Notion Press
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McNichols Road, Chetpet
Chennai - 600 031
First Published by Notion Press 2016
Copyright © D. Raveendranathan 2016
All Rights Reserved.
ISBN 978-1-945621-72-7
This book has been published with all efforts taken to make the material
error-free after the consent of the author. However, the author and the
publisher do not assume and hereby disclaim any liability to any party for
any loss, damage, or disruption caused by errors or omissions, whether
such errors or omissions result from negligence, accident, or any other
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No part of this book may be used, reproduced in any manner whatsoever
without written permission from the author, except in the case of brief
quotations embodied in critical articles and reviews.
Contents
Forewordix
Prefacexi
1. Formation of Western Ghats
1
2. Sahyadhris, Nilgiris, Anamalai Hills
7
3. Highest Peaks in the Western Ghats
13
4. Large Hydroelectric Projects and Major Dams
19
5. Well Known Water Falls
21
6. Hottest Biodiversity Hotspots
23
7. Flora and Fauna
25
8. Unesco’s World Heritage Sites
29
9. An Area under Constant Threat
37
10. Wildlife Sanctuaries and National Parks in the Western Ghats
43
11. India Birding Tour - Western Ghats Endemics
47
12. Waterbodies55
13. Rivers of Western Ghats
57
14. Mineral Deposits
71
15. Water Resources Project
75
16. Conflicts in the Krishna Basin over River Waters
87
17. Western Ghats Rivers in Karnataka
109
Contents
18. Dams in Cauvery
113
19. Western Ghats Rivers in Tamil Nadu
127
20.Western Ghats Rivers in Kerala
139
21. Dams in Tamil Nadu
145
22. Dams in Kerala
155
23. Hydro Electric Projects in Kerala
165
24. Dams in Karnataka
169
25. Hydro Electric Projects in Karnataka
189
26. Hydro Electric Projects in Maharashtra
193
27. Dams in Maharashtra by Specifications
199
28. Dams in Gujarat 217
29. Dams in Goa
271
30. Controversial Issue of Mullperiyar Dam
273
31. Dams and Hydroelectric Projects Construced in the
Western Ghat Watershed Basins
281
32. Impact of Power Projects on Western Ghats
285
33. Hydroelectric Projects and Reservoirs;
Global Warming and Scarcity of Water
287
34. Western Ghats Development Programme 295
35. Western Ghats Hot Spots and Its Importance
299
36. Western Ghats High Level Working Group
Madhav Gadgil and Kasturirengan Reports
305
37. Sikkim Green and Organic Missions
323
38. Ecosystems Conservation and Wildlife Protection
in the Western Ghats
329
39. Medicinal Plants of Western Ghats
337
40.Coffee, Tea, Rubber etc in the Western Ghats
355
41. Carbon Sequestration
363
42. Consolidation of Forests
365
vi
Contents
43. Types of Forests Found in India – Explained!
367
44. Biosphere Reserves in the Western Ghats
381
45. Effect of Ultraviolet Rays during 2016 Summer
403
46. Interstate Water Disputes
411
47. Tree Honorarium
421
References425
vii
Chapter-1
Formation of Western Ghats
T
he Western Ghats (WG) or the Sahyadri is the majestic mountain range
on the fringes of the west coast of India extending spellbound and
bounteous services not only to India, but also for the whole world. It is
a mega carbon sink and the whole world is bound to protect the Western
Ghats by all means for controlling the climatic conditions even including
the rainfall pattern. It is one among the seven great mountain ranges in the
country and is next to the Himalayas. Its landscape is unique in terms of
geology, biology, ecology, hydrology and silviculture. The mountain range
extends from Tapti River in the north to Kanyakumari in the south and
traverses through Six States viz. Maharashtra, Gujarat, Goa, Karnataka,
Kerala and Tamil Nadu. Its geology and geomorphology coupled with high
rainfall makes the Western Ghats as one of the most ecologically diversified
landscapes.
Earth was formed around 4.54 billion years ago by accretion from
the solar nebula. Volcanic outgassing probably created the primordial
atmosphere then the ocean, but the atmosphere contained almost no
oxygen so would have been toxic to most modern life including humans.
Much of the Earth was molten because of frequent collisions with other
bodies which led to extreme volcanism. One very large collision is thought
to have been responsible for forming the Moon. Over time, the Earth
cooled, causing the formation of a solid crust, and allowing liquid water to
exist on the surface.
The first life forms appeared between 3.8 and 3.5 billion years ago.
The earliest evidences for life on Earth are graphite found to be biogenic
Western Ghats and the Bounteous Services Showered on the Planet
in 3.7-billion-year-old metasedimentary rocks discovered in Western
Greenland and microbial mat fossils found in 3.48-billion-year-old
sandstone discovered in Western Australia. Photosynthetic life appeared
around 2 billion years ago, enriching the atmosphere with oxygen. Life
remained mostly small and microscopic until about 580 million years
ago, when complex multicellular life arose. During the Cambrian period
it experienced a rapid diversification into most major phyla. More than 99
percent of all species, amounting to over five billion species, which ever
lived on Earth are estimated to be extinct. Estimates on the number of
Earth’s current species range from 10 million to 14 million, of which about
1.2 million have been documented and over 86 percent have not yet been
described.
The continuity of mountain chains provide further evidence for Pangaea.
One example of this is the Appalachian Mountains chain which extends
from the southeastern United States to the Caledonides of Ireland, Britain,
Greenland, and Scandinavia.
There were three major phases in the break-up of Pangaea. The first
phase began in the Early-Middle Jurassic (about 175 million years), when
Pangaea began to rift from the Tethys Ocean in the east to the Pacific in
the west. The rifting that took place between North America and Africa
produced multiple failed rifts. One rift resulted in a new ocean, the North
Atlantic Ocean.
The Atlantic Ocean did not open uniformly; rifting began in the northcentral Atlantic. The South Atlantic did not open until the Cretaceous when
Laurasia started to rotate clockwise and moved northward with North
America to the north, and Eurasia to the south. The clockwise motion of
Laurasia led much later to the closing of the Tethys Ocean. Meanwhile,
on the other side of Africa and along the adjacent margins of east Africa,
Antarctica and Madagascar, new rifts were forming that would lead to the
formation of the southwestern Indian Ocean that would open up in the
Cretaceous.
The second major phase in the break-up of Pangaea began in the Early
Cretaceous (150–140 million years), when the minor supercontinent of
Gondwana separated into multiple continents (Africa, South America,
India, Antarctica, and Australia). The subduction at Tethyan Trench
2
D. Raveendranathan
probably caused Africa, India and Australia to move northward,
causing the opening of a “South Indian Ocean.” In the Early Cretaceous,
Atlantica, today’s South America and Africa, finally separated from
eastern Gondwana (Antarctica, India and Australia). Then in the Middle
Cretaceous, Gondwana fragmented to open up the South Atlantic Ocean
as South America started to move westward away from Africa. The South
Atlantic did not develop uniformly; rather, it rifted from south to north.
Also, at the same time, Madagascar and India began to separate
from Antarctica and moved northward, opening up the Indian Ocean.
Madagascar and India separated from each other 100–90 million years in
the Late Cretaceous. India continued to move northward toward Eurasia
at 15 centimeters (6 in) a year (a plate tectonic record), closing the eastern
Tethys Ocean, while Madagascar stopped and became locked to the African
Plate. New Zealand, New Caledonia and the rest of Zealandia began to
separate from Australia, moving eastward toward the Pacific and opening
the Coral Sea and Tasman Sea.
The third major and final phase of the break-up of Pangaea occurred in
the early Cenozoic (Paleocene to Oligocene). Laurasia split when North
America/Greenland (also called Laurentia) broke free from Eurasia,
opening the Norwegian Sea about 60–55 million years. The Atlantic and
Indian Oceans continued to expand, closing the Tethys Ocean.
Meanwhile, Australia split from Antarctica and moved rapidly northward,
just as India had done more than 40 million years before. Australia is
currently on a collision course with eastern Asia. Both Australia and India
are currently moving northeast at 5–6 centimeters (2–3 in) a year. Antarctica
has been near or at the South Pole since the formation of Pangaea about 280
million years. India started to collide with Asia beginning about 35 million
years, forming the Himalayan orogeny, and also finally closing the Tethys
Sea way; this collision continues today. The African Plate started to change
directions, from west to northwest toward Europe, and South America
began to move in a northward direction, separating it from Antarctica
and allowing complete oceanic circulation around Antarctica for the first
time. This motion, together with decreasing atmospheric carbon dioxide
concentrations, caused a rapid cooling of Antarctica and allowed glaciers
to form. This glaciation eventually coalesced into the kilometers-thick
3
Western Ghats and the Bounteous Services Showered on the Planet
ice sheets seen today. Other major events took place during the Cenozoic,
including the opening of the Gulf of California, the uplift of the Alps, and
the opening of the Sea of Japan. The break-up of Pangaea continues today
in the Red Sea Rift and East African Rift. The Western Ghats was the oldest
formation of earth moved northward from Antarctica when compared
to Himalayas with diversity of fauna and flora having many rivers with
permanent and perennial water sources and valleys. The river banks are
rigid than the river banks of Himalayan region; the chances of changing
the river courses and flood havocs are very minimum within the Western
Ghats.
Nilgiris-Coonoor
The Western Ghats or Sahyadri is a mountain range that runs parallel
to the western coast of the Indian peninsula, located entirely in India.
It is a UNESCO World Heritage Site and is one of the “hottest hotspots”
of biological diversity in the world. It is sometimes called the Great
Escarpment of India. The range runs north to south along the western
edge of the Deccan Plateau, and separates the plateau from a narrow
4
D. Raveendranathan
coastal plain, called Konkan, along the Arabian Sea. A total of thirty nine
properties including national parks, wildlife sanctuaries and reserve
forests were designated as world heritage sites - eighteen in Kerala, ten in
Karnataka, seven in Tamil Nadu and four in Maharashtra.
The range starts near the border of Gujarat and Maharashtra, south
of the Tapti river, and runs approximately 1,600 km (990 mi) through the
states of Maharashtra, Goa, Gujarat, Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu
ending at Kanyakumari, at the southern tip of India. These hills cover
160,000 km2 (62,000 sq mi) and form the catchment area for complex
riverine drainage systems that drain almost 40% of India. The Western
Ghats block southwest monsoon winds from reaching the Deccan Plateau.
The average elevation is around 1,200 m (3,900 ft).
5
Chapter-2
Sahyadhris, Nilgiris,
Anamalai Hills
Sahyadhris
The major hill range starting from the north is the Sahyadhri (the
benevolent mountains) range. This range is home to many hill stations,
including Matheran, Lonavala-Khandala, Mahabaleshwar, Panchgani,
Amboli Ghat, Kudremukh and Kodagu. The range is known as Sahyadri
in Maharashtra and Karnataka and as Sahya Parvatham in Kerala.
Bhiman Gudda near Sirsi, Karnataka
Western Ghats and the Bounteous Services Showered on the Planet
Nilgiris
The Nilgiri mountains are in Northwestern Tamil Nadu and are home
to the town of Ooty. The Biligiriranga Hills southeast of Mysore in
Karnataka, meet the Shevaroys and Tirumala range farther east, linking
the Western Ghats to the Eastern Ghats.
Anamalai Hills
South of the Palghat Gap are the Anamalai Hills, located in western
Tamil Nadu and Kerala. There are smaller ranges further south, including
the Cardamom Hills, then Aryankavu pass, Aralvaimozhi pass near
Kanyakumari. In the southern part of the range is Anamudi peak 2,695
metres (8,842 ft) in Kerala the highest peak in Western Ghats. Chembra
Peak 2,100 metres (6,890 ft), Banasura Peak 2,073 metres (6,801 ft),
Vellarimala 2,200 metres (7,218 ft) and Agasthya mala 1,868 metres (6,129
ft) are also in Kerala. Doddabetta in the Nilgiri Hills is 2,637 metres (8,652
ft). Mullayanagiri is the highest peak in Karnataka 1,950 metres (6,398 ft).
The Western Ghats in Kerala and Tamil Nadu is home to many tea and
coffee plantations.
Shola Grasslands and forests in the Kudremukh National Park, Western
Ghats, Karnataka
8
D. Raveendranathan
Annual rainfall along the Western Ghat region
9
Western Ghats and the Bounteous Services Showered on the Planet
Poomparai village in the foothills of Western Ghats, Tamil Nadu
Devimane Ghat near Sirsi, Karnataka
10
D. Raveendranathan
Sathodi Falls near Sirsi, Karnataka
11
Chapter-3
Highest Peaks in the
Western Ghats
Following is a list of some of the highest peaks of the Western Ghats:
Rank
Name
Elevation (m)
Location
01.
Anaimudi
2695
Eravikulam National
Park, Kerala
02.
Mannamalai
2659
Idukki, Kerala
03.
Meesapulimala
2640
Idukki, Kerala
04.
Doddabetta
2637
Nilgiris, Tamil Nadu
05.
Kolaribetta
2629
Mukurthi National
Park, Tamil Nadu
06.
Mukurthi
2554
Mukurthi National
Park, Tamil Nadu
07.
Vandaravu
2553
Palani Hills,
Kodaikanal, Tamil Nadu
08.
Kattumala
2552
Eravikulam National
Park, Kerala
09.
Anginda peak
2383
Silent Valley National
Park, Kerala
(Contd.)
Western Ghats and the Bounteous Services Showered on the Planet
Rank
Name
Elevation (m)
Location
10.
Vavulmala
2339
Vellarimala, Kerala
11.
Kodaikanal
2133
Kodaikanal, Tamil
Nadu
12.
Chembra Peak
2100
Wayanad, Kerala
13.
Elivai Mala
2088
Palakkad, Kerala
14.
Banasura Peak
2073
Wayanad, Kerala
15.
Kottamala
2019
Periyar National Park,
Kerala
16.
Mullayanagiri
1930
Chikmagalur,
Karnataka
17.
Devarmala
1923
Achenkovil, Kerala
18.
Baba Budangiri
1895
Chikmagalur,
Karnataka
19.
Kudremukh
1894
Chikmagalur,
Karnataka
20.
Agasthyamala
1868
Thiruvananthapuram,
Kerala
21.
Biligiriranga Hills
1800
Chamarajanagar,
Karnataka
22.
Velliangiri
Mountains
1778
Coimbatore, Tamil
Nadu
23.
Tadiandamol
1748
Kodagu, Karnataka
24.
Kumara Parvata
1712
Dakshina Kannada,
Karnataka
25.
Pushpagiri
1712
Pushpagiri Wildlife
Sanctuary, Karnataka
26.
Merthi Gudda
1676
Hornadu, Karnataka
14
D. Raveendranathan
Rank
Name
Elevation (m)
Location
27.
Kalsubai
1648
Ahmednagar,
Maharashtra
28.
Brahmagiri
1608
Kodagu, Karnataka
29.
Kote Betta
1620
Kodagu, Karnataka
30.
Salher
1567
Nashik, Maharashtra
31.
Madikeri
1525
Kodagu, Karnataka
32.
Dhodap
1472
Nashik, Maharashtra
33.
Himavad
1450
Gopalaswamy Betta
Chamarajanagar,
Karnataka
34.
Taramati
1431
Ahmednagar,
Maharashtra
35.
Torna Fort
1405
Pune, Maharashtra
36.
Purandar fort
1387
Pune, Maharashtra
37.
Raigad fort
1346
Raigad, Maharashtra
38.
Kodachadri
1343
Shimoga, Karnataka
39.
Paitalmala
1343
Kudiyanmala, Kerala
15
Western Ghats and the Bounteous Services Showered on the Planet
View from Varandha Pass showing the numerous waterfalls in Kongan
Nilgiris, a part of Western Ghats From Masinangudi
16
D. Raveendranathan
Western Ghats as seen from Poovankurichi, Tirunelveli
17
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