THERMOLUMINESCENCE DOSIMETRY STUDIES OF INDUSTRIALLY
IMPORTANT MINERALS
CHAPTER-1
GENERAL INTRODUCTION
1.1 INTRODUCTION
It has been more than 400 years since Robert Boyle incidentally discovered the
thermoluminescence (TL) in diamonds. All through those years, it piqued scientist
interest and curiosity and numerous studies were done for this phenomenon.
Thermoluminescence had many different explanations during these years but in
simplest and modern form, thermoluminescence can be defined as the emission of
light from a semiconductor or an insulator when it is heated, due to the previous
absorbed and stored energy from irradiation [1,2]. Because of numerous efforts of the
scientists, thermoluminescence now has various application areas such as radiation
dosimetry, age determination and geological researches.
In today’s evolving world, minerals are becoming more and more important for many
industrial areas including radiation dosimetry, which is the most common and the
most important application area of thermoluminescence. On the other hand, there was
not enough research for minerals on its thermoluminescence properties. In light of the
foregoing, the purpose of this thesis was drawn. Thus, in this study it was aimed to
investigate the thermoluminescence properties of pure and irradiated minerals with
different dosages. At the end of the study, the results of the characterization analysis
and thermoluminescence readings were discussed.
The main aim of the present study is the thermoluminescence of industrially important
minerals. TL can be very useful tool in quality control in the selection of raw
materials for ceramic tiles. The present minerals under study were collected from
Bhor ghats, Sangamaner, Nasik and also from various ceramic industries at Morbi,
Rajkot district, Gujarat state. Among the minerals collected from ceramic industry, the
following eleven clay minerals; Ukraine Clay, White Soda, Ivory Soda, Potash, Snow
White, China clay, Potash White, Quartz, Preform granuals, Mixed powder, Ceramic
tile powder are selected to Thermoluminescence(TL) study. Powder X-ray diffraction
(XRD), Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy (FTIR), Thermo Gravimetric
Analysis (TGA), Inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy (ICPAES) and Laser diffraction particle size analyzer used for the characterization of
collected minerals. Three samples namely Preform granuals, Mixed powder and
Ceramic tile powder are the part of the pre final and final product of ceramic tiles are
also subjected to TL measurement after irradiation. The natural minerals Amethyst,
Calcite, Scolecite and Stilbite collected from Bhor ghats, Sangamaner, Nasik are
considered for the studies of TL and XRD analysis. FTIR study was done for Calcite as
it exhibits good TL.
In ceramic tiles and sanitary ware industries, various types of minerals are mixed in
appropriate quantities and ball milled for six to eight hours in distilled water, and then
the obtained slurry is sieved to get appropriate particle size around fifteen micron are
collected for further processes. The present TL study of minerals is intended to suggest
the quality of the raw material at input stage of the ceramic tiles industry. TL dosimetric
studies are done in case any accident like nuclear fallout. The present minerals
mentioned above are mostly used as components in vitrified/ceramic tiles in turn the tile
can be used as accidental TL Dosimetry to detect the quantum of radiation in a
particular period.
1.2 MINERALOGY
The planet on which we live can be seen as a large rock or, more precisely, as a large
sphere composed of many types of rocks. These rocks are composed of tiny fragments
of one or more materials. These materials are minerals, which result from the
interaction of different chemical elements, each of which is stable only under specific
conditions of pressure and temperature. From a chemical perspective, a mineral is a
homogeneous substance. A rock is composed of different chemical substances, which,
in turn, are components of minerals [3,4].
Mineralogy is the study of chemistry, crystal structure, and physical (including
optical) properties of minerals. Specific studies within mineralogy include the
processes of mineral origin and formation, classification of minerals, their
geographical distribution, as well as their utilization. Early writing on mineralogy,
especially on gemstones, comes from ancient Babylonia, the ancient Greco-Roman
world, ancient and medieval China, and Sanskrit texts from ancient India and the
ancient Islamic World. The modern study of mineralogy was founded on the
principles of crystallography and to the microscopic study of rock sections with the
invention of the microscope in the 17th century [5]. X-rays are used to determine the
atomic arrangements of minerals and so to identify and classify them. The
arrangements of atoms define the crystal structures of the minerals. Some very finegrained minerals, such as clays, commonly can be identified most readily by their
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crystal structures. The structure of a mineral also offers a precise way of establishing
isomorphism. The knowledge of atomic arrangements and compositions deduce the
specific physical properties of minerals [6] and one may calculate how those
properties change with pressure and temperature.
The history of mineralogy is as old as man. The history of mineralogy has been
written by special stones and gems. Faith, magic, science; mystic therapy, magic
therapy, physical therapy; belief in extra-natural powers and belief in the action of
matter, all these are intimately bound up with the life that stones and minerals, and
gems, in particular, had in the mentality of our ancestors[7].
1.2.1 Minerals
A mineral is any naturally occurring homogeneous solid that has a definite chemical
composition and a distinctive internal crystal structure. Minerals are usually formed
by inorganic processes. Synthetic equivalents of some minerals, such as emeralds and
diamonds, are often produced in the laboratory for experimental or commercial
purposes.
Although most minerals are chemical compounds, a small number (e.g., sulfur, copper,
gold) are elements. The composition of a mineral can be defined by its chemical
formula. The identity of its anionic group determines the group into which the mineral
is classified. For example, the mineral halite (NaCl) is composed of two elements,
sodium (Na) and chlorine (Cl), in a 1:1 ratio; its anionic group is chloride (Cl -)-a
halide, so halite is classified as a halide. Minerals can thus be classified into the
following major groups: native elements, sulfides, sulfosalts, oxides and hydroxides,
halides, carbonates, nitrates, borates, sulfates, phosphates, and silicates. Silicates are
the most commonly occurring minerals because silica is the most abundant
constituent of the Earth's crust (about 59 percent). A mineral crystallizes in an orderly,
three-dimensional geometric form, so that it is considered to be a crystalline material.
Along with its chemical composition, the crystalline structure of a mineral helps
determine such physical properties as hardness, colour, and cleavage [8].
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Rocks: Minerals combine with each other to form rocks. A rock is generally a natural
solid composed of multiple crystals of one or more minerals. Although many rocks
contain visible crystals of individual minerals, a rock itself does not have an overall
crystalline structure. For example, granite consists of the minerals feldspar, quartz,
mica, and amphibole in varying ratios. Rocks are thus distinguished from minerals by
their heterogeneous composition [9]. A mere 100 of the several thousand known types
of minerals constitute the main components of rocks.
Clay Minerals: The term “clay minerals” refers to phyllosilicate minerals and to
minerals which impart plasticity to clay and which harden upon drying or firing. In
contrast, the term “clay” refers to a naturally occurring material composed primarily
of fine-grained minerals, which is generally plastic at appropriate water contents and
will harden when dried or fired [10]. Based on the distinctions between the two terms
made here, a clay mineral is a specific mineral which is a naturally occurring
homogeneous solid with a definite chemical composition and an ordered atomic
arrangement [8], in which atoms of these elements are organized into crystalline
forms. Clay is mainly a size term which corresponds to minerals and nonminerals
with a specific grain size range.
Clay minerals are one of the major constituents of natural geomaterials (including
soils and rocks) and occur abundantly in geosphere. They account for about 16 % by
volume of the earth’s upper 20 km surface. Ubiquitous presence of clay minerals
makes their significant importance in multi-disciplinary science including ceramics
(main raw material), soils and agronomy (used as nutrients and fertilizer),
sedimentary petrology, civil engineering, clay chemistry, and economic geology [11].
The crystal structures, chemical compositions, particle surface properties, and size
distributions of most clay minerals have been considerably revealed with the help of
X-ray diffraction, nanoscale imaging (e.g., atomic force microscopy (AFM),
transmission electron microscopy (TEM)), and other of modern analytical techniques.
Clay minerals are mostly composed of oxygen, silicon, hydrogen, aluminum as well
as calcium, sodium, potassium, magnesium, and iron [12]. Most clay minerals are
composed of two basic
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1.2.2 History of Minerals and Ceramic Tiles
Kautilya said, “Minerals are the wealth of a nation” [13]. Minerals have been an
important part of our society since the time of prehistoric man. Early humans carved
tools out of minerals such as quartz. Pottery has been made of various clays since
ancient times. Chloride, also known as the mineral halite, as been used in food
preservation techniques for millions of years. Mining of useful minerals out of ores
became widespread hundreds of years ago, a practice still in use today [14]. Ceramic
are made by following mainly four steps, mixing, shaping, drying, firing. About 4,000
to 3,000 years B.C, clay was used as one of the basic ingredients to make ceramics in
Egypt and Mesopotamia. As reported by Grim[15], extensive study of clay minerals
started from early 1900s and use X-ray diffraction for the study of clay-sized minerals.
Thereafter, more and more clay mineral structures were disclosed by X-ray diffraction
and other advanced technologies. For example, Gruner [16] worked out the crystal
structure of kaolinite. Hofmann et al [17] studied montmorillonite’s crystal structure
and proposed a model that featured an expanding structure. Grim et al. [18] studied a
hydrous mica mineral and introduced a general term illite for micalike clay minerals.
Today, most of the clay minerals’ structures have been identified with the aid of Xray diffraction[19,20].
The word ceramic comes from the Greek word keramikos. In Sanskrit ceramic means
to fire or heat. A ceramic is an inorganic, nonmetallic solid prepared by the action of
heat and subsequent cooling. Ceramic materials may have a crystalline or partly
crystalline structure, or may be amorphous. The earliest ceramics were pottery objects
made from clay, either by itself or mixed with other materials, hardened in fire. Later
ceramics were glazed and fired to create a colored, smooth surface. Ceramics now
include domestic, industrial and building products and art objects. In the 20th century,
new ceramic materials were developed for use in advanced ceramic engineering; for
example, in semiconductors.Ceramic tiles of B.C shown in figure-1.1 and 1.2.
India's very complex history involves repeated invasions by people from many
different cultures Persians, Greeks, Arabs etc. and has a correspondingly complex
ceramic history. Indian ceramics tended to be low temperature and unglazed until
relatively modern times. Like the Middle East it had strong traditions of fired clay as
architectural decoration.
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Fig: 1.1 Wall tile 518 B.C.Iran
Fig: 1.2 Maiolica tile of 16th century Italy
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1.2.3 Mineral Identification
Approximately 3,000 minerals exist in nature. Minerals differ from one another
because each has a specific chemical composition and a unique three-dimensional
arrangement of atoms within its structure. These differences result in a variety of
physical properties, including the minerals' appearance, how they break, how well
they resist being scratched, even how they smell, taste, and feel. All of these
properties are equally useful. Some properties never change. These are the most
useful for identifying a mineral and are called diagnostic properties.
The following physical properties are diagnostic properties to identify minerals.
Colour: The colour of minerals depends on the presence of certain atoms, such as
iron or chromium which strongly absorb portions of the light spectrum. The mineral
olivine, containing iron, absorbs all colours except green, which it reflects, so we see
olivine as green. All natural minerals also contain minute impurities. Some minerals
such as corundum get their colours from these impurities. Blue corundum (sapphire)
is formed when small amounts of iron and titanium are dissolved in the solid crystal.
Finally some crystals get their colour from growth imperfections. Smoky (black)
quartz is a good example. Growth imperfections interfere with light passing through
the crystal making it appear darker, or almost black. The colour of a mineral is one of
its most obvious attributes, and is one of the properties that is always given in any
description. Colour results from a mineral’s chemical composition, impurities that
may be present, and flaws or damage in the internal structure. Unfortunately, even
though colour is the easiest physical property to determine, it is not the most useful in
helping to characterize a particular mineral. Some minerals do have only a single
colour that can be diagnostic, as for instance the yellow of sulfur.
Streak: The colour of a mineral when it is powdered is called the streak of the
mineral. Crushing and powdering a mineral eliminates some of the effects of
impurities and structural flaws, and is therefore more diagnostic for some minerals
than their colour. Streak can be determined for any mineral by crushing it with a
hammer, but it is more commonly (and less destructively) obtained by rubbing the
mineral across the surface of a hard, unglazed porcelain material called a streak plate.
Luster: The luster of a mineral is the way its surface reflects light. Most terms used
to describe luster are self-explanatory: metallic, earthy, waxy, greasy, vitreous
(glassy), adamantine (or brilliant, as in a faceted diamond). It will be necessary only
7
to distinguish between minerals with a metallic luster and those with one of the nonmetallic lusters. A metallic luster is a shiny, opaque appearance similar to a bright
chrome bumper on an automobile. Other shiny, but somewhat translucent or
transparent lusters (glassy, adamantine), along with dull, earthy, waxy, and resinous
lusters, are grouped as non-metallic.
Cleavage: In some minerals, bonds between layers of atoms aligned in certain
directions are weaker than bonds between different layers. In these cases, breakage
occurs along smooth, flat surfaces parallel to those zones of weakness. In some
minerals, a single direction of weakness exists, but in others, two, three, four, or as
many as six may be present. Where more than one direction of cleavage is present, it
is important to determine the angular relation between the resulting cleavage surfaces:
are they perpendicular to each other or do they meet at an acute or obtuse angle.
Fracture: When bonds between atoms are approximately the same in all directions
within a mineral, breakage occurs either on irregular surfaces (splintery or irregular
fracture) or along smooth, curved surfaces (conchoidal fracture), similar to those
formed when thick pieces of glass are broken.
Hardness: The hardness of any object is controlled by the strength of bonds between
atoms and is measured by the ease or difficulty with which it can be scratched.
Diamond is the hardest mineral, because it can scratch all others. Talc is one of the
softest; nearly every other mineral can scratch it. We measure a mineral's hardness by
comparing it to the hardnesses of a standardized set of minerals first established by
Friederich Mohs in the early nineteenth century, or with the common testing materials
that have been calibrated to those standards. The Mohs Hardness Scale is a relative
scale. This means that a mineral will scratch any substance lower on the scale and will
be scratched by any substance with a higher number.
Crystal Shape: When minerals form in environments where they can grow without
interference from neighboring grains, they commonly develop into regular geometric
shapes, called crystals, bounded by smooth crystal faces. The crystal form for a given
mineral is governed by the mineral's internal structure, and may be distinctive enough
to help identify the mineral. For example, quartz forms elongated, six-sided prisms
capped with pyramid-like faces; galena and halite occur as cubes; and garnets develop
12- or 24-sided equidimensional forms. Interference from other mineral grains during
growth may prevent formation of well-formed crystals. The result is shapeless masses
8
or specimens that developed only a few smooth crystal faces. This type of specimen is
much more common than well-formed crystals.
Specific Gravity: The specific gravity of a substance is a comparison of its density to
that of water. To compare the specific gravity of any two minerals, simply hold a
sample of one in your hand and "heft it," i.e. get a feeling for its weight. Then heft a
sample of the other that is approximately the same size. If there is a great difference in
specific gravity, you will detect it easily.
Other Properties: There are a few other tests that can be used to differentiate one or
more common minerals. Some of these should be used with great caution.

Magnetism - A few minerals are attracted to a magnet or themselves capable of
acting as magnets (the most common magnetic mineral is magnetite). Because these
are so rare, this property helps narrow the possibilities drastically when trying to
identify an unknown specimen.

Feel - Some minerals, notably talc and graphite, feel greasy or slippery when you
rub your fingers over them. The greasiness occurs because bonds are so weak in one
direction

That your finger pressure alone is enough to break them and to slide planes of
atoms past neighboring atomic layers.

Taste - Geologists use as many senses as possible in describing and identifying
minerals. Taste is one of the last tests to be conducted, because some minerals are
poisonous. Some minerals taste salty-most notably halite (salt). Sylvite, a mineral
similar in all other properties to halite, tastes bitter. Taste is thus a diagnostic property
because it distinguishes between these minerals.

Reaction with Dilute Hydrochloric Acid - This is actually a chemical property
rather than a physical attribute of a mineral. Minerals containing the carbonate anion
(CO3)2- effervesce ("fizz") when a drop of dilute hydrochloric acid is placed on them.
Carbon dioxide is liberated from the mineral and bubbles out through the acid,
creating the fizz. This test is best performed on powdered minerals. Calcite (calcium
carbonate) will effervesce readily in either massive or powdered form, but dolomite
(calcium-magnesium carbonate) reacts best as a powder.
1.2.4 Classification of ceramics
Ceramics are classified on various bases as follow:
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(a) Prevailing divisions: Ceramics are broadly grouped in three divisions as (1) clay
products, (2) Refractory and (3) glasses.
(b) Classification based on application: Fig: 1.3 shows the classification of Ceramics
on the basis of application.
(c) Classification based on structure:
1.2.5 Applications of Ceramics:
Ceramics are used in an array of applications:

Compressive strength makes ceramics good structural materials (e.g., bricks in
houses, stone blocks in the pyramids)

High voltage insulators and spark plugs are made from ceramics due to its
electrical conductivity properties. Good thermal insulation has ceramic tiles used in
ovens and as exterior

tiles on the Shuttle orbiter Some ceramics are transparent to radar and other
electromagnetic waves and are used in radomes and transmitters

Hardness, abrasion resistance, imperviousness to high temperatures and extremely
caustic conditions allow ceramics to be used in special applications where no other
material can be used

Chemical inertness makes ceramics ideal for biomedical applications like
orthopaedic prostheses and dental implants

Glass-ceramics, due to their high temperature capabilities, leads to uses in optical
equipment and fiber insulation
1.3 TILES MANUFACTURING PROCESS:
Following four operations are required in the manufacturing process of tiles:
(1) Preparation of clay: The plastic, strong or pure clay is taken and is made free
from any impurity such as grit, pebbles etc. Such clay is then converted into powder
in crushing mill and then mixed in pug mill.
(2) Moulding: Prepared clay is placed in mould which represent the pattern or shape
in which the tile is to be formed. Moulding may be done either with the help of
wooden or machine moulding or by potter's wheel moulding
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Ceramic
Materials
Cements
Abrasives
Glasses
Glass
Glasses
Clay
Products
Structura
l
White
wares
Refractory
Advanced
Ceramics
Fire clay
Silica
Basic
Special
Fig: 1.3 Classification of ceramics based on Application
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(3) Drying of tiles: The moulded tiles are then arranged in such a manner so as to
have free circulation of air. Generally drying under a shade prevents warping and
cracking of tiles due to rain and sun. Generally two stage drying is carried out. In the
first stage after 2 days, irregularity of tiles is removed with a flat wooden mallet.
Again for another two days they are stacked on edge to dry for about 3 days or so.
(4) Burning: After drying of tiles, tiles are well burnt in a typical stalkote kiln for
accommodating about 35000 tiles to achieve the hardness and strength property of
tiles. The period taken is about 3 days
Good tiles should have following properties:
(1)
Tiles should be of regular shape and size.
(2)
It should possess uniform colours.
(3)
It should be free from cracks, bends etc.
(4)
It should be strong, hard and durable.
(5)
It should be well burnt.
(6)
It should have a compact and even structure when its section is
taken out.
(7)
Thickness of tiles varies from 5 mm to 15 mm as per the requirement.
1.4 THERMOLUMINESCENCE
Thermoluminescence as mentioned by McKever and et al., is one of the processes in
Thermally Stimulated Phenomena [21]. In a general view, thermoluminescence is a
temperature stimulated light emission from a crystal after removal of excitation.
Nevertheless, microscopically, it is much more complicated. In this chapter, the
thermoluminescence mechanism will be discussed in detail. With the developing
technology, thermoluminescence has various application areas such as, radiation
dosimetry, age determination and geology.
1.4.1 History of Thermoluminescence
The studies on thermoluminescence go back to the seventeenth century, when
scholars like Johann Sigismund Elsholtz, Robert Boyle and Henry Oldenburg
conducted experiments on minerals to see their radiation due to heating. George
Kaspar Kirchmaier, who regarded the phosphorus as a green stone powdered and
mixed with water and glows when heated, and Nathaniel Grew, who used the name
Phosphorus metallorum [22], are other scientists who showed interest in the concept.
12
Among the eighteenth century researchers, Dufay is the first to be acknowledged for
his findings on thermoluminescence. He referred to lighting as a kind of burning. He
worked on many materials, primarily chlorophane, and found out that too much
heating would lead to loss of thermoluminescence of the material. A famous scientist,
Canton brought Dufay’s studies to a new level, by raising the temperature of
phosphorus even further and discovering a new type of light, which he referred to as
the thermoluminescence of artificial phosphorus [23, 24].
Leading scientists, De Saussure and Thomas Wedgwood need to be mentioned in the
thermoluminescence studied of the eighteenth century. The former recognized three
types of stones which luminesced on heating: (1) those containing sulphur, which
burned in the free air, (2) those which absorb the light and then emit it, like the
diamond, and (3) those which do not require air and will luminesce under hot water,
like dolomite and fluorspar. He declared that the intensity of the color of the fluorspar
is an indicator for the level of thermoluminescence. The latter conducted a study on
the thermoluminescence and triboluminescence, lighting as a result of friction. His
findings showed that it was not possible to claim a solid relation between the patterns
of two types of luminescence.
Studies on thermoluminescence continued in the nineteenth century. Researcher,
Heinrich claimed that almost all substances could emit light, provided that they are in
powder form and subject to moderate heating. Another researcher Theodor von
Grotthus dealt specifically with the fluorspar, and showed resemblance between
thermoluminescence and essence; both are made of positive and negative parts. Later,
scientist David Brewster opposed to Grotthus, arguing that the luminescence property
cannot always be regained on exposing the minerals to light. Other researchers who
studied thermoluminescence in the nineteenth century are Pearsall, who tried to find a
relation between colour and thermoluminescence; Specia, who invalidated Pearsall’s
findings; Napier, who experimented on the chalks; Wiedmann and Schmitt, who
attributed the thermoluminescence characteristic to cathode rays.
1.4.2 Applications of Thermoluminescence
The thermoluminescent materials used in the industry have three major areas;
radiation dosimetry, age determining and geology.
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The radiation dosimetry measures the dose that is absorbed by the sample that is
exposed to irradiation. Radiation dosimetry has three subgroups; personnel dosimetry,
medical dosimetry and environmental dosimetry. Personnel dosimetry is used in areas
where the personnel are exposed to radiation; nuclear reactors, radiotherapy wings in
hospitals and nuclear powered submarines. Medical dosimetry intends to measure the
effects of a TLD that is placed into the appropriate places within human body [25].
Environmental dosimetry deals with the radiation present in the environment due to
humankind. Due to applications like nuclear power stations, waste disposals, usage or
processing of nuclear fuels and disastrous nuclear power plant malfunctions introduce
high levels of radiation into the environment. Therefore, it become essential to
monitor the radiation released to the environment continuously [26,27].
1.5 ORIGIN OF RESEARCH PROBLEM
Now a day ceramic tiles and ceramic ware are becoming basic requirement of people
in the world. The people demand various types of high quality ceramic tiles and other
ceramic products. Also high demand of ceramic tiles and sanitary product in estate
market in the world is increasing day by day. Ceramic tiles and other ceramic material
are useful in industries, scientific research, medical science, electronics components,
space science etc.
In the early days, the tiles were hand-made, each tile was hand-formed and handpainted, thus each was a work of art in its own right. Ceramic tile was used almost
everywhere on walls, floors, ceilings, fireplaces, in murals, and as an exterior
cladding on buildings. In fact most modern houses throughout use Ceramic tiles in
every vital area of the premise. Ceramic tiles are also the choice of industry, where
walls and floors must resist chemicals. And the Space Shuttle never leaves Earth
without its protective jacket of high-tech, heat resistant tiles.
Morbi, (Figure 1.4) the most promising ceramic tiles manufacturing hub of India, is a
city located in Saurashtra region of Gujarat. More than 400 units manufactures more
than 70% of total ceramic production in India with total installed capacity of 1.8
million Sq.ft. tiles per day.The raw materials used to manufacturing ceramic tiles are
14
mainly from Gujarat, Rajasthan and Andhra Pradesh mines. The following raw
materials are used to produce ceramic tiles. Ukraine Clay, White Soda, Ivory Soda,
Potash, Snow White, China clay, Potash White, Quartz, etc.
The present TL study of minerals is intended to suggest the quality of the raw
materials at input stage of the ceramic tiles industry. TL dosimetry studies are done in
case any accident like
nuclear fall out these
ceramic tiles fixed in the toilet,
bathroom, and flooring, may be used to get total radiation received from the accident
day to sample analyzed day. The minerals under study were collected from Bhor ghats,
Sangamaner, Nasik (Figure 1.5) also from various ceramic processing industries in
Morbi. Rajkot District, Gujarat. Over all fifteen verities of the minerals were collected
and selected to TL study, XRD, TGA, FTIR, Laser diffraction Particle size analysis and
Induction coupled plasma atomic emission spectroscopy (ICPAES). In ceramic tiles and
sanitary ware the manufacturing process is mixing of various type of minerals in
appropriate quantities are taken and ball milled for six to eight hours in distilled water
the obtained slurry is sieved to get appropriate particle size around 15 micron are
collected for further processes.The present TL study of minerals is intended to suggest
the quality of the raw material at input stage of the ceramic tiles industry. TL
dosimetry studies are done in case any accident like nuclear fall out these ceramic
tiles fixed in the toilet, bathroom, and flooring, may be used to get total radiation
received from the accident day to sample analyzed day.
1.6 METHODOLOGY OF THE THESIS
The Clay minerals were characterized by X-Ray Diffraction (XRD) and Fourier
Transform Infrared Spectrometry (FTIR) analysis. Thermo Gravimetric Analysis
(TGA) was used for examination of the thermal properties of minerals. Dosimetric
properties of the minerals were investigated by Thermoluminescence (TL) technique.
The natural minerals Amethyst, Calcite, Scolecite and Stilbite collected from Bhor
ghats, Sangamaner, Nasik were characterized by XRD, FTIR, TGA and TL studies.
Laser diffraction particle size analyzer used for the characterization of some of
collected minerals. Three minerals were considered for the study of Induction Coupled
Plasma Atomic Emission Spectroscopy (ICP-AES). At the end of the study, the results
of the characterization analysis and thermoluminescence readings were discussed.
15
Fig. 1.4
Map indicating Morbi, Gujarat State, India
Fig.1.5 Map indicating Sangamner, Nashik, Maharashtra State, India
16
1.7 ORGANIZATION OF THESIS
This thesis consists of seven chapters. The following is a brief summary of each chapter
content.
Chapter one covers the general introduction on mineralogy, Ceramics, Ceramic tiles
and basics of thermoluminescience process. In this part, the purpose and the
methodology of the study are presented.
Chapter two is dedicated to the Thermoluminescence phenomena and Radiation
dosimeters. The first part devoted to basics of luminescence, types of luminescence
and thermoluminescence. In addition, this part includes the application areas of
thermoluminescence. In the second part of this chapter, general introduction,
properties of radiation dosimeters and its applications are discussed.
Chapter three gives a brief description of experimental techniques used in present
study. This describes the instruments: TL glow curve recorder, XRD, TGA (Thermal
Gravimetric Analysis), Laser diffraction particle size analysis, FTIR and ICPAES
used for the characterization of collected minerals.
Chapter four includes the materials under study and the sample preparation of
collected natural minerals and clay minerals from different sources. The materials, the
details of initial treatment procedures as well as the analysis methods and conditions
employed for characterization of samples are included at this part.
Chapter five embraces the results of the experiments stated in Chapter 3. These results
include the outputs from characterization analysis as well as thermoluminescence
measurements
Chapter six deals with the TL dosimetric work using Sr-90 beta source. The first part
deals with TL growth and discussion of glow curves for few samples which show
good TL. The second part deals with TL decay and discussion of glow curves for few
samples which show good TL. Also growth and decay graphs are presented.
Finally, Chapter seven is dedicated to the conclusions to be drawn from this study and
recommendations
Each chapter is followed by the list of references and cross references.
17
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Thermoluminescence. Springer Science+Business Media, Inc., New York (2006)
[3].Rocks and Minerals, Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc, (2008)
[4].The complete Encyclopedia of Minerals, Petr Korbel,Milan Novak, Grange Books
PLC, UK,(2001)
[5].Needham, Joseph, Science and Civilization in China, 3, 637 (1986).
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