch; 2, Deep palmar arch; 3, Superficial
palmar arch. (Modified from Quaba and Davison.418)
32
drawn between the lateral epicondyle and the inferior
radioulnar joint. A segment of ulna can be taken as a
composite flap. The advantages of this flap are good
pedicle length and primary closure of the donor site.
It also preserves the principal arteries of the forearm.
It generally is raised as a distally based flap to cover
small defects on the dorsum of the hand, web space,
or thumb.453 If an innervated flap is desired, the flap
can be raised with the posterior antebrachial nerve.
Its disadvantages are a relatively hairy donor site, an
obvious scar on the visible dorsum of the forearm,
limited size of the flap, and unreliability of the
vascular communication.454,455
Distant Flaps
Large flaps of skin can be transferred to the hand
from distant sites by means of traditional pedicled
techniques or microvascular free tissue transfer.
Pedicled flaps—Historically, flaps of skin from
remote sites over the chest and abdomen traditionally
were used for resurfacing large wounds of the
upper extremity. These included flaps from the
abdomen, lower chest, thigh, and buttocks. The most
commonly used pedicled flap is the groin flap based
SRPS • Volume 11 • Issue R9 • 2016
on the superficial circumflex iliac artery456−458 or the
superficial inferior epigastric artery.459 The superficial
circumflex iliac artery (SCIA) arises from the femoral
artery 2 cm below the inguinal ligament or from a
common trunk with the superficial inferior epigastric
artery. Chuang et al.460 described a “rule of two finger
widths,” which relies on locating the SCIA two finger
widths below the junction of the inguinal ligament
and the femoral artery. Two finger widths medial to
the anterior superior iliac spine, the SCIA emerges
from beneath the deep fascia to become superficial.
The upper flap border is defined two finger widths
above the inguinal ligament parallel to the SCIA, and
the lower flap border is two finger widths below the
SCIA origin.460
Groin flaps are axial-pattern flaps with reliable
vascularity. However, they necessitate two surgical
stages and the hand remains dependent during the
initial period of flap attachment, encouraging edema
and stiffness. In addition, groin flaps are too bulky
for dorsal hand resurfacing and require subsequent
revision surgery.
Microvascular Free Tissue Transfer—
Microvascular free tissue transfer allows single-stage
composite reconstruction of complex hand defects,
obviating the need for two-stage pedicled procedures
and dependent immobilization.461 Successful
reconstruction of soft tissue of the upper extremity
with free flaps must be approached with the goals
of providing stable coverage and, more importantly,
restoring function. Radical débridement and
restoration of all tissue components at the time of
coverage encourage early mobilization.462
Critical sensibility of the fingertip can be
restored by free neurosensory flaps463 or microvascular
toe-pulp transfer.464,465 The glabrous skin and pulp
from the great toe might offer slightly improved
sensibility over the second toe.466 Static 2-point
discrimination of 5 mm has been reported.467 The
first web space flap of the foot is the “gold standard” of
neurosensory flaps.468 It consists of the lateral aspect
of the great toe and the medial aspect of the second
toe. The flap is supplied by the first dorsal metatarsal
artery, a branch of the dorsalis pedis artery, or the first
plantar metatarsal artery. Its innervation is through
both the deep peroneal nerve and the medial plantar
nerve (Fig. 20).468 Lee and May469 found that the
first dorsal metatarsal artery arose from the dorsalis
pedis artery dorsal to the mid-metatarsal axis in
78% of 50 cadaver dissections. The authors usually
obtain preoperative angiography to determine the
vascular anatomy. The main advantage of the first
web space flap for sensory reconstruction in the hand
is replacement with similar thin glabrous skin with
concentrated sensory receptors, allowing the best
2-point discrimination of any neurosensory flap.
Branch of
superficial
peroneal nerve
Extensor
hallucis
longus
tendon
Extensor
hallucis
brevis
Inferior
extensor
retinaculum
Deep
peroneal
nerve
Figure 20. Innervation of the foot first web space and
great toe. (Modified from May et al.468)
33
SRPS • Volume 11 • Issue R9 • 2016
The thin, malleable skin over the dorsum of
the foot can also be transferred as an innervated free
flap,470,471 including the underlying extensor tendons472
and second metatarsal for composite reconstruction,473
if required. The dorsalis pedis flap is raised on the
dorsalis pedis artery, and venous drainage is via the
venae comitantes and saphenous vein. Neural input is
from the superficial peroneal nerve. The donor site is
unforgiving, so meticulous attention must be paid to
flap dissection and wound care.
The free radial forearm flap and free ulnar forearm
flap can be used just as readily as the already discussed
pedicled flaps. They have neurosensory potential
via the lateral and medial cutaneous nerves of the
forearm, respectively.
The lateral arm flap, originally described by Song
et al.474 in 1982, is supplied by the posterior radial
collateral artery and innervated by the posterior
cutaneous nerve of the arm. Pedicle length can be up
to 11 cm. It can be raised as a fasciocutaneous flap or
as combinations of fascia,475 muscle, tendon,476 and
bone.477,478 Donor defects up to 6 cm wide usually can
be closed primarily. The cutaneous territory of the flap
can be extended to the lateral epicondyle479 and the
pedicle lengthened by splitting the triceps between its
lateral and long heads.480The flap has the advantage
of confining flap harvest to the same extremity as the
defect. However, this popular flap comes with a price.
Graham et al.481 reviewed 123 lateral arm flaps and
found a high rate of complications and morbidities.
Seventeen percent of the patients complained of
hypersensitivity at the donor site, 19% had elbow
pain, 59% reported numbness in the forearm, and
83% complained of excessive flap bulk.
For large defects of the upper extremity,
where sensibility is not as important, scapular and
parascapular flaps often are applied.482,483 Vascular
supply is based on the circumflex scapular vessels, off
the subscapular system. The parascapular flap allows
a larger skin paddle to be harvested with primary
closure of the secondary defect, and the resulting
scar is less conspicuous than that of the horizontal
scapular flap defect.484 The scapular flap can be raised
as a fascial flap or as an osteofascial flap.485,486 Both
flaps have the disadvantage of being bulky, even in
thin patients, and secondary defatting or liposuction is
34
necessary for an optimal aesthetic contour.
The free groin flap constitutes an unsurpassed
donor site and allows the transfer of a large quantity
of hairless skin. Like the pedicled groin flap, it is too
bulky for resurfacing the hand and requires revision
defatting and/or liposuction.
Recent interest in perforator flaps has led to the
growing popularity of the anterolateral thigh flap487,488
and the tensor fasciae latae perforator flap489 in dorsal
hand reconstruction, but perforator flaps based on
nearly all the standard pedicled flaps have also been
described.490−492 Large flaps of very thin skin can be
raised with minimal donor site morbidity. Because
the flaps are based on perforating vessels, the motor
function of the underlying tensor fascia latae is
preserved.
The temporoparietal fascia flap offers a thin,
well-vascularized gliding surface. It is supplied by
the superficial temporal artery and vein.493 It is
advantageous in the upper extremity to wrap exposed
or contracted tendons. The deep areolar surface of the
flap is turned toward the tendons to provide a smooth
gliding surface. The overlying fascia is thin and pliable
for metacarpal contouring. A skin graft completes
the reconstruction. This fascial flap is also excellent
for filling the three-dimensional defect resulting
from the extensive release of complex first web space
contractures. Upton et al.494 reported favorably on
their upper extremity reconstruction using this flap,
expressing preference over radial forearm fascia for its
superior donor site scar and preservation of a principal
artery to the hand. Potential complications of flap
transfer include palsy of the frontal branch of the
facial nerve and permanent alopecia.
Another extremely thin fascial flap is the
serratus anterior fascial flap. The serratus anterior fascial
flap consists of the loose areolar tissue between the
latissimus dorsi and serratus anterior muscles and
is supplied by the thoracodorsal vessels.495,496 It has
a long constant vascular pedicle, very thin wellvascularized tissue, and low donor site morbidity,
and it allows simultaneous donor and recipient site
dissection. It can also be combined with other flaps of
the subscapular system or can incorporate the lower
slips of serratus muscle.497,498
SRPS • Volume 11 • Issue R9 • 2016
Free muscle flaps can provide only crude
protective sensibility through pressure receptors, but
their malleability makes them well suited to difficult
contour problems in the hand, especially the palm.
They are sometimes favored for complex contaminated
wounds and to fill dead space.499,500 For small defects,
the serratus anterior497,498 seems most useful, and for
moderate-sized wounds, the rectus abdominis501,502 or
gracilis flap have been suggested.503 For very large,
degloving-type wounds of the upper extremity, the
latissimus dorsi is the muscle of choice. These three
flaps have large-diameter pedicles of adequate length
with minimal donor site morbidity. Functional free
muscle transfers are discussed in the “Microsurgery”
issue of Selected Readings in Plastic Surgery.504
35
SRPS • Volume 11 • Issue R9 • 2016
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