The Life and Achievements of Galileo Galilei
The paper which I will be writing will discuss the li
fe, discoveries, and the modern impact of the scientific accomplishments of Galileo Galilei. Born in
Pisa, Italy in 1564, Galileo entered Pisa University as a medical student in 1581 and became a prof
essor of mathematics at Padua. An astronomer and mathematician, Galileo was, unfortunately for him
self, a man ahead of his time. Galileo discovered the law of uniformly accelerated motion towards t
he Earth, the parabolic path of projectiles, and the law that all bodies have weight. Among his oth
er accomplishments was the improvement of the refracting telescope in 1610 and his advocacy of the C
opernican theory which brought him into a conflict of ideas and truths between himself and the Inqui
sition. He was condemned by the church whose theories threatened everything that was taught by the
priesthood as the holy truth and he was eventually broken by the Inquisition. Before being ultimat
ely defeated by the church, however, Galileo made many contributions to the world of physics. His s
cientific discoveries and endeavors were only a portion of his contributions to the scientific commu
nity. Galileo's methods of testing and proving his theories were also of major importance since the
se painstaking and exact methodologies would lay the groundwork for future scientific discoveries.
His brilliance brought about a new era in scientific advancement and his defeat at the hands of the
church put a stop to the scientific revolution which he had started. In 1993 the Vatican formally re
cognized the validity of Galileo Galilei's scientific work.
References Cited 1. GALILEO: PIONEER
SCIENTIST - Stillman Drake 1990 2. GALILEO A LIFE - James Reston, Jr. 1941 3. COLLEGE MATHEMATIC
S JOURNAL - May 1994, Volume 25 Issue 3, p 193
Galileo Galilei was a great scientist and pioneer i
n the fields of mechanics, astronomy, thermometry, and magnetism, although mechanics and astronomy w
ere his main passions. He was arguably one of the brightest men who ever lived. Galileo discovered
and enhanced many scientific discoveries of his time period and was highly regarded as a Mathematic
ian and Natural Philosopher. Galileo was persecuted for his views on Earth's relationship with the
rest of the heavens since he believed that the Earth revolved around the Sun and that the heavens w
ere constantly changing and evolving. Since Galilei's vision of a metamorphosing universe came in d
irect conflict with the views of Aristotle, views held by and supported by the church, Galileo was e
ventually called before the Inquisition and forced to recant his views. Nonetheless, Galileo Galile
i made significant contributions to the scientific community and he is remembered as a great scienti
st and innovator.
Galileo Galilei was born in 1564 in Pisa, Italy (then a part of the Duchy of Tusc
any), to Vincenzo Galilei, a musician, and Giulia Ammannati. Galileo studied medicine at the univer
sity of Pisa from 1581 to 1585, but his real interests were in mathematics and natural philosophy an
d Galileo left the university in 1585 without a degree. It was during this time frame that Galileo b
egan to doubt conventional science, since much of what he was being taught at that time as scientifi
c fact was conflicting with the evidence which he saw in his hands-on medicalobservations(Hitzeroth,
Heerboth, The Importance of Galileo, pp 14-15). Following his period as a student, Galileo tried
his hand at teaching.
Galileo began privately teaching in Florence and he returned to the universit
y of Pisa to teach mathematics in 1589. Galileo taught at the university of Pisa until 1592 when he
was appointed professor of mathematics at Padua (the university of the Republic of Venice.) Gali
leo's duties as a professor of mathematics at Padua were to teach Euclidean geometry and standard (g
eocentric) astronomy to medical students. The medical students at that time were expected to know s
ome astronomy in order to make use of astrology in their medical practices. In Padua, he continued
his physics research in the area of mechanics and astronomy.
In the area of mechanics is where Gali
leo's most famous observations were exhibited. The traditional theory accepted by nearly everyone a
t that time was Aristotle's theory that heavier objects, when dropped from the same height as lighte
r ones, will fall at a faster rate. In opposition to this notion, Galileo stated that with the remo
val of outside influences such as wind resistance, both objects will fall simultaneously at virtuall
y the same speed. Although a very popular story of Galileo states that he attempted to prove this t
heory by dropping different weights from the campanile (leaning tower) of the Duomo in Pisa, this pa
rticular experiment was never actually proven to have occurred. However, a similar experiment had a
lready been made by the Flemish engineer Simon Stevin in 1586. Galileo has said that his interest i
n Aristotle's Theory about falling objects was aroused when, during a hailstorm, he noticed that bot
h large and small hailstones hit the ground at the same time. This observation caused Galileo to se
riously doubt Aristotle's Theory since according to Aristotle, the larger-sized hailstones would hav
e had to have fallen from a much greater height and at virtually the same time as the lighter hailst
ones in order for them to reach the ground at the same time (which Galileo found very improbable.)
Galileo was also very much interested in astronomy. Tycho Brahe, a Danish astronomer, found a super
nova in the constellation Cassiopeia in 1572 which promptly disappeared two years later. This disco
very challenged Aristotle's theory of the heavens as perfect, unchanging, and immutable. This disco
very, along with another nova appearance in 1604, also persuaded Galileo to give three public lectur
es in Padua in his capacity as a professor of mathematics. Galileo used the nova as an excuse to ch
allenge Aristotle's views of heavens which were unchanging.
In 1609, Galileo learned of a spyglass
that a Dutchman had shown in Venice. Using his own technical skills as a mathematician and a workma
n, along with reports of the construction of the device, Galileo made a series of telescopes whose o
ptical performance was much better than that of the Dutch instrument. The first telescope he constr
ucted had a threefold magnification, which he quickly improved to 32 times magnification. It was th
is instrument which Galileo used to develop his astronomical discoveries.
The numerous astronomical
discoveries made by Galileo with the aid of his telescopes were described in a short book called Me
ssage from the stars or Starry Messenger (Sidereus Nuncius) published in Venice in May 1610. In t
his book, Galileo claimed to have seen mountains on the Moon, to have proved that the Milky Way was
made up of a myriad of tiny stars, and to have seen four small bodies (moons) orbiting the planet Ju
piter. Galileo named the moons of Jupiter the 'Medicean stars'. It was after this discovery of the
moons of Jupiter that Galileo became the official mathematician and natural philosopher to the Gran
d Duke of Tuscany. It was also during this time frame that Galileo made many mathematical observati
ons of physical properties.
Among these observations was the discovery that projectiles follow para
bolic paths. This discovery allowed arcs of physical objects to be calculated. Another achievement
of Galileo in this time period was the naming of the cycloid curve in 1599. In 1639, Galileo wrote
to Toricelli about the cycloid, saying that he had been studying it's properties for forty years. G
alileo tried and failed to find the area of a cycloid by comparing it's area to that of the generati
ng circle. After his failure at trying to find a mathematical method of finding the area of a cyclo
id, he tried weighing pieces of metal cut into the shape of the cycloid. He found that the ratio of
the weights was approximately three to one but decided that it was not exactly three.
It was in hi
s employ with the Grand Duke of Tuscany in Florence that Galileo first became involved in disputes a
bout Copernicanism. Copernicanism was a theory that was posed by Nicolaus Copernicus on the positio
n of the earth in relation to the heavens. Copernicus had stated in the book On the revolutions of
the heavenly spheres (De revolutionibus orbium coelestium, Nuremberg, 1543), that the Sun (not the
Earth) is at rest in the center of the universe and that the earth revolves around the sun. This th
eory , also known as the heliocentric theory, was lent credence in Galileo's eyes when, in 1613, he
discovered that, when seen through the telescope, the planet Venus showed phases resembling those of
the Moon, and therefore Venus must orbit the Sun and not the Earth(Drake, Galileo: Pioneer Scientis
t, pp. 136 - 137). Galileo went to great lengths to support Copernicanism in the use of his discove
ries and observations, he also used his great mathematical skills to aid in proving Copernican theor
ies.
Between 1619 and 1624 Galileo adapted a telescope for the viewing of extremely small objects.
This microscope, which he called 'occhialini' was composed of the tube of a telescope, of reduced s
ize, furnished with two lenses. Galileo gave his microscopes to various people, including Federigo
Cesi.
It was the support of the Copernican theories which brought Galileo into direct conflict with
the Inquisition and the Roman Catholic Church. Since Copernicanism was in contradiction with Scrip
ture, Galileo was treading on thin ice with the Inquisition. A young Dominican, Tommaso Caccini, de
nounced Galileo, his theories, and the Copernican theories officially from the pulpit during a sermo
n in the Santa Maria Novella in 1614 (de Santillana, The Crime of Galileo, p. 42). In 1616, Galileo
was officially advised by Cardinal Bellarmino on the behalf of the Pope to proceed with caution and
to speak only hypothetically about the Copernican theory and not as if the theory were reality. F
ollowing this confrontation with the church, Galileo returned to Florence and continued work on his
book (Dialogue Concerning theTwo Chief World Systems), as the Pope wished, Galileo gave more emphasi
s to mathematical arguments rather than to experimental or physical arguments.
Although Galileo tri
ed to obey the Pope's wishes in his wording of the Dialogue, when the book finally appeared in 1632,
it raised an immediate storm of protest leading immediately to the arrest of Galileo and a trial by
the Inquisition. The inquisition found Galileo guilty of publishing a heretical book and insisted
that he denounce his theories and confess his 'crimes' before the church. Although he was lead to b
elieve that this act would cause the Inquisition to be lenient (and would keep them from torturing h
im to death), Galileo was still sentenced to life imprisonment at his villa in Arcetri near Florence
(Reston, Galileo A Life, pp. 253 - 254.)
It was during this house arrest that Galileo produced per
haps his greatest work, his Discourses on the Two New Sciences , which has been hailed as possibly t
he cornerstone of modern physics. This book was smuggled out of Italy to France and was published i
n Leyden in 1638. In this book, Galileo presented the true laws of accelerated motion and falling b
odies, as well as the fundamental theory of projectile motion and important applications of mathemat
ics to a multitude of physical problems.
Galileo died totally blind at 77 years old in 1642. Galil
eo believed that experimentations and observations of these experiments was crucial to the scientifi
c process. (Shapere, Galileo A Philisophical Study, p. 126) Although Galileo was a great scientist,
Pope Urban VIII refused to permit Galileo's burial with a monument, instead, Galileo was buried unc
eremoniously in the Church of Santo Croce, in Florence. His remains have since been moved to their
present location in a magnificent tomb opposite that of Michelangelo near the entrance to the church
. It was only as recently as 1993 that the church has admitted that they were wrong and that Galile
o's theories were correct. Galileo's extraordinary accomplishments in the fields of mathematics and
astronomy upheld and proved the theories of Copernicus whose theories may have been scoffed at as fa
ntasy. He began the scientific revolution of his time period and his persecution by the church, unf
ortunately, put an end to the revolution. He was truly a pioneer. Were it not for Galileo's courag
e of his convictions, many scientific discoveries, including those of other scientists of his era,
may never have occurred or may have been delayed considerably. Without the theories, discoveries, a
nd experiments of Galileo Galilei, we may never have made it to the moon, been able to examine vir
uses or germs under a microscope to be able to defeat them, or been able to write a physical science
term paper (on Galileo of course.) If for no other reason than his invention of the microscope, Ga
lileo deserves to be known as one of the greatest scientists the world has ever known.
References C
ited
1. Drake, Stillman - 1990, GALILEO: PIONEER SCIENTIST, The University of Chicago Press, pp. 2
61 2. Reston, James Jr. - 1941, GALILEO A LIFE, Harper Collins Publishers, pp. 319 3. De Santillan
a, Giorgio - 1955, THE CRIME OF GALILEO, The University of Chicago Press, pp. 339 4. Hitzeroth, Deb
orah, Sharon Heerboth - 1961, THE IMPORTANCE OF GALILEO GALILEI, Lucent Books, pp. 95 5. Shapere, D
udley - 1974, GALILEO A PHILOSOPHICAL STUDY, The University of Chicago Press, pp. 161 6 COLLEGE MAT
HEMATICS JOURNAL - May 1994, Volume 25 Issue 3, p 193life achievements galileo galilei paper which
will writing will discuss life discoveries modern impact scientific accomplishments galileo galilei
born pisa italy galileo entered pisa university medical student became professor mathematics padua a
stronomer mathematician unfortunately himself ahead time discovered uniformly accelerated motion tow
ards earth parabolic path projectiles that bodies have weight among other accomplishments improvemen
t refracting telescope advocacy copernican theory which brought into conflict ideas truths between h
imself inquisition condemned church whose theories threatened everything that taught priesthood holy
truth eventually broken inquisition before being ultimately defeated church however made many contr
ibutions world physics scientific discoveries endeavors were only portion contributions scientific c
ommunity methods testing proving theories were also major importance since these painstaking exact m
ethodologies would groundwork future discoveries brilliance brought about advancement defeat hands c
hurch stop revolution which started vatican formally recognized validity galilei work references cit
ed pioneer scientist stillman drake life james reston college mathematics journal volume issue great
scientist pioneer fields mechanics astronomy thermometry magnetism although mechanics astronomy wer
e main passions arguably brightest ever lived discovered enhanced many time period highly regarded m
athematician natural philosopher persecuted views earth relationship with rest heavens since believe
d that earth revolved around heavens constantly changing evolving since vision metamorphosing univer
se came direct conflict with views aristotle views held supported eventually called before inquisiti
on forced recant nonetheless made significant contributions community remembered great scientist inn
ovator born pisa italy then part duchy tuscany vincenzo musician giulia ammannati studied medicine u
niversity from real interests mathematics natural philosophy left university without degree during t
his time frame began doubt conventional science much what being taught fact conflicting with evidenc
e hands medicalobservations hitzeroth heerboth importance following period student tried hand teachi
ng began privately teaching florence returned teach taught until when appointed professor padua repu
blic venice duties professor padua teach euclidean geometry standard geocentric astronomy medical st
udents medical students expected know some order make astrology their practices continued physics re
search area mechanics area where most famous observations exhibited traditional theory accepted near
ly everyone aristotle theory heavier objects when dropped from same height lighter ones will fall fa
ster rate opposition this notion stated removal outside influences such wind resistance both objects
fall simultaneously virtually same speed although very popular story states attempted prove this dr
opping different weights from campanile leaning tower duomo particular experiment never actually pro
ven have occurred however similar experiment already been made flemish engineer simon stevin said in
terest aristotle about falling objects aroused when during hailstorm noticed both large small hailst
ones ground same observation caused seriously doubt according larger sized hailstones would have fal
len much greater height virtually lighter hailstones order them reach ground found very improbable a
lso very much interested tycho brahe danish astronomer found supernova constellation cassiopeia prom
ptly disappeared years later discovery challenged heavens perfect unchanging immutable discovery alo
ng another nova appearance also persuaded give three public lectures capacity used nova excuse chall
enge unchanging learned spyglass dutchman shown venice using technical skills mathematician workman
along reports construction device series telescopes whose optical performance better than dutch inst
rument first telescope constructed threefold magnification quickly improved times magnification inst
rument used develop astronomical numerous astronomical telescopes described short book called messag
e stars starry messenger sidereus nuncius published venice book claimed seen mountains moon proved m
ilky myriad tiny stars seen four small bodies moons orbiting planet jupiter named moons jupiter medi
cean stars after discovery moons jupiter became official natural philosopher grand duke tuscany duri
ng frame many mathematical observations physical properties among these observations projectiles fol
low parabolic paths allowed arcs physical calculated another achievement period naming cycloid curve
wrote toricelli about cycloid saying been studying properties forty years tried failed find area cy
cloid comparing generating circle after failure trying find mathematical method finding tried weighi
ng pieces metal into shape found ratio weights approximately three decided exactly three employ gran
d duke tuscany florence first became involved disputes copernicanism copernicanism posed nicolaus co
pernicus position relation copernicus stated book revolutions heavenly spheres revolutionibus orbium
coelestium nuremberg rest center universe revolves around known heliocentric lent credence eyes dis
covered seen through telescope planet venus showed phases resembling those moon therefore venus must
orbit drake pioneer went great lengths support copernicanism used mathematical skills proving coper
nican theories between adapted viewing extremely small microscope called occhialini composed tube re
duced size furnished lenses gave microscopes various people including federigo cesi support copernic
an brought into direct conflict roman catholic contradiction scripture treading thin young dominican
tommaso caccini denounced officially pulpit sermon santa maria novella santillana crime officially
advised cardinal bellarmino behalf pope proceed caution speak only hypothetically reality following
confrontation returned florence continued work dialogue concerning thetwo chief world systems pope w
ished gave more emphasis arguments rather than experimental physical arguments although obey pope wi
shes wording dialogue finally appeared raised immediate storm protest leading immediately arrest tri
al guilty publishing heretical insisted denounce confess crimes before lead believe would cause leni
ent keep them torturing death still sentenced imprisonment villa arcetri near reston house arrest pr
oduced perhaps greatest work discourses sciences been hailed possibly cornerstone modern physics smu
ggled italy france published leyden presented true laws accelerated motion falling bodies well funda
mental projectile motion important applications multitude problems died totally blind years believed
experimentations these experiments crucial process shapere philisophical study urban viii refused p
ermit burial monument instead buried unceremoniously santo croce remains moved their present locatio
n magnificent tomb opposite michelangelo near entrance only recently admitted they wrong correct ext
raordinary accomplishments fields upheld proved copernicus whose scoffed fantasy began revolution pe
rsecution unfortunately revolution truly courage convictions including those other scientists never
occurred delayed considerably without experiments never moon able examine viruses germs under micros
cope able defeat them able write science term paper course other reason than invention microscope de
serves known greatest scientists world ever known references cited drake stillman chicago press rest
on james harper collins publishers santillana giorgio crime chicago press hitzeroth deborah sharon h
eerboth importance lucent books shapere dudley philosophical study chicago press college journal vol
ume issueEssay, essays, termpaper, term paper, termpapers, term papers, book reports, study, college
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