.............
......
..-.
.....-......
-.-.
......
..- .......
.....-.-.....
......
... ....
"-.-...........
......
......
-.-....
....
.....
.....
..-.-..
..-.
.._._...._.--.-..
.-....
..-.-...-.,...-.-....
................................."""'''.''''''''''''''''''''''.''''''''''''
."'-'"
... ........
--.--_...-.............
,.--....................
..-.- .-.-...-....-.
....
'-- ....... -.-.-.
.-....
.
..............................................................................................................................................-_............
CONTENTS
Page
Summary
PART
Japanesemmmmm..nn.m..mm..n.......m....mmmmm
American Attitudes toward the
The Background of Pea rI Ha rbor.....
Were the Japanese People Misled? nm_... .......n_....nm.m.m--.m..nm.mm.n..n.nmnm
Responsibi I ity fo r At roc ities? -. .......
The Ch ief EnemY?mnnn_.m...m......mnnm.m.mn..mnn..n.....nnn--.. ... '----n.--nmnnn
12
How Much Do We Know about Japan?. ,_.mnm.m._._n..no ._._._._.m..........m--..... !.---.- 13
PART II
Japanese?_........mm_._..--.
What Shall We Do with the
...'-"""-'-'-00 15
Pun ish the Japanese" Severely..... .......,.
m"""--"'--""""-""'-"'" 15
Supervise Them StrictIY...--...n..m.--n..nm.n...m........m...m--
."m...----n,""'mn.--....... 16
Treat Them Lenient Iy.. ...... .... ..... n""
Japan " or " the
Japanese People
,. 1 8
?mm..mm.n.n..m.--_--..... '.--n.m.......--mn....--.m 20
The Emperor and the Military Leaders?_..n........_._._....--_._._..._
PART III
00..... n.. m. m.....n. n..'" n.. 00..00., 00.. n. m....
Economic Problemsn..
:...."'-'-"'-"""" 21
n.. n...... n _n'
Shall Japan s Peacetime Industries Be Rebuilt?m.nnmmm.m.m..nm.n..._._...._._........ 24
Should We TRY to Get Reparations?.........n....n...n...n.........mnn...nn..nmn.'n.m. 27
Money or Goods?. ....... .n.n.. .....n._.. ....--. ""'"",'......--00....' ..n..n.....-- .n"""'...----..n...
PART IV
Problems._........n.._....... ,...--....n..n--, '.....n....
Political and Administrative
'.mm...-
" 33
Relief and Rehabilitation for Japan..........._.n..mmm....m... .....n..m--...m.._..m.....-- 33
Disarmament ,
Peace ,
and World Organization............._...............--..............--".m. 36
Japan s Pol itical Futu ren ... n.. nn.n. n ............ 'n'-- n.'" n"--'n ,'n-- '." "--n' n"nn,n_" ......--.
U. S. Pol icy in Occupied Japan? """'''''''--------'''-'''''...n..n.........-.-.-....-..--.................. 42
The Pacific Islands? ."... ---- "'--n' ----.-- n' nn
,n. ..---- '00'00--' n' --'.n n... -- .n '.
_.n.. .'''n',
Facts about the National Opinion Research Center.._..mm..............---.---......--.-...-......-.............'" 49
Howls a Public Opinion Survey
Publ ications . ..... ..--.-- --u ..- - _noon
Made?..--m... ,mm--..--m......m--..--m.--...mm..--....um--m.mm.
00"
... ......00
.... _.- 00"_00000000-- """'00''''''''--''''
Copyright, August , 1946
National Opinion Research Center
50
""--"" ......... "" "-""'" --... 51
s"'
that-not only yesterday, but today and tomorrow-the
future handling of Japan and the Japanese people constitutes a serious problem , in the solution of
which the United States must assume a major responsibility. The " Japanese problem " was by no
means solved by V-J Day and the end of fighting in the Far East; with the beginning of the occupation under MacArthur , the " problem " only entered upon a new phase , perhaps as difficult as the
actual waging of the war. Because attitudes toward the Japanese and American understanding of
Japan and the Post- War World" may influence or implement far-reaching decisions , what people
in this country think about the people of Japan is of real significance.
This report is based on the assumption
In the years before Pearl Harbor , public opinion in this country, at first not greatly concerned
regarding conflict in the Orient , came definitely to side with China and to condemn rather than
condone economic practices helpful to the Japanese cause. By the late fall of 1941 , a majority of
Americans had arrived at a reluctant recognition of the likelihood of war between the United States
and Japan.
most Americans believed that the Japanese peofDle were dangerous not merely
because of their susceptibility to powerful leadership but primarily because ofa temperament so
fundamentally inclined toward war as to make them always a menace to world peace. Many people
in the United States felt , also , that the Japanese had no desire to rid themselves of the m ilitary
leaders in power. Before the end of the war , a majority thought that the people as wellasthe leaders
in Japan should be held responsible for wartime atrocities.
During the war ,
Asked to recommend a post-war policy to be followed toward the Japanese people , about half
control and supervision of all phases of Japanese
the public advocated a middle course-strict
life; a somewhat smaller proportion favored lenient treatment; only a few recommended the
extreme- imprisonment , torture , or even death. Questions posed in terms of "Japan "
the Japanese people "
other
rather than
tended to elicit somewhat harsher recommendations. Before V- J
Day, no
punishment was too harsh , in the eyes of the public , to be meted out to Hirohito and the Japanese
militarists,
Although two out of every three people in this country thought that the United States should
not assist Japan in reconstructing her peacetime industries , an even larger majority would insist on
trying to secure reparations. Over half would accept goods for payment in lieu of money, yet only
a minority would accept products which might compete with domestic manufactures. Public opin-
ion seemed reluctant to sanction free elections in Japan or the gift of food should the Japanese
people be starving after the war. On each of these several points , attitudes toward the Japanese
were consistently and significantly harsher than attitudes toward the Germans.
Since V-J Day (August 14 / 1945) , a number of significant shifts of opinion have been observed. Almost half the public have come to look upon the Japanese people- like the Germansas " too easily led into war by powerful leaders " and an increasing number even judge that the
Japanese might become " good citizens of the world. " Opinion has more than reversed itself on
the issue of rebuildingJapan s peacetime industries , and a bare majority now favor resuming trade
with conquered Japan. Attitudes on sending food to Japan have become somewhat more lenient.
Most significant of all , perhaps , is the fact that , although in the early days of the occupation
more than six out of ten Americans thought Allied po!icy in Japan not " tough" enough , today almost the same proportion believe that the United States is doing a good job in handling the problems involved in occupying Japan. (The occupation of Germany, at first judged to be progressing
more satisfactorily than that of Japan , is now considered less successful.
Page 2
~~~~~
~~~~~~~~ ~~~ ~~~~~~~~
~~~ ~~~~~~ ~~~~~~~~
~~~~~
~~~~
~~~~~~~~~
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
~~~~~~~~
~~~~~~~~
PART I
d t
What did people in this country think of Japanese policy both in, the Far East and as it specifically
affected the United States in the years before Pearl Harbor? In fixing war responsibility and in
establishing occupation policy-to what extent are administrators justified in making distinctions
between the Japanese people and their leaders? Are American judgments of Japan and the
Japanese based on full and accurate information about the country and its political and social
institutions? Answers to these questions are vitally important, because what we in the United
States think about the people of Japan may have an influence on decisions regarding the peace and
the treatment of Japan in the years to come.
The ' Background of
Pearl Harbor
The four or five years directly preceding December 7 , 1941 , were marked by a number of clearly
defined shifts of opinion regarding the war in the Far East and the economic and political relations
between the United States and the warring powers. A study of public opinion surveys made during
that period reveals significant opinion shifts in three different areas:
at first indifferent . as to the outcome of the war between Japan
and China, became definitely sympathetic toward China.
2. The public became increasingly interested in preventing Japan from receiving
economic assistance, direct or indirect, from the United States.
3. By the late fall of 1941 most people in this country had begun to be aware of the
1. American opinion ,
imminence of war between the United States and Japan.
AMERICAN SYMPATHIES
In 1932 Manchuria became ( under Japanese domination , Manchukuo. By the fall of 1937 Japanese
aggression was directed in full force against China proper yet it was not until 1939 that a strong
majority of popular sympathy in the United States had swung to the side of China. The trend is
shown by the following question asked by the American Institute of Public Opinion (Gallup Poll:
In the present fight between Japan and China, are your sympathies with either side?"
China
Japan
Neither
September, 1937
October, 1937
!j!1I!
!i;1iji!i!ij!:i:
im!!I! ;!;i!ijjjj
!!:!I!
!#f!!!j
t!!!!!!jm!mfj
i:iji!!j!ji!i
rWgr !jtj! iIM!i;!! i!iii !lj!I!!!j
1ji!j!i!fii!jjr:i:!m!!!t!!!!!!jm!i!i!!j!!i!i!iji
55%
=100%
40%
June, 1939
jtfJt
!Ji
24%
If:
ECONOMIC RELATIONS WITH JAPAN
cent.
A change in the popular desire to remain aloof from the Sino- Japanese conflict is shown by answers
to another Gallup question: " Wouldyou join a movement in this country to stop buying goods
made in Japan?" Between October ' 37 and June ' 39 the percentage of Americans with opinions
replying " Yes " increa$ed from 37 to 66 per
Page 3
------
That the public long opposed the translation of their pro-China sympathies into action is suggested
by the fact that in October, 1937, 70 per cent thought the United States government should no
longer continue to maintain military and naval forces in China for the protection of American
residents , but should withdraw its forces and warn American citizens to leave the country.
In February, 1938, 64 percent thought the United States should not allow shipment of arms and
ammunition from this country to China. * Still another AIPO survey, released more than a year
later- in June ' , revealed an almost reversed opinion , with 60 per cent of the public answering
to the question: " Do you think the United States should FORBID shipment of arms or
ammunitions from this country to CHINA?" while 72 per cent replied
Yes to the same question
when asked regarding Japan.
The following month Gallup reported reactions to a free-response question which suggested no
specific government action but allowed people to express the ideas uppermost in their minds.
Answers seemed to indicate that-at least before the outbreak of open war in Europe-the
public preferred the use of econpmic rather than diplomatic or military pressure ' against Japan.
The question:
How far do you think the Unitd States government should go to protet American
interests in China?"
6 % said " Fight Japan.
1 8 suggested protests through the State Department.
51 country
recommended stopping all shipments of war materials from this
to Japan.
25
Do nothing,
answered "
100%
A month later, however, in August,
cent of the public believed that
1939,
a more specific AIPO question
revealed that 82 per
, when the trade treaty between the United States and Japan
expired in six months time , this country should refuse to sell Japan any more war material.
Democrats and Republicans answered the question almost identically. And in October, 1940
Gallup reported a 90 per Cent
majority
of the opinion that " our government should forbid the
sale of arms, airplanes, gasoline , and other war materials to Japan. " Thus, over a period of more
than three years the American public slowly came to recognize the implications of Japanese
aggression in China.
EXPECTATIONS OF WAR
On the question of possible actual conflict between the United States and Japan ,
public opinion
crystallized even more clearly in the period before Pearl Harbor. In September of 1939 the Fortune
Survey asked: IlShould we get out of. the Philppines and stay out, even if Japan seizes them?1l
Half of the public answered " No/' with the rest dividing almost equally between
Yes and
II
Undecided.
Eleven months later, in August , 1940, a somewhat different Fortune question
revealed even more persons willing to take a military stand:
if a major foreign power. actually threatened to take over any of
the following places by
armed invasion, would you be wiling to see the United States come to the tl!cue with
armed forces?"
Yes
Hawaii "-------'--'
'----'--"--"n -._.' 74%
Philippines '------'--'- ""-'--"-----,--" 66
"See AIPO release of the dates indicated.
**Fortune figures have been rounded to the nearest full per cent
Page 4
Undecided
12%
14%=100%**
Between February and March, 1941 , Gallup found a significant shift from a
negative to an
undecided response on this question:
Do you think the United States should risk war with Japan, if necessary, in order to keep
Japan from taking the Dutch East Indies and Singapore?"
Undecided
Yes
February, 1941 m.o','--------,--",----''' 39 %
March , 1941 ...m.....mo....--m..mn.n 40
Through th
46%
15%=100%.
summer and fall of 1941 , the polls clearly showed an increasing public awareness of
the growing tension between the United States and Japan. A Gallup question ,
asked first in July
and repeated during the last week of November, revealed an 18 point increase in the majority
favoring firm measures against Japan. This increase was due to the combined effects of decreases
both in the number opposing such measures and in the number undecided on the issue. The
question:
Should , the Unitd States take steps now to keep Japan from becoming mOfO powerful,
even if this means war with Japan?"
Yes
July, ' 1941 '--"--'''''''''''''''0'''''''----'' 51 %
November """m.......--.--m..m.--...'-- 69
Undecided
31%
18%=100%
And during that last week in November, 1941 , Gallup put a stil more direct question to the
American public. The results were released to newspapers for publication on the morning of
Sunday, December 7
, 1941:
Do you think the United States will go to war against Japan sometime in the near future?"
Yes ""'"'''''' ........
52% t t t
tt
No .............................. 27%
Unready to guesLm.-- 21
t t t
tt
t =5%
00000 (
=100%
%
lI*
If only those with opinions are considered , 65 per cent " felt that some clash was inevitable in the
near future.
Were the Japanese People Misled?
Public opinion surveys have shown that the people of the United States judge the Japanese more
harshly than they do the Germans. In May, 1942, however, only a minority of Americans stated
that they actually hated either of the Axis peoples. When Gallup asked: li Do you, personally, hate
the Japanese people? . . . the German people?" 28 per cent of those interviewed said they hated
the Japanese; 18 per cent said they hated the Germans.
* AI po release, December 7. 1941.
Page 5
..........--....
,..-..........
An NORC question asked in September ' 45 , about a month after the surrender of Japan , revealed
a pattern of attitudes consistent with those found on other questions:
Just to sum up, do you personally feel as though you want to get even with the Japanese,
or just how DO you feel about them?"
17 % were SEVERE in their sentiments to the. extent of expressing a
definite desire for revenge.
answered in terms of strict supervision and control.
46 included:
These
19 % expressing feelings of bitterness, distrust, and a desire
for punishment but no particular statement of vengeance;
1 0 demanding firmness in dealing with the Japanese people
and/or punishment of war criminals; and
17 advocating definite control without mention of punishment.
gave lenient answers-expressing attitudes ranging from indifence to friendliness and . concern. Specifically:
7 % expressed only a desire for peace;
were largely non-committal;
believed the United States has already gotten even with
Japan; but
13 evinced
positive concern for the welfare of the Japanese
people.
gave other replies.
were undecided.
100%
A FOUR-YEAR TREND- NORC
A National Opinion Research Center trend question , asked first in 1942, showed-during the
Japanese
people will always want war. Since Y-J Day, however, the proportion holding this view has declined
first to a 49 per cent plurality and then to a 37 per cent minority. The trend:
war years-varying majorities of persons with opinions expressing the opinion that the
Which of the following statements comes closest to describing how you feel, on the
whole, about the people who live in Japan?
Sept.
1942
June
1943
Feb.
1944
Aug.
1944
Dec.
1944
July
1945
Nov.
1945
May
1946
The Japanese people wil always
want to go to war to make themselves as powerful as possible..m 58 %
The Japanese people may not like
war, but they have shown that
they are too eaosily led into war by
powerful leaders.
62%
57%
53%
62%
56%
49%
37%
100%
100%
100%
13%
100%
10%
100%
100%
100%
."'W'-'"''''''''''
The Japan ese
people do not like
war. If they could have the same
chance as peop-Ie in other coun-
tries, they would become good
citizens of the world.
Undecided ...-...-....-.....
100%
13%
Until the spring of ' 45 majorities of almost all population groups judged the people of Japan to be
incurably warlike. This view was shared by pluralities of those Americans most privileged educationally, economically, and occupationally. During the summer and fall of 1945-with the
surrender of the Axis powers- pluralities of these most privileged groups came to judge the
Japanese people as misled rather than basically inclined to war. On all surveys , grade and high
school educated people more than those with college experience , women more than men , adults
over 40 more than those younger, and whites more than Negroes tend to believe that " the
nese people will always want to go to war to make themselves as powerful as possible.
Page 6
Japa-
70%
1942
1943
1944
1945
194
10%
Undecided
Germans all
When , over the same period of time , the same question was asked regarding the
judgments were milder than those regarding the Japanese. An increasing proportion of the public
however, considered the German people essentially warlike. Only 22 per cent held this view in
June , 1943 , but in July, 1945, the proportion had increased to 41 per cent of those with opinions
-still substantially less than the 56 percent who-in July ' 45-said they thought the Japanese
people would always want War. Until the post- E Day surveYJ however a larger proportion of the
public judged the Germans misled than judged them essentially war minded. The two most recent
, showed almost idenhcal pluralities-43 and 44 per centsurveys , November ' 45 and May
of the opinion that the basic fault of the
German people is their susceptibility to the force
powerful leaders.
(and to a somewhat lesser extent , persons in
the more privileged economic and occupational brackets) have tended to appraise the German
Persons with a college or high school background
Page 7
..........
people as weak and misled rather than fundamentally bad or fundamentally good. The less privi;.
leged , however, are significantly more inclined to select one of the extreme appraisals.
On the most recent survey, opinion divides as follows:
The GERMAN people
. . . wil always want war.
Attnded
All Adults
Interviewed
Attended
College
HIgh School
29%
26%
............ 32 %
power-
EIghth
Grade or
Leu
37%
. . . are too easily misled by
ful leaders.......................... 46
. . . . could
become good citizens of
the world.
25 .
""""'''''''''''''''''''' 22
100%
100%
100%
100%
37%
24%
36%
44%
100%
100%
100%
12%
Undecided ""--""'-""'''''''''''''''''''' 4 %
The JAPANESE people
. . . Wil always want war.
. . . are too easily misled by
power-
ful leaders. .......m......m--...... 42
. . . could become good citizens
the world. '''''''''''''''''''''''''''''' 21
of
100%
Undecided """'"--'m"",--""",,,,,,,, 7
A differently worded question regarding the Japanese-sked about a month after V-J Dayrevealed the same basic feeling (on the part of a plurality of Americans) that Japan might never
become a truly peaceful nation. About one person in five is " Undecided" on the issue. The question:
Do you think the Japanese wil. ever become a peaceful nation?"
All Adult
Interviewed
Those with'
Opinions
No """.m........................--....... 42
52%
Yes m..''''--''--,--'',,,,,,,,,,-,,,,,,,,,,-- 39
Undecided '--'''''''''''''''''''''''''m.--.' 19
100%
100%
In December ' 45 the Fortune Survey released results of another question-results again confirming
NORC and AIPO research. The question:
findings of similar
that is like that?"
Do you regard the majority of the Japanese (German) people as being naturally cruel and
brutal, if they have the chance, or do you think it is only a small part of the population
Japanese
NATURALLY CRUEL AND BRUTAL:
People
A majority ....m..m--...m.....m....... 56
A small parL...............m.............. 34
Undecided ,--"--,',,,'--.......--m----...
German
People
39%
10
100%
100%
HOW POPULAR WERE THE JAPANESE MILITARISTS?
Would the people of Japan have liked to be rid of their miltary leaders if they could have done so?
Although no empirical answer to this question can be given, it is significant that, before the end
of the war, almost half the public in the United States believed that the Japanese were satisfied
with their national leadership. On the other hand , when a similar question was asked about the
Germans a year earlier, fewer than two out of ten Americans considered the Germans satisfied
with their Nazi leaders. The two NORC questions read:
Page 8
Do you think that most of the people living in Japan would like to get rid of their
miltary leaders now, .or not?"
Do you think that most of the people living in Germany would like to get rid
NaZi leaders now, or not?" .
Japan
(April ' 45)
Yes .....---..--..--...-.....-.--.-.....-------.. 27 %
No _......m.....m... m.....
Undecided '''''nm------'
(Fe
of their
44 )
66%
...""" 45
--''' 28
100%
100%
The more education a person had the less likely he was to believe that the Japanese people
wanted to get rid of their military leaders. " " answers were given by 51 per cent of respondents
with a college background , 48 per cent of those with high school , and only 39 per cent of those
with no more than a grade school education. Likewise 46 per cent of white persons but only 35
per cent of Negroes thought that the Japanese were not inclined to rid themselves of their leaders.
In Their
Own Words
Many of the 45 per cent who believed that the Japanese would not like to get rid of their military
leaders made remarks amplifying and explaining their attitude. The two most common reaction$
were that the Japanese had demonstrated by their actions their loyalty to their leaders and that
the people knew no other leadership:
We don t know how the Japanese feel about their govern-
Mother of journalist, Austin, Texas
The Japanese are subject to so much restriction of the
Salesman s wife, Clarksdale
Mississippi
Cobbler , Chester , South Carolina
ment. We re not there. But if they weren t loyal to their
leaders they wouldn t commit 'hari-kari' so much.
"They must be prett satisfied; they won t stop fighting/'
press, they don
realize the crimes of their miltary
leaders.
Their leaders seem right to them, just as
That is all the kind
ours do to us.
Farmer , McCloud, Oklahoma
of government or leadership they
know about.
The Japanese believe their leaders are gods.
Restaurant manager , Wichita
They'll believe in their leaders as long as the Emperor does.
The Japanese believe they ll go to heaven if they follow
Kansas
Mechanic s wife ,
Plattsburgh ,
New York
their Emperor.
A feW of the minority who believed that the people of Japan would like to depose their leaders also
made comments. An express messenger in Minneapolis, for instance , said: " I think they d like to live
II
A retired businesswoman in Los
like other countries. They can t open their mouths for fear.
Angeles thought: "The Japanese will realize when
are no good. " A yeast mixer in New Jersey replied:
shelling, want to get rid of their military leaders.
the war goes against them that their leaders
II
All nations , after they have taken a good-
II
A few qualified their affrmative answers as did a Portland , Oregon , house painter, who suggested
that li the older people would like to get rid of their military leaders , but the young people are
satisfied. " A retired bench worker in torain , Ohio , answered: " 1 don t know. I have no way of
accuracy.
knowing except by the papers, and I doubt their
Responsibilty for
Atrocities?
Before the surrender of Japan , about six out of every 10 persons in this country believed that the
Japanese people were responsible for and in sympathy with the many cruelties perpetrated during
the course of the war.
In June , 1945, the American Institute of Public Opinion reported that, while 63 per cent of the
public believed that the Japanese people were entirely in sympathy with some war atrocities , less
Page 9
,"
---
.........--.
than half as many-31 per cent-thought the German people were in complete agreement with
the wartime cruelties of the Nazi regime. Persons of all educational backgrounds held substantially
the same views on these two questions:
To what extent do you think the Japanese people approve of the kiling and starving of
prisoner&-ntirely, partly, or not at all?
To what extent do you think the German people have approved
of prisoners in Germany-entirely, partly, or not at all?"
of the kiling and starving
Japan
Germany
Entirely approve m--nn"'--'...m'-'-m.---.--.m---...-m-- 63 %
Partly approve '--"----"------"--""-- -'__--__m__"---- nm.__. - 25
31%
Not at all m..um.....m.....-m.m--_m.m....m.......--.. 2
People unaware of atrocities.__m_._--_ m_--------_.._---_
Undecided n---"_'-.--m"-'--____----n.m-- "h""'--h_._mm.. 6
100%
To another AIPO question
100%
Which people do you think are more cruel at heart-the Germans
or the Japanese?" almost five times as many people named the Japanese as named the Germans.
However, a question asked by the National Opinion Research Center twice in 1945-about a month
before and again about a month after the surrender of Japan-showed a significant decline in the
proportion placing at least partial responsibility for wartime cruelties on the Japanese people. On
the later survey a definite majority would blame the military leaders alone. NORC asked:
Do you think we should blame the Japanese people themselves, or the miltary leaders,
both the people and their leaders for the cruelties in this war?"
July
1945
Sept.
1945
Japanese people '''_''m--....--............ 3
Both people and leadersm_...--....----_..-- 54
57%
44%
100%
100%
Japanese leaders onIY_.._.--m....--..--..--.
Undeci ded .. ..--- -- m'" -... -'----'-- --
Do you think w"" shou ld blame the
Japanese people themselves ,
or
the military leaders , or both the
people and their leaders for the
cruelties in this war?
54%
Japanese
people
Copyright ,
Both people
,me!
Japanese
leaders
'0 aders
on Iv
1945 , by Field Publications :
Undecided
Reprinted by permission of the newspaper PM.
Page 10
On the earlier survey residents of the Pacific Coast states (California , Washington
differed significantly from the rest of the country in their opinions
differences , too, were of special interest. The comparison:
Pacific
Coast
All Those
Interviewed
and Oregon)
on the question. Educational
Rest of
Country
Attended
58%
66%
College
Attended
High
School
Eighth
Grade
or Less
Japanese people . .m..--.--,--.
Bott' people and leaders.--. 54
48%
57%
59%
51%
Japanese leaders only.--.._..
Undecided ..--m"m.m----"
100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100%
In July ' 45-two months after the surrender of Germany-a comparable cross section was polled
on the question of responsibility for German cruelties. Opinions regarding the two Axis groups were
almost identical: 56 per cent of the cross-section blamed both the German people and their Nazi
leaders; 42 per cent blamed the leaders only, and the remaining 2 per cent were undecided.
ords
Some of those interviewed who thought both the people and the military leaders of Japan should
share the responsibility for wartime cruelties added comments explaining their attitude. A woman
insurance adjuster in Chicago, for example , remarked: "You can lead a horse to water, but you
can t make him drink. If the people weren t willing, you couldn t make them commit atrocities.
A Minneapolis shipping clerk commented: " If the people all stuck together, they wouldn t have
to let those dreadful things happen. " A janitor in Portland , Oregon , characterized the Japanese
as a " cruel race-abusing even their own people , especially the women. i' A machine operator in a
In Their
Own
11'
cotton mil at Millboro , Virginia , blamed both the Japanese leaderscand the people
atrocities because " the leaders are ambitious and the people are uneducated.
for wartime
A number of the 40 per cent who blamed the miltary leaders alone for Japanese war crimes also
volunteered remarks , such as:
There are lots of good Japs regardless of what people
Farmer,
near Marshall , Indiana
say.
The miltary leaders
these
Tenant farmer, near Blacksburg,
Virginia
loving,
Welfare worker, Butte , Montana
taught the people to do all
. th ings.
lf the Japanese people were taught to be peace
they wouldn t want to fight.
The Japanese people have no idea what is going on in the
world and what is being done.
Post offce clerk , Chicago
The leaders are basically to blame.
Teacher , Oberlin , Ohio
I read in a piece in
YANK magazine just last night about what the Jap G.I.
goes through in his basic training, and after reading that
I can see what I couldn t see before.
don t think any people as a whole are war
loving. After
all we have JapaneSe people here in the United States who
Auto parts salesman , Minneapolis
are no different than you or I."
In Dece ber ' 45 Fortune published results of a question on awareness of rather than responsibilty
for wartime atrocities in the Axis nations.
On this score Japan is seen in a somewhat more
favorable light than is Germany. The question:
Do you think many, only a few, or practically none of the civilan population in Japan
(Germany) knew about the atrocities in prison camps while the war was still going on?"
Japan
Germany
Many knew about atrocities........-- 37 % 48 %
Only a few knew.--...............----..... 44
Practically none knew.........--.......--.
Undecided .......----..............--.--........ 12
100%
Page
100%
~~~ :..
..........
~~~~
............--.
~~~ ~~~ ..--...
: ;
Fortune comments: " The difference here may be due to the greater arid earlier publicity the German prison camps
received in the U. S. It may also be due to an awareness that many of the Japanese camps were on the Asi'!tic mainland
where the civil population of Japan would not be so likely to know about them; to the smaller numbers in the Japanese
camps; and to a belief in the greater strictness of Japanese censorship or ' thought control.' It may also be due to the
fact that many Germans were imprisoned in the German . camps and that therefore the rest of the Germans would be
likely to know of the' existence and condition of the camps.
The Chief Enemy?
The problem of differential attitudes toward the peoples of Japan and Germany has been ap
proached in various ways by the public opinion polls. A question put by the Office of Public
Opinion Research at Princeton would seem to indicate that, when the issue IS posed squarely in
terms of the people or the government, only a few Americans would consider either of the Axis
peoples the " chief enemy. " The people of Japan are named by a somewhat larger proportion of
the public than the people of
Germany. In August ,
In the war with Japan do you feel
enemy is the Japanese people as a
the Japanese government?"
1944 ,
our chief
whole or
OPOR asked:
In the war with Germany, do you feel our chief
enemy is the German people as. a whole or the
German government?"
Government om...... 55 %
People ................. 11 1 429i
Government m......." 63 %
People 'm.m..mm..', 81 35%
Both m..........m...... 27 f
Both .......om...mo.... 31 f
Undecided ............
Undecided ..--.--..--
100%
100%
Over a period of more than two years , the American Institute of Public Opinion used a question
to differentiate attitudes toward Japan and toward Germany:
In this war, which do you think is our chief enemy-Japan or Germany?"
Japan
Germany
Undecided
64%
21 %=100%
27%
8%=100%
June , 1942.....---- ......m--...----...... --..................-- 25
February, 1943....--..............m.....----.....---.--....... 53
By Sections (February, 1943)
Pacific Coastmm..----.--.......
-.. 65
East CentraL..-------.......--....--...............--...----... 56
Mountain...--..m.. --......
..--..........--...... 55
West Centra!.............---.----......._--.-................ 53
New England , Middle Atlantic statesm.. :----.... 51
South...----..--.....---.-................................... ....
Russian gains against Germany between June ' 42 and February ' 43
may be responsible
for the
almost complete reversal of opinion during that period. Hostility of Pacific Coast residents toward
the Japanese is accentuated
by the low " Undecided" vote-an indication of attitudes
more
clearly defined than in any other section. Of all the sections the South evinces the strongest antiGerman feelings , possibly because of the fact that a majority of Southern whites are of early
English , Scotch , or French extraction. In conjunction with this tendency, opinion is influenced
ttitudes of Negroes-who seem less hostile to the Japanese than is the white population.
In December, 1941 , just after Pearl Harbor, a Gallup question-approaching the issue from a
somewhat different angle-revealed that 64 per cent of the United States public believed Germany
to be " a greater threat to America s future " than Japan , while only 15 per cent considered Japan
the more dangerous enemy. A question asked by the Offce of Public Opinion Research almost
three years later, in August , 1944 , indicated that a majority of the public then considered Japan
by the a
the more dangerous enemy. The comparison follows:
Page 12
,"
';'
0.-
Which country Is the greater threat to America
future-rmany or Japan?"
(AIPO, December ,
1941
Germany '.m'-""""'" 64 %
Which countr is the greatest military threat to
the United State-Germany or Japan?"
(OPOR , August, 1944)
Germany ...-...........'- 30 %
Japan ....................
Japan ............m...n 52
Equal ......mm""""" 1
Undecided ...---.......
Equal .--.m'''''--_-''''''
12
Undecided ......n...-100%
100%
The 30 months '
''f 'i''-
lapse of time between the two questions- including such opinion-shaping events
as the D- Day landing in France-rather than the slight difference in wording, would seem most
likely to account for the shift in opinion.
How Much Do We Know about
Japan?
That many people in the United States know very little about Japan and the Japanese is clearly
shown by the findings of a nation-wide survey reported in the April , 1944, issue of Fortune. In
order to discourage guessing on the questions, Fortune Survey interviewers were instructed to tell
the respondents
If you have no idea what the answer is, don t hesitate to say so, but if you have
an idea
d like your guess. " Large numbers of people , Fortune reports , frankly said they didn
know on all six questions; but even more made guesses, often wide of the mark. As one interviewer
remarked: " By now , they feel , they ought to know something about Japan.
POPULATION?
The first of three questions touching upon the Japanese way of life read:
Which of these figures do you think is closest
to the slxe of the p pulation of Japan
proper (the home islands)?"
50 milion ......m........-------"'''''''''''''''''''''''---'
6%
75 milion (correct) *',--'n........_..-.............m"--'" 14
90 milion -..-...-....--...--...--....-.............m..--.--_"'" 1
110 milion .--........_.....n......m..m...m----..--..nm 16
125 mill on ....--.....-. ...--..-..-.......m._._.........._--m.. 16
Don t know --....--..m.m._....--'-"""""""'-'--""'-"- 29
100%
LITERACY?
. A question on Japanese lieracy again shows
a high degree of misinformation on the part of most
people in the United States, with interesting differences in patterns of response, ' Fortune asked:
About how many Japanese do you feel c:n read their own language?"
All Those
Interviewed
Nearly all of them.--...--..n....---........ 14
Most of them.................-....---...--....... 18
About half .._....m C.--.........-",--,,--,,-, 27
Only a few...---......--.-.---................. 22
Don
Upper
Standard.ofLiving
Group
Negroes
Pacific Coast
Residents
22%
20%
15%
100%
100%
100%
t know .--..n._._----m,"'n"""--"" 19
100%
Before the war elementary school education was compulsory in Japan. If Japanese literacy figures
Nearly all of them " would be the correct response. On the basis of American
are accepted
judgment " Most of them " would be a more accurate answer.
The correct population figure for Japan , according to FortuneI' is 73 million , so the 75 millon " choke was the correct one.
Fortune adds: " Opinion pollers have found that where the public merely guesses on information questions the results form a pattern
not very different from this one. Pure guesswork would give each of these five answers 14. 1 per cent- leaving out the ' Don t knows
moreover, people
s poker-playing instinct makes them lean toward the middle answers as the safest bets when they are uncertain.
Page 13
?\''
''1\,t.t
","....""--""'''''-----'''''''''''''''''''''---'--''''''--'''''''''''''''''
......................----..--...................
-- ... ... ......
THE POSITION OF THE EMPEROR?
The correctness of response to a third Fortune question hinges upon the somewhat controversial
point: Exactly how powerful was the Emperor of Japan? The question:
Which of these comes closest to expressing your idea of the position of the Japanese
Emperor?
He is the dictator. ""'--..m""""--....--.m '__----'-"'''''''''''H'_''__---''''
''..--..-........-... 16 %
He is to Japan what the King is to England. '''''m..m..............--.......--........--... 6
He is only a figurehead (except in religion). mmm.....n...m.m..m.m..--..............
He is the only Japanese god.
Don
19
t know ""--"'''''--''''''''''''----mm'''''''''''''''''''''''''''m--''''H..m...'.--m._..--.....
100%
Since there is no Occidental counterpart of the Japanese . Emperor or any simply understandable
term in which his role can be. described.. . Fortune s editors framed a scale of possible functions
for the Emperor, phrased in American terms. No answer on this scale could be wholly right, but
the third is nearest and the fourth not wholly wrong.
WAR POTENTIAL?
A survey taken today might possibly show a greater popular knowledge of comparative Japanese
and German military strength than existed in April , 1944. Fortune asked:
ls it your impression that the Japanese Army is larger than the German Army, smaller,
or about the same size?"
Larger --..m..--...._............ :................-.................. 29 %
Same .--...--..c----.... :.m..--.................nn......n.. J 7
Smaller ................--...mmm......m.m--......mm.... C. 36
Don t know m'--'--'''''''',,''m.m..--.--.......m.........' 18
100%
At the time the survey was taken ,
the Japanese Army was actually less than half as large as the
German , according to Fortune, but the fact that some 46 per cent replied either " Larger" or
Same " reflected the tendency to overestimate Japan.
Two questions on the comparative industrial effectiveness of Japan and the United States show
a much higher percentage of the public answering correctly:
How do you think Japan s steel industry compares in size with ours-would you say it
larger, about the same, or smaller?"
Larger '''''''--'''''''....m'--.--..m''H'----''--''--''''''''' 7 %
is
Same ".....m'----.--...m--.........--.m..................
Sma Iler
Don
... m
....--... ....,...... ... '''''m.....
t know "----""'--"----'........n'H"".......n'"'H'''' 20
100%
Do you feel that Japanese industr
in an equal length of time can produce
workman than Ainerican industry, about the same,
more goo per
or less?"
More """..................m"""'''''''''''''''...........--m.
10%
Same .....--.--.
Less ...m'''''''''''''--'_''''''H...n'......m.................... 66
Don t know ......--m..--......--.....--......--............. 13
100%
Men did much better than women on these two questions; 75 per cent of men correctly answered
Smaller "
to the question on
steel; 74 per cent correctly replied " Less on productivity.
Page 14
" "
" "
" "
" "
" "
'"'''''
i"' i''''''i''ifJ!:'
PART II
'3ht She
'3e
t4 p
Z'tJ
e7
When people think in terms of Japan as a country their recommendations for post-war treatment
are distinctly harsher than when they think in terms of the Japanese people. In either case, the
public advocates more stringent measures against Japan and the Japanese than against Germany
and the Germans.
In February, 1944 , the National Opinion Research Center asked this question to ascertain attitudes
toward the Axis peoples:
If you had your say, how would we treat the people who live
40 % advocated
lenient treatment-a
in Japan aftr this
war?"
kindly attitude toward the
people (but not toward their leaders) . . . active assistance. .
or a re-education program.
recommended strict supervision and control of economic and
political life-a probationary period. . . isolation. . . policing
. . . or disarmament.
favored more severe measures-definite punitive action , torture
. . . or even complete extermination.
gave other suggestions.
were undecided.
IJ9%*
People with a coHege background were more likely than those with less education to
recommend
either leniency or strict control of the Japanese , but less likely to advocate extreme severity.
Residents of the Pacific and Rocky Mountain states differed significantly from persons living
in other parts of the country in that they were less likely to suggest the most lenient treatment
and more likely to suggest strict supervision and control of the Japanese people. Racial attitudes
also differ sharply, with 53 per cent of Negroes, in contrast to only 38 per cent of whites
recommending friendly treatment of the
Japanese people.
When NORC asked , on the same survey, how the people of Germany should be dealt with after
the War, 65 per cent of the public recommended lenient treatment , 42 per cent favored strict
supervision and control , 8 per cent advocated extreme severity, 1 per cent made other suggestions
and 5 per cent were undecided.
Punish the Japanese
Severely
The 20 per cent who advocated severe treatment of the Japanese were about equally divided
between those who recommended strong punitive measures and those who would annihilate the
Japanese- individually and collectively. Typical harsh recommendations included: " Starve them;
torture them. They don t even let Red Cross ships in.
Treat the Japanese the same way as they
I think they ought to be slaves.
Treat them like criminals.
Shoot the leaders; arrest the balance and put them to hard labor.
Give
are treating our prisoners now.
That s what they are.
them an eye for an eye and a tooth for a tooth-no
sympathy.
An electrician s wife in Baltimore answered: " I think the worst we could treat the Japs would be
too good!" In like vein a bookkeeper in Huntington , West Virginia: "Those stinkers ought to be
put at hard labor or worse. Nothing is too bad for them. " A farm laborer near Honeyville ,
Utah
replied: " Keep the Japs prisoners until the countries they have fought are on their feet. " An
Army wife in Altus, Oklahoma , believed the Japanese should be treated " just as horrible as pos'Slnce a .
number of peo ple made more than one suggestion, the percentages total ':ore than 1 00.
Page 15
'r.t:':\.'Yl:
'';'"Y
''t1f:?-
""
""
" ""
. ""
" "
" "
" "
" ""
"
sible-just like our boys are being treated now in their prisons. " A produce stocker in a Los
Angeles market answered: " Women and children should be excepted. The men should pay for all
cruelty done to soldiers and American prisoners. Treat them like they did our men.
Some respondents would be satisfied with getting rid of Japan as a nation. A Pennsylvania paperhanger, for instance , made this recommendation: " Destroy the nation entirely and never let them
rule again. Take their industries from them. " A number advocated turriingJapan over to Chinacarte blanche. These reactions are representative:
Don t allow any Japan to , exist. Put Japan under Chinese
rule.
d put them back on their island and let China
and Korea
settle with them.
Give all of Japan to China and let them rule it and
what they want to with it."
d put them under the Chinese.
do
I don t think Occidental
minds can understand Oriental minds.
Let China control the Japanese. They are of a different
race than we are and China could handle them best.
Farmer s wife, near Bixby, Oklahoma
Farmer, near Chester, South
Carolina
Railroad conductor , Birmingham
Fruit farmer ,
Housewife ,
near Portland ,
Oregon
Chicago
More people , however, answered: " Exterminate the Japanese.
Shoot them aiL" " Destroy all of
them. Wipe them off the face of the earth.
Don t leave any of them alive.
String them all
up.
Cut them all to pieces. " or " Put them all at the bottom of the Pacific. " Examples of even
more detailed and picturesque suggestions include:
Exterminate the Japanese. T
re barbarians.- They re not
a fit race to live with white people. They ll plot to start
another war from the time this one is over."
Ju' st line them up and shoot them.
d put them all in the middle of the ocean-the
here, too. Sink ' em all"
ones
Kil every Jap in Japan and put out everyone in this
country.
I hope all the Japanese wil be kiled and we won
to bother about dealing with them.
t have
Old age pensioner , Silverton
Oregon
Farmer, near TuteHver , Mississippi
Machinist, war plant, Los Angeles
Railroad telegrapher,
Laundryman ,
Baltimore
Dallas
d treat the Japs like a bunch of rats. They've just about
asked to be annihilated!"
Shipyard worker, Portland , Oregon
Annihilate the wh le Japanese race. Get rid of every last
Housewife ,
one, women and children, too.
There won
sacre. We
t be no Japan; there wil be a complet mas.
ll have to kil all of them."
There won
t be any people left in Japan if I had my say.
They would be bombed right off the earth.
Blow the Japanese off the globe. Don t leave one alive!"
blow up the whole
If we could find enough dynamite, I' d
damned outfit!"
Dallas
Watch repairman ,
ington
Nurse ,
Spokane ,
Wash-
Indiana
Army wife , Jenks, Oklahoma
Retired realtor, San Francisco
Supervise Them Strictly
A number of the 49 per cent who recommended strict supervision
and control of the Japanese
spoke in rather general terms: " Keep them down. Rule them completely. Strip them of all
power.
Deprive them of their political rights. " or " Hold them under subjection one way or
. another. " A farmer near Phoenix , Arizona , thought: " They ought to be so severely controlled that
they can t make war again. " A secretary in Huntington , West Virginia , answered: " If the Japanese
people are not completely annihilated in the war, they should be held under strict supervision.
They re even more warlike than the Germans. They say that at five years , while an American child
plays with a train , a Jap child plays with a dagger.
Some respondents assumed that Allied control of Japan would be needed indefinitely: " Take all
their rights away from them. Never give them a. chance to rule again.
Keep the Japs down.
Never let them rise again. " Others suggested a probationary period. For example: " Exercise
complete control of the Japanese until they become worthy of association with other countries.
Page 16
" "
."'"-.'.
"'-='
-c"--,,,c,
There must be a long
looked
after. " According to
probationary period during which the Japanese must be thoroughly
They should be very strictly disciplined until they find out how to live.
Cleveland life insurance company, " We ought to keep the Japanese under
strict military supervision for at least 25 years. " In Santa Monica , California , the wife of a Navy
ensign answered: " Keep the Japanese under strict control for the first 1 0 ye rs and then let them
the manager of a
rule themselves.
Other suggestions emphasized the idea of specific political and economic cO'!trols:
The Japanese should never be allowed to come near to
Teacher s
wife, Dallas
being a first-rate nation again. They should be taught and
supervised in their education , government, and religion.
It would be wonderful to hear that Fujiyama had erupted
and the whole island was destroyed!"
Do away with Japan s military government. Take full con.
trol until that government is broken up.
The Japanese wil have to be governed by a commission
Wife of hotelman ,
Peoria, Illinois
Occupy Japan for a period of time-epending on their
Wife of business
behavior. Supervise their education and government.
The Japanese should be given ,a
chance at democratk
government. If their make-up is such that they can
Utah
Wife of insurance underwriter,
made up of interested nations. Japanese exports and im-
ports should be controlled.
Ogden ,
executive
Brighton , Colorado
Woman windo "' display
arranger
department store , Portlang, Oregon
cooperate, then they should have a government supervised
by the Alled nations, so' Japan won t endanger the peace
of the world.
Japan needs stricter supervision
than other
countries.
Watch her armaments and leaders."
If we c;onquer Japan, our government should dictate their
Store owner ,
Helena ,
Montana
Housewife , Talladega, Alabama
form of government.
Some Americans believed that keeping a close watch over the Japanese would be sufficient pre-
caution; more advocated a military police force:
deceitful people who can t be trusted.
Leave them alone, but watch them carefully.
Th' e Japs are
ll always have to keep an eye on the Japanese.
Farmer near Waterloo , Indiana
lieutenant's wife , Louisvile, Ken-
tucky
Let them have their own form of government, but watch
Bowling alley porter , Chicago
them all the time.
Set up martial law. as
Japan. I think
them right
Navy wife, Clayton, Missouri
It looks like they re gonDlt have to police Japan to see that
they get some other kind of thinking in their minds.
Strip all leaders of power and put civilians under miltary
Store manager, Taylor , Texas
son as we conquer
it wil take a generation of martial law to set
about things."
Doctor
s son ,
Atlanta
control.
Don t let the Japs
Another group said: " Disarm the Japanese and never let them arm again.
Take all arms away from them and
prepare for war again. Don t sell them scrap iron like we did.
see that they don t get any more. Take their army and navy away from them forever. Destroy
The
the military and naval cliques. " A business executive in New Iberia , Louisiana , replied:
will
help
to
make
them
a
world
menace
Japs should be deprived of any and every material that
again. "
Even more people believed that the
United States should " isolate "
Japan
soever to do " with Japan or the Japanese- Ieave them strictly alone. "
Isolate the Japanese completely until they see the errors
have nothing what-
Specifically:
Bank president , Massachusetts
of their present philosophy and thinking.
Isolate Japan so she can never be a world power again.
Keep the Japanese at arm s length. Don
t do business with
them or have them in this country."
Page 17
Owner of retail store, Helena, Montana
Retired mechanic , Sylvania, Ohio
",
."
;"
" "
Keep the Japanese people in Japan. Make them stay there
and send the ones here back there. Have nothing to del
Farmer,
" "
near Littleton , Colorado
with them.
Let the Japanese have their islands and fishing boats to
provide food for their people, but do not let them mingle
with the rest of the world.
Just ignore the Japanese-have nothing to do with them.
Dairy farmer , near Reedvile, Ore-
gon
Wife of storekeeper
Dyersburg,
Tennessee
Treat Them Leniently
Many of the 40 per cent of the cross-section who recommended a lenient post-war policy toward
the people of Japan replied in such general terms as: " Treat them fairly/' " . . . justly, . . . decently,
. . like human beings/' " . .. as we would want to be treated" Try to get their good
will/' " Practice the Golden Rule " or " Treat them right if they act right. " Some were more
. specific:
I don t like the Japanese, but you can t hurt or mistreat
Farmer ,
Not all the Japanese are devils. They should be treated
Housewife,
It's prett hard to be fair about it now, but I' d
War worker
them after the war.
deGently.
treat the
Japanese as a friendly nation. We won t have a lasting
peace if we don t. I think our fighting boys feel that
way, too.
We should be friendly with them, but not give them any
aid. We are to love our neighbors!"
The Japanese should -be treated with understanding if we
don t want another war within a few yeal'."
They should be given access to raw materials necessarY-to
maintain their economy but should not be
re-arm!"
allowed to
Missouri
Boston
Ohio
Wellington,
wife,
Wife of newspaper proofreader
Lancaster, Pennsylvania
Physician s wife , Massachusetts
Wife of textile executive, Alabama
A number made a distinction between the treatment of the Japanese people and the treatment
of their war leaders. These reactions are typical: "After the military clique is stamped out, treat
the Japanese people with consideration and understanding.
Treat them in accordance with
their deeds: punish the mWtaryleaders severely; re-educate the others and treat them justly.
They
should be treated humanely and fairly and given an equal chance in world affairs. The
Japanese people aren t to blame; it's the leaders that cause trouble.
Many people emphasized the need for re-educating the Japanese-for
establishing " an entirely
new system of education. " Some expressed this idea in rather general terms; some stressed the
need for Allied supervision , the importance of religious and ethical training, or some other
specialized aspect of the problem. These replies are representative:
Do away with the rulers and educate the comnion people.
Japan should have an
. entirely new educational
organized under Alled direction.
system
We should Christianize the Japanese and teac:h them a new
Poultry ' farmer ,
Florida
near Jacksnville
Attorney, Massachusetts
Wife of electriCian ,
Pennsylvania
form of government."
The Japanese people must be re.educ:ated. It would take a
long time and we would have to supervise.
d try to educ:ate them into tolerance, understanding, and
Woman farmer , near Oklahoma City
Physician
s wife , Chicago
to love one another.
Treat the Japanese as
c:hildren. Teac:h them to love eac:h
other. Work with them
c:ivilzed."
and show them how to live
Construction worker ,
Dallas
They should be. educated and given light as to other
religions besides theirs. Give them something to c:hoose
Appliance service man ,
Oregon
The Japanese should be educ:ated
Navy lieutenant's wife , Los Ange!es
from.
in our ways of
living.
After about 100 years they might be ready to assume some
responsib ilty.
Page 18
Portland
Less typical are answers such as these:
Find the right thinking people in Japan and work with
Wife of radio equipment executive,
The Japanese have got to be forced into a different way,
It is a child program, and the children should be separated
from their parents to change Japan."
The Oriental mind is so different that it wil take a long
process of education to make the Japanese even decent/'
Wife of refrigerator distributor
them in training the others to live right."
Highland Park ,
Michigan
Georgia
Housewife , Toledo
Only a few-3 per cent of the total cross-sect ion-suggested active assistance to the Japanesesending them food , clothing, and other supplies. A delivery man in Louisburg, North Carolina
was one of a number to reply: " Feed them and clothe them if necessary. " Another response
common among this group was that of a retired clergyman living in Atlanta , Georgia: " Do everything to improve conditions in Japan. " A Harvey, Illinois , clergyman answered: " d feed the
Japanese and give them a chance to set up a government of their own. Just give them a chance
II
Allow
the Japanese to
to get going again.
A drug clerk in San Francisco went so far as to say:
exist as an empire. They should be given room for expansion on the continent of' Asia , a part
of China.
Some of this group who would give Japan concrete help qualified their answers even further than
by adding
if
necessary. " An Army wife in Rockville , Indiana , for instance, said: " Feed and
clothe the Japanese , but make them work. " The wife of a dairy farmer near Brighton , Colorado
They
suggested:
should be given help to rehabilitate themselves but not enough to assert themselves again. " A farmer s wife near Houston , Texas , replied: " Give the Japanese the things they
need , but don t let them get materials to build up ammunition as we did before.
COMPARISONS: TREATMENT OF JAPANESE AND GERMANS
A number of respondents compared the treatment to be accorded the Japanese people with that
to be accorded the Germans. Two points of view were expressed. Some people in this country felt
that the Japanese and the Germans should be treated the same way. Others believed that the
as these:
Japanese deserved more severe punishment than the Germans.
Those who would give the same treatment to the Japanese and the Germans made comments such
Treat the Japanese. the same as the Germans. Have
relations of any kind with them-trade or otherwise.
no
We should treat the Japs the same as the Germans. Keep
them under strid miltary rule."
We wil have to polree Japan like Germany.
d treat the Japanese and the Germans very much the
Businessman ,
Helena , Montana
Wife of plantation man ager,
Clarksdale , Mississippi
Storekeeper , Atlanta
Farmer, near Waterloo,
near
Indiana
same way. I don t think any of us would want them te
suffer, but they must be held in subjedion.
Treat Japan the same as Germany. Get the
leaders; let
Priest ,
people just
Hostler,
Massachusetts
the people alone after that.
Treat Japan the same as Germany. Treat the
like we do our own. It isn t the PEOPLE'S fault.
Treat the Japanese the same way as Germany, but there
won t be many left. Feed and clothe them , b'ut don
them to manufacture. Don
t allow
Toledo
Surgeon s wife ,
control."
The Japanese are more dangerous than the Germans; keep
them under firm
Massa-
t lend them money.
The opinion that the Japanese should be treated more harshly was
the following:
Pittsfield ,
chusetts
d treat the Japanese more severely than the
Germans.
They ought to be made to stay in their own country and
not allowed to expand at any time.
treat the Japanes worse than
I would treat the
Germans. I' d
wipe the Japs off the face of the earth."
Be stricter than on the Germans. Try to reform their
ideas by education."
Page 19
expressed in terms such as
Wife of Air Force major , Phoenix
Arizona
Wife of businessman, Chester
South Carolina
Carpenter,
Dallas
Wife of plantation owner ,
Decatur,
Alabama
near
Japan
" or
Japanese People
Comparisons between results obtained on various surveys suggest that when a question is asked
in terms of treatment of IIJapan li recommendations are apt to be somewhat more severe than when
the question is phrased in terms of lithe
Japanese people.
The NORC question just discussed found almost
strict supervision of the Japanese PEOPLE.
In November ,
1944 ,
half of those interviewed in favor of
a Gallup question asked in. terms of Japan as a COUNTRY found
almost half the public advocating extreme severity.
During the 10 months interval between the NORC and the AIPO surveys many new Japanese
possibly affecting American attitudes. Gallup asked:
atrocities were reported ,
What do you think we should do with Japan as a country after the war?"
8 % placed major emphasis on rehabiltation and re-education
to the
end that Japan might again take a place in the world as a civilized
nation.
suggested control or supervision by the Allies with
poliCing and
reform of the country, but without any territorial dismemberment.
recommended extreme severity. These included:
33 % who would destroy the country as a political entity or cut
it up into small states, and
13 who would kill all Japanese left alive at the end of the war.
gave answers classified as miscellaneous or undecided.
100%
When the same question was asked regarding Germany, 12 per cent recommended rehabilitation
or re-education , 32 per cent suggested Allied control or supervision , 34 per cent advocated extreme
severity, and the remaining 22 per cent gave other answers
or were undecided.
GI
opinion regarding the Japanese? In contrast to the opinions of civilan adults in the
United States , how have the soldiers themselves felt about what should be done with Axis
countries after the war? Army survey results reported in July, 1944 , indicated that at
that time a plurality of infantrymen who had actually fought the Japanese in the Pacific still
made a distinction between the people and leaders. On the other hand , a majority of fighting
men in Europe , who had never had any contact with the Japanese , nevertheless recommended
wiping out the entire nation after the war. About two- thirds of combat veterans interviewed in
both the Pacific and European theatres made a definite distinction between the German people
and their leaders. The comparison:
What was
What would you like to see happen to the Japanese after the war?"
In the
Pacific
INFANTRY COMBAT VETERANS
Europe
Punish the leaders. but not the ordinary Japanese.__- 47 %
29%
Make the Japanese people suffer plenty..--....--...
Wipe out the whole Japanese nation..m.-..--..--.--.. 42
Undecided ..---.......----.....---..-.......---..........--..---.-. 2
100%
100%
:What would you like to see happen to Germany after the war?"
Punish the leaders but not the ordinary Germans..-- 67 %
Make the German people suffer plentY_..___...mm__. 9
Wipe out the whole German nation.--...--..-- ...--..-.. 22
65%
100%
100%
Undecided ''''''..m'''_''-'-'-'''''-'''-'--'-'''-'''...m--.--_.. 2
Research Branch,. Morale Services Division
Department,
publications, What the Soldier Thinks,
Number 7, July, 1944. The survey, made in conformity with approved polling practices, included
confidential interviews with representative cross-sections of enlisted infantrymen , combat veterans, in the European and Pacific theatres respectively.
War
reported in departmental
Page 20
1945 shortly after V-J Day, NORC phrased a question about the post-war treatment
Japan in such a way as to make maintaining world peace the determining factor. The inclusion
of the clause lito make sure she stays at peace with the world" rather than of the lapse of time
In the fall of
II
of
probably Was responsible for the
pattern of replies somewhat different from those reported
by
Gallup. The NORC question:
What do you think ought to be done about Japan to make sure she stays at peace with
the world?1I
11 % recommended a program of re-education.
74
occupation of the country and secondary emphasis on demilitarizasuggested supervision and control with the main emphasis on
tion and/or
industrial control.
advocated extreme severityannihilation.
gave other answers.
were undecided.
109%*
The Emperor and the Military Leaders?
Even before the end of the war with Japan , the punishment of the Japanese military leaders and
the ultimate fate of Emperor Hirohito were the subject of wide discussion and speculation. While
an overwhelming majority of the public in the United States favored the greatest severity in the
treatment of the Japanese militarists , opinion was divided as to what would be the wisest method
of handling Hirohito- the symbol of the throne , mystical and religious cornerstone of Japanese
life. 1I The American public , on the whole would punish the Japanese military leaders more
harshly than the Nazi leader:s iri Germany, but recommended more lenient treatment for the
Emperor than was advocated for Hitler before the surrender of Germany. *
HOW PUNISH THE MILITARISTS?***
According to the results of a Gallup survey made in November, 1944, more than eight out of every
ten Americans favored the use of the
harshest possible measures against the Japanese mWtary
After
the war, do you think the
leaders. The 88 per cent who answered " Yes " to the question:
Japanese military leaders should be punished in any way?" were asked to specify the punishment
they would recommend. The great majority of answers were made in what Gallup describes as
enough to make your hair stand on end/' Only a few (4%)
pretty gruesome terms.
Handle them under international law/' or
made . such suggestions as " Treat them justly,
Demote them.
WHAT FATE FOR HIROHITO?
Fundamental to any analysis of opinions regarding the treatment to be accorded Emperor Hirohito is a consideration of the degree of information upon which the opinions are based. Poll
findings suggest that many people in the United States have known little about the Emperor of
Japan his functions and his position in the Japanese religious and political pattern.
In the late spring of 1945 Gallup asked a nation-wide cross-section: " Can you tell me the name of
little more than half of those interviewed
(54%) answered correctly " Hirohito. " Another 5 per cent named Tojo, a former premier. Other
sizeable number either
guesses went as far afield as Tito, Hari- Kari Yokohama , or Fujiyama.
all, lI The Fortune Survey que stion
said they could not pronounce his name , or did not know it at
quoted on page 16 indicates that a considerable minority in the United States hold confused
opinions regarding the Emperor s position or frankly II Don t know.
the Emperor of Japan?11 According to Gallup, only a
'Since a number of people made more than one suggestion , the percentages total more than 100.
. 'Compare Report No. 24, pages 21- 22.
".See also NORC question , page 27.
Page 21
Although nearly half of the American public apparently know very. little aboutthe Emperor of
Japan the people in the United States have some . very definite ideas as to what should be done
with Hirohito. A majority think he should be treated like any other war criminal , according to
results reported by several different polling organizations.
In February, 1945 , the , Iowa Poll released findings secured through the use of a question offering
respondents the choice of several possible answers:
After Japan is defeated, should we:
Leave Emperor Hirohito at the head of the government?--.......... 3%
Exile him to some far-off place? m"'''''''--'--' ''''''--''''''''m''''..--m... 1
Have him stand trial as a war criminal?"...--.....m.m.........--........... 69
Execute him """''''''''--'......m..................
.........--..........--..--..... 9
Other ideas """''''''''''...--m...
....--.....u..-...-.u... .......u_..--....--..-- 2
Undecided ......... ............. "m"--".....m.....--..--.........-..--....--..........
100%
In April / 45 the Minnesota Poll reported state-wide opinion strongly in favor of punishing Hirohito for Japan s war guilt:
The Japanese people think of their Emperor as a god rather than a miltary leader. Do
you think he should or should not be punished for Japan s war guilt?"
Should be punished.-- 86 % Should not be punished... .4 % Undecided.... 1 0 %=100 %
An AIPO question asked at the same time as the question on the Emperor s name presented no
list of possible answers. A clear majority, however, suggested the use of harsh measures against the
Emperor. The question read:
What do you think we should do with the Japanese Emperor after the war?"
Execute him .. '.--...m"""'''--'''''''''''''''-'--''''''''''''.............--..m..-33%)
Try him and let the court decide his fatem--m..uu----........--..... 17
Keep him in prison for the rest of his life.m........--....................
'10
11
Exile him m.m'...m""'--''''''--''''....--m.........--..uu......--.--.--....
Do nothing- s only a figurehead for the war lords.......--.........Use him as a puppet ruler to run Japan for the Allies_. ...mm--..
Other answers or undecided.....----...m--...--...--...--. c.....--...--............
100%
When the Australian Public Opinion Polls asked the same question in the summer of 1945 , 25 per cent favored
executing Hirohito, 22 per cent advocated treating him as a war criminal , and 9 per cent suggested exiling or
imprisoning him-a total of 56 per cent recommending harsh measures. A British Institute of Public Opinion survey
made late in August-after the surrender of Japan-showed two- thirds of the public as a whole- 67 per cent--f
the opinion that the Japanese Emperor should be deprived of his throne. This view was expressed by 70 percent of the
poor but only 61 per cent of the middle class and 57 per cent of the prosperous. (Interestingly enough , the 11 per cent
Undecided" remains the same for all three economic groups,)
After V-J Day, however a majority of Americans with opinions expressed approval of the official
decision to allow Emperor Hirohito to remain in office. In September ' 45 NORC asked:
Do you think it was a good idea or a bad idea to agree to let the Japanese keep their
Emperor?"
All Adults
Interviewed
Good idea ".--m.....--.............---............--......-..... 48
Bad idea ""--""..m.m""'''''----m'--''''''''--------'H' 32
Undecided ...-- . .... .....- --.. m" ..... --.--""--'..m u"', ... . u' 20
100%
Those with
Opinions
60%
100%
EXPERT OPINION
Somewhat in contrast to the views of the u man in the
street are the opinions of a panel of experts
only 10 per cent of whom believe the Allies should arbitrarily abolish the Emperor
on the Far East,
Page22 .
:'''O
0'''7:''';f'''),'';V::'
c'X:''O
as an institution. The poll was made by mail during June , 1945 , by the Bureau of Applied Social
Research of Columbia University. * Included in the group of 57 persons " especially competent and
experienced in regard to Japanese political and social developments " were 46 who had lived in
Japan and four who had visited the country.
One of the questions put to the panel of experts read:
In your judgment, what should ' be done about the Japanese Emperor system after victory
is won? (The institution is referred to, not the individual,)
1. " Leave it to the Japanese to work out for themselves. ""'''um...--n'----_--""--",,
30 %
2. " Have the Alles take nec.ssary steps to abolish the institution. ....--........-..--.. 10
3. " Have the Alles try to retain and use the Emperor institution. ,--unu...........
4. " Have the Alles exert influence upon the Japanese to take action themselves,
7
either to abolish the institution or drastically to curtail the Emperor s powers. " 46
Other suggestions "--"""--U--"" "uu'." "..m...'u--,uu--",,,,,,,,,,u,....--........ 7
100%
It should be noted that a total of 76 per cent (those who chose alternatives 1 and 4) supported
policies under which the problem would be worked out largely by the Japanese people themselves.
While most of the experts believe the Emperor
will defeat its own ends.
system must
go:, they fear that
outside coercion
Emperor entirely to the Japanese people
stressed most frequently "the views that the Emperor legend is too deeply embedded in Japanese
history for outsiders to be able effectively to change it, and that attempts by the Allies would only
Those experts who advocated leaving the problem of the
drive the Japanese to
resistance and to underground
continuation of Emperor worship. " One
panel member, for example , commented:
For the United Nations to insist upon either the abolition or the retention of the Imperial
institution would be equally unfortunate. So long as the Imperial institution exists Japan
wil never be democratic or non-miltaristic; but the destruction of that institution by
foreign pressure would serve only to strengthen the institution in the
heart of every
patriotic Japanese subject.
Most of those who believed the Allies should encourage the Japanese people to take some action
against the Emperor institution felt " that drastic reform and support of new forces of liberal revolt
are demanded and that these are possible only if the Emperor institution undergoes basic
change." Among the comments made were these:
. . . We must be prepared to EXTEND EFFECTIVE SUPPORT to those Japanese
groups
which will revolt against the old oligarchical system when defeat comes. The decision as
to the Emperor can then be left to these new groups.
Abolish the institution by cooperating in every possible way with those Japanese who
want. to establish a more liberal government. This is a little stronger than (4). We should
make it a.ppear that this is being done by the Japanese, but we must see to it that they
do not fail in this objective. Miltarism finds its deepest roots in Emperor worship, and
Imperial rule is closely associated with exploitation of the
common people."
Intern the Emperor as a United Nations prisoner' somewhere outside of Japan. Later, the
Japanese could be allowed a plebiscite to vote on his return. If they don t want him, fine;
continue his internment to the end of his days. If they do vote him back, at least the
precedent wil have been established that the Emperor owes Ms throne to the people.
This might be the beginning of a genuine constitutional monarchy, which could become
more quasi-republican as time goes on. But I confidently expect an anti-monarchist trend
-whose chief . danger wil be that we, not the Japanese, may smother it.
Material quoted is used with the permission of Dr. Arthur Kornhauser of the Bureau of Applied
American Maga%ine which published a popuiar version of the study in the Odober ,
The experts-listed in the magazine report-
Social Research and the
1945 , issue as a monthly feature " Poll of Experts,
are for the most part in the educational , religious, journalistic, and writing- lecturing
fields. Many of them are presently associated with government agencies.
Page 23
. .
PART II
fJte l''t0&
Although the problems of industrial reconstruction and reparations are closely inter-related , comparatively few people in the United States realize that Japan will probably be unable to pay any sort
of substantial reparations if she is reduced to a primarily agricultural nation. A series of questions
on an NORC survey completed before the surrender of Japan showed that:
ALTHOUGH 65 % of the public believed that the United States should assume
no responsibilty in helping Japan get her peacetime industries
going again after the war
NEVERTH ELESS
79 % thought the United States
Japan, and
52 % said that this payment
HOWEVER,
should try to get reparations from
should be made mostly in goods.
ONLY 2! % . would be willing to accept
as reparations Japanese goods
which could be sold cheaper than similar goods made in this
country--ven if that were the only way Japan could pay part,
at least , of what the war cost- the Un ted States.
Another NORC survey made shortly after the surrender of Japan revealed that:
, and
73% think that the Japanese should be allowed to rebuild their peace-
time industries
51 % would then favor the United States'
Shall Japan
resuming trade with Japan.
s Peacetime Industries Be Rebuilt?
Although 59 per cent of the people in this country would like to see the United States government help set the wheels of Germany's peacetime industries turning again , 65 per cent were
against giving similar assistance to Japanese industry after the war. (Of course , the definition of
and distinction between wartime and peacetime industries is a highly technical problem requiring
careful study and decisions by experts,)
NORC asked the question about Germany in 1944 , the one about Japan a year later in 1945:
Would you like to see our government help Japan
(Germany) get her peacetime industries
going again after this war. or not?"
Japan
=100%
Germany
A definite li Ves " response without qualifications was given by 21 per cent, while the other 4 per
cent would have the United States help Japan only under specified conditions.
In September ' 45-several
weeks
after the surrender of Japan- NORC asked a somewhat
differently worded question in which the issue of United States assistance was not raised:
Do you think the . Japanese should be allowed to rebuild their PEACETIME industries?"
Yes.............. 73 % No............... 19 % Undecided.....---- c.. 8 % =1 00 %
Page 24
".
The 73 per cent majority who replied " Yes " were also asked:
Aftr their peacetime industries are rebuilt, do you think we should begin to trade with
them again?"
Yes..--.-.--.... 51 % NO.....--..m.. 17% Undecided..m..m.--.. .5 % =73 %
In Their
Own Words
Many of those who-in the summer of /45--xpressed unqualified approval of United States
assistance made comments explaining their attitude. As in the earlier question on Germany, some
people approached the question from an idealistic point of view/ butmore seemed to face the issue
in the light of cold economic facts:
'The Japanese
c:ould pay their war debts better if they
have their industries
Attorney, Texarkana , Texas
going.
The quic:ker they get back on their feet, the less we wil
Merchant seaman, Wichita
The Japanese must survive, and if we don t
Wife of newspaper manager, Ohio
have to do."
have to keep them. We
help, we
d be taxed to death."
SiXty- five milion people starving to death in any part of
the world is bound to have bad effects on every other part
Wife of theatre manager, Queens
New York
of the world.
The safety of the world depends on everyone being pros.
perous. "
If we are building, for the future, we have to make the
Japanese self-supporting and self-respec:ting again.
If we want to live up to what we preach as Christian
people, we must help Japan.
Wife of insurance agent,
St , Louis
Accountant s wife , Robbinsdale
Minnesota
Wife of truck driver , Helena , Montana
The 4 per cent who gave conditional approval believed the United States should help re-establish
Japan s peacetime industries /l if the United States has complete control
if
they agree to our
terms/' /l if America can afford to help them/' /l if we could do it without working a hardship on
our own industries " or /l if we could help them by guidance , but not with materials and money.
The 65 per cent majority who opposed helping reconstruct Japanese peacetime industry volunteered a variety of comments/ almost all of which indicated a strong feeling of bitterness and
hostility against the )apanese. The following selected comments express all shades of antiJapanese feeling:
I hope there isn
with."
t any Japan left after this war
They have done too muc:h
I would
to our boys. If I had
is over
my way,
destroy them all."
The Japanese should be held as slaves the rest of their
Sailor
s wife , Cheyenne,
Trucker,
Wyoming
Newington , Connecticut
City employee , Atlanta
lives.
1 don
t think we should spend a dime on Japan.
They have dealt us enough misery already; why give them
a chance to do it all over again?"
Japan was able to organi2:e itself for a long war. They
should be made to rebuild themselves now so they wil
know just wh"t war costs."
They don t deserve it. We ve helped them so much during
earthquakes and they ve always double crossed us. They
never forget this. Keep them down altogether-let them
Farmer, near Independence,
Missouri
Mechanic s wife, Houston Texas
Wife of bank teller, Scranton,
Pennsylvania
Wife . of rigger foreman
Minneapolis
manage the best they c:an. They asked for this war; we
didn
I have some aversion to helping the Japanese in manufac-
turing. They should become agric:ultural until they have
proven themselves trustworthy. Their whole system of
sweatshops is a troublesome competitive deal; there s some-
thing healthy about their getting back to the soil, and
they can do that by themselves.
Page 25
Manager, farm
Minneapolis
seed company,
" "
" "
" "
" "
" " " "
RATIONING?
help get Japan s peacetime industries
in operation again after the war and those who were undecided-35 per cent of the cross-section
-and those with the same views regarding Cermany on the earlier question (66 %)
were
asked:
Those persons who wanted the United States government to
Would you be wiling to have some things rationed in this
untry for several years after
Yes No Undec.
the war in order to help Japan (Germany) get her peacetime
industries going again?"
ided
. Japan
=35%
70/0
Germany
=66%
While over half of those asked the question about Japan were unwiling to sacrifice to help
more than half of those asked the question about Germany said
Japanese peacetime industries,
they were wiling to continue rationing to help German industries get going again.
Those unwiling to help Japan made such remarks as the following: " We shouldn t deny ourselves
I wouldn t make that much sacrifice for them.
The Japanese started the
war, not us.
They should be able to produce their own.
Japan s struggle to get back on her
feet might be a lesson for the future.
for the Japanese.
Some of those willng to accept continued rationing added: " For a short time
Just some
things," " If it' s necessary, It will help make trade
If it would make the world any better
and similar comments.
On both the general issue of United States help and the specific issue of rationing to make such
help possible
, Negroes are more willing
to assist
Germany than any other population group
studied. Persons with a college background are somewhat more willing to help than are persons
with less education. Men are more willng than women to see the United States help Japan get
her peacetime industries started again after the war. Farmers more than residents of cities . or .
towns would favor continued rationing in the United States if it would help to rebuild Japan.
IOWA OPINION: INDUSTRIAL CONTROL
The more education a person had the more likely he was to favor control rather than complete
elimination of Japan s industrial potential , according to a question reported by the Iowa PolI*
in February ' 45:
When Japan is finally defeated, there are two general ideas we might follow to keep her
from starting another war. Do you favor either of them or are you opposed to both?
All Adults
Interviewed
CONTROL RAW MATERIALS going into Japan
to keep her from
buifding up munitions and
weapons for another war...mm..,nmm_.....m.m-- 58 %
DESTROY EVERYTHING INDUSTRIAL in
Japan-shipyards, merchant marine, steel in-
Attended
Attended
High Eighth
Grade
College School
or Less
70%
60%
48%
100%
100%
100%
dustries, airplane factories-making her de-
. pendent on farming and fishing' 'h._ _.mnm... 33
Opposed to both ideas_"'--------'--.h'-'--"----' 5
Undecided '-'---'.--"..h_.__._--.-_--.----_ m-m--m--. -- 4
100%
Sponsored by the Des Moines Register and Tribune.
Page 26
" ...........
..--
,. '
........--.........--...........--....
.. ------. ...
..--............
Poll question showed that 70 per cent of the state-wide cross-section would favor
the idea of partially " balancing the books in the South Pacific by giving China and other countries
the tools and factory equipment which the United Nations might deem it wise to take away
from Japan.
Another Iowa
THE OPINION OF ' EXPERTS
The Bureau of Applied Socia!
Research found the experts in almost perfect
the most desirable type of economic policy:
9S
agreement regarding
per cent believed that the Japanese should be
allowed opportunities for economic recovery in the post-war period. The question:
Which of these two general types of policy toward Japan do you think the Allies should
adopt at the end of the war?
1. " Keep
2.
Japan down; crush Japanese industry and trade and reduce the nation
to a low level of life'........m--'----'m--h.m..m..........-" Let the Japanese have opportun ities for economic recovery (though with
thorough demiltarization) as a basis for building a reformed and reconstructed Japan.
'"'' ...--..--.. --'h.... ..-- .m.. --.m.,.... --. ..
5%
--m....--. 95
100%
Some of the 95 per cent explained their views more fully in replies such as these:
I prefer policy (2) because it seems to me quite absurd to imagine liberal and moderate
elements in Japan c:oming to the fore in an atmosphere of starvation and utter economic
depression and ruin.
Economic recovery' should not be of a kind leading to the political and
recovery
of the Zaibatsu and other civilan warmakers who are quite as miltaristic: associal
the uniformed
militarists."
To deny opportunity for economic: recovery is to deny both human rights and economic:
common
sense.
Should We TRY to Get Reparations?
OPINIONS: 1943 ,
1944
To an NORC survey question asked in
1943 ,
Januaryl
themselves as wiling to " forget
reparations-that
only 28 per cent of the public expressed
not try to collect any money from Germany
or Japan to pay for what the war has cost us and our Allies.
More than a year later (ih February ' 44), NORC approached the same problem in a somewhat
different way, yet found exactly the same proportion-28 out of every 1 DO-willing to forego
reparations payments after the war. As on the earlier question, the more extensive the respondent
educational background,
the less likely he
was to insist on Japanese reparations. The question:
If Japan is made to give up all the land she has taken, and if Hirohito and the other
Japanese leaders are punished , should we try to make the Japanese people pay for our cost
of this war, or not?"
Attended Eighth
High Grade
All Adults Attended
Inte.veiwed College School
Yes....----...m
mmmn --...m.m...m......
No...--...-.................--......----..........--..
Undecided..m----..--......
28
.. 64%
--.
28 53% 65% 70%
.... 8 43
100%
100%
100%
o. Less
100%
On the same survey a similar question asked regarding Germany showed that only 48 per cent
of the public would insist upon trying to get reparations " if Germany is made to give up all the
land she has taken since 1930 , and if Hitler and the other Nazi leaders are punished.
The 64 per cent who would hold the Japanese to a strict reckoning included 5 per cent who qualified
their answers . by recommending that the Japanese people should pay for IIwhat they can " or
Page 27
"" ""
,"
tn"
""
$%
" "
tnnm
-'NCLUDES
Copyright, 1945 ,
""
64%
OUALIFYINCi THW . ANSWER
by Field Publications. Reprinted by permission' of the newspaper PM.
the extent of their ability. " Typical of comments made by some of the others was the reply of a
farmer s wife near Brighton , Colorado: " The Japanese should pay in whatever way they can , money
or goods , but no money or goods can pay for the lives that are being lost. " The wife of a Chicago
coal trucker remarked: " Lordy, yes! My son is over there fighting them now. " A New York City
secretary answered: " The Japanese should be dealt with more severely than the Germans , because
they don t treat prisoners of war according to the rules. They invaded us at . Pearl Harbor instead
of declar4ng war on us. " And a New England housewife felt that "the people are just as responsible
as the leaders are.
A number of the 28 per cent who answered No,
comments such as these: " They can t replace lives.
don t make the Japanese people pay, " made
It would be nice if they could pay-but it
economically impossible.
They will have nothing to pay with.
If the Japanese give up all that
land , we ought to call it a day.
If their leaders are done away with , that is what we want. Their
leaders are causing most of the trouble.
OPINIONS: 1945'
Another NORC survey question used shortly before the end of the war with Japan indicated that
eight out of ten Americans believed that we should try to make the people of Japan pay us, some
how , for the cost of the war. * Persons with a college background and adults in the 21-to-39 age
bracket endorsed the suggestion by somewhat smaller majorities than did the public as a whole.
The comparison is shown on the opposite page.
Some of the 79 per cent who favored trying to make the Japanese pay the cost of the war added
comments indicating how strongly they felt on the point: " I should say we should be paid; the Japs
should pay and pay and pay!" "They
started this and what they start they should pay for.
A year earlier 62 per cent of the public answered " Ves
" to a similar Question about German reparations: "
Do you think we
should try to make the people of Germany pay us either in money or goods for our cost of this war?" Only 29 per
cent, however.
will be able to pay us either in money or goos
for our cost of this war-within 25 years atter the war is over.
believed that " Germany
Page 28
should get something from the yellow rats!" " They have destroyed our property and should pay
for it!" The wife of a stockman near Cheyenne , Wyoming, exclaimed: " We should get all
can out of those countries. Let them pay it instead of our children and our children s children!"
A few (l %) suggest that part payment is all that can be expected: " A certain amount, anyway,
or " enough to make the Japanese realize the wrong and crime they've done.
The 14 per cent who opposed the idea of trying to get reparations from Japan included 4 per cent
who made voluntary comments to the effect that " The Japanese have nothing to pay with
won t do any good , they won t have anything left " or " You can t get blood out of a stone. " Other
scattered remarks such as these were recorded: " If the Japanese lose the war and give up, that's
enough; the least we can have to do with them the better off we are. When the Japs are licked
Their
Reparations might cause another war.
leave them alone and hope they all starve.
people may be innocent; it was their government.
Do you think we should try to make the people in Japan pay us IN SOME WAY OR
OTHER for our cost of this war, or don t you think we should try to get repaid?"
All adults interviewed
Eighth grade or less.
Attended high school
Attended college
Adults 40 and over
Adults 21 to 39
When replies to the question about helping Japan reconstruct her peacetime industries were
compared with answers to the question as to whether or not we should try to get reparations from
Japan , it appeared that , among persons with opinions on both questions:
62% were definitely inconsistent in that they opposed helping Japan re-establish her
peacetime industries but would insist ,
nevertheless, on trying to get reparations.
33 were realistic and Japan
practical
get her peacetime industries going and would also demand
23 % would help
reparations
10 would neither give Japan industrial help nor insist on reparations.
, in that:
, while
were unusually lenient in that they would help Japan to re-establish her peacetime industries, but they would not favor trying to get Japan to pay our cost of
the war.
100%
Page 29
.''.
::. . .'
Mon
..:;.,.
or Goods?
Even before the end of hostilities, a majority of people in the United States seemed convinced of
the uselessness of demanding reparations from Japan in money. Less than one- fourth of the public
considered money the most feasible medium of payment , about half specified goods, and the
remainder either suggested some other non-monetary form of payment or were undecided. The
NORC question:
If our government decides that Japan MUST pay us for our cos of the war, whic:h one
do you think we d have the best c:hanc:e of getting paid: by aC:CJpting
payment mostly in money, mostly in goods, or mostly in some other way?"
22 % said mostly money.
of these ways'
63 answered in terms of goods or other non-monetary payment.
These included:
52 % who said mostly goods;
who suggested
payment in land-bases islands;
resourc:es, such as oil , coal , and other minerals;
or in
natural
who recommended payment in labor and services, particularly for
reconstruction purposes; and
who made stil other suggestions.
were undecided.
100%
APAN.' $l-qlJlD.... flAY. (RgPAR.6HPNS . MqSTlXJN'
1+\
1/OSTL
iiiiiiiiti
52%
22% if(
QODS. 'S. VIEW' .PFU.
IN GOODS
MOSTLY MONeY SOi
pUBU(:
11%
15%
OTHER WAY' UNDtCfbID
.*tN LAND.eASES,OR IN NATVAA
atES
Copyright, 1945, by Field Publications. Reprinted by permission of the newspaper PM.
The more education a person had , the more likely he was to believe that the most practical form
of reparations would be goods or some other non-monetary type of payment. This is the comparison:
Other Non-
Monev
Goods
Monetary Payment Undecided
All adults interviewed
Attended college
Attended high school
Eighth grade or less
Another NORC question , the third in the series, brings out more sharply the concern over potential
Japanese industrial competition. While a majority of the people in every population group studied
were against accepting low-cost Japanese goods as reparations, opinion varied significantly, with
business and professional people and white collar workers most opposed to the idea , and farmers
and Southerners least opposed:
Page 30
..........................................................................................,.......
....................
.. ....., .,.",..........................,...",....'...,.....
" "
~~~
...........
~~~~~
~~~
~~~~~~~~
~~~~~~~~
~~~~~~
~~~~~~~~
~~~~~~
'"~~~~
?;.
."..............
~~~~~~~
~~~~~
~~~~~~~~
~~~~~
"-""'...
~~~~~~~
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
"""
,_...
'...'.
~~~
-.................
~~~~~~~~~
~~~
~~~~~~
~~~
~~~ ~~~~~~
:;:!)!:!:!!::!:::::::::!
::!)::!:)
:::!
!!::!.:
%.:;:::
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
~~~~
~~~ ~~~
~~~~~
~~~~~~~~
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
~~~~~~~~~~
~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~
~~~
If the only way Japan COULD pay us for our cost of the war would be in goods, would
you be wiling for our country to accept any goods which could be sold cheaper than
similaJ goods we make in this country?"
Not
Wiling
Undecided
=100%
All adults interviewed
!1:!
ilj
i:!:1!:I.
ri.II:
1!11Ii
South
111
:i:
!!::il!lijij)II::
ill:lllllili
:I.:
1:1!
riI
,...n......
Midwest
IIil
1ttm l!i
mmmj
tfj
Rocky Mountain and
Pacific Coast states
:!:::iIiI:i::?I%::!!::!:!:::::::I!::I::i:i:!tf!i:r:!::!i:i::::::::! ::!::;:!!:!::!:!::!::!:!m::i:Ii:::::
r!i!::::
I:!!:: :::::!!:i:t:::::::!::!:!:i!i
:::!:::! 8 %
New England and
Middle Atlantic
s.tates
Farmers
Domestic , personal
service , and protective
workers
II:JI1::i :!::!::I:
::::!::::!::::::::n:::::::::::::r:
:::i!::::!::l::f.ifO/J:r!::::::::::itr::m:::
Unskilled workers
Skilled workers
Professional people
::r:: I::I!:::!!
19%
:;:;::!::::!::t!:!i:i!::::i!i:
:i!:!i:H!i
:)!::::!:i:!:::::::i:!)::!::!
::Ii: :%::!:::!!::It:i::!::::::!!::i:i::::!::i!:!
!:!iI!::i:i!ili!::::i::I!i::r:!::::jf:!i::!irti?f:t::::::!:::::::!::::!r:i:: ::::!:i:!:!!:!::::i::!:!:::l::::
::::ii::i::!i::I!:!!:i:::!::i::::::
:!!::!r!::
::;:!!:t:
8%
t!:!I!::!::!:!ffl::i:I:::::t7.? %.I!::: ::::I::li!:;!i:i:t;!:!it::!:r::!::t:!:::I!f: ::!:1::::!m:::r:::::!!f:iI::I:::I 6 %
White collar workers
ti;!):i:i!i:i!:I:i!;::!::::t:i:!!:::i!
Businessmen
f.:f :ii!:!i:j:j!:tI!:::::li::!:::::!::::i::r:i:ir!:!:!:!!If:I::!!:f::f::::::i:::)!:Ir::::::!j::j:::i::: 7 %
;jjl
In Their
Some of the 22. per
::!i::!::!r:::i:::::!!:::!::::m:t::!!:
:If.
i:i::!:!!:!!:!::i!::::i:i!t::!
rI:i:::!::!:!!:::::::::
iil
Own Words
cent who advocated reparations
in
money made comments revealing the
reasons for this recommendation. A contractor s wif in Reading, Pennsylvania , was one of several
to advance the idea: " The Japanese have money salted away somewhere just like Germany had.
ll find it. /I Others emphasized economic reasons why they believed payment in money would
If, we acbe preferable to payment in goods: " People wouldn t buy ' made- in- Japan ' goods.
ceptedgoods we should be opening up a way for them to do business with us. " O They can produce
the goods so much cheaper; it would be harder on our labor.
Page 31
Only a few of the 52 per cent who recommended reparations in goos added
comments. These
are representative:
Goods would benefit US more than money; their goods are
Bridge repairman ,
Atlanta
fine. #I
They have a lot of stuff ovor there wo could use.
They never had no money; let ' em send silk.
Watchman , war plant, Connecticut
Wife of feed company owner
Evansville,
?Let' ' get those stockings rollng!"
The 11 per cent who suggest
such terms as these:
various forms of
We should retain for military use
Indiana
Teacher, Cleveland
non-monetary payment voiced their opinions in
all islands and other
captured territory.
Oil company clerk,
Houston
We should take their territory; if we take their goods, in
the end it wil make them more poworful industrially.
We have plenty of money, and as far as goods is concerned we produc: bettor goods over here. They should
Veterinarian , Montgomery,
Alabama
Upholsterer, Minneapolis
Take all their industries away from them and make them
Farmer, near Granite Falls, North
Carolina
rebuild everything they have ruined.
work on our farms and our sugar plantations. Make a farm
out of all Japan proper.
We should take Japanese art treasures.
We should control their trade relations with other nations.
Just anything the Japanese have that we'
ours.
want should be
Teacher, Lewiston , Maine
Matron in school , Schenectady,
New York
Farmer, near Clay, Kentucky
Only a few of the 21 per cent who would be wiling to accept Japanese goods which could be
sold more cheap!y than comparable American goods made comments explaining their attitude.
The wife of afar-mer near Wellington , Ohio , says: " If we couldn t get it in any other way, we
have to take it that way. It might hurt our own goods , but we have always bought stuff from the
Japanese. " Others added remarks such as: "
d have to be willing to take what Japan would
The more we get from Japan the more she wil buy from us. But it would be
have to offer.
We have been buying
better for the peace of the world if Japan was an agricultural country.
goods from Japan for a long time and it didn t make any difference.
Many of the 68 per cent who would be unwiling to accept Japanese goods mentioned their
reasons-usually a fear that such an arrangement would mean a lower standard of living and
fewer jobs in the United States. These examples suggest the pattern:
We had too much competition with Japan ,in that line
before. Either we have to come down to. Japan
Brewery employee , Minneapolis
s scale or
they have to come up to ours.
It would hurt Amerkiln labor; Japan can put the stuff
out for a dime, they live so cheap; it would cos us a
Messenger ,
Minnesota
quarter.
Absolutely not! We should raise our standard of living,
Custodian , Tacoma , Washington
It wil take jobs away from
Wife of industrial engineer,
not . Iower it;"
us, and their goods are chf'aper
Berlin
materia!."
Connecticut
It would put people in this country out of work.
Wife of lumberman , Middleboro
It would ruin our domestic industries.
m for high tariff; I don t believe in free
Wife of businessman , Los Angeles
We should
trade."
accept only goods not produced in this
country.
Page 32
Massachusetts
Farmer,
Farmer,
near Buckley, Washington
near Wichita
PART IV
jDott:ttat
4I /I
The post-war administration of Japan by the Allies involves many specific problems-political
social , and economic. Part III i$ devoted mainly to economic issues-reparations and Japan
industrial future. The present section endeavors (1) to summarize public opinion on certain
political and social problems-through the answers to definite questions, many of which pose
clear-cut issues raised by the public itself when people were asked the more general questions
considered in the first two sections; and (2) to report opinion regarding our policy since the Allied
occupation of Japan.
Relief and Rehabilitation for Japan
When the question of post-war relief for starving people has been proposed without naming specific
countries-Axis or Allied , large majorities in the United States have favored the idea in principle.
In two 1942 surveys-February and May-the National Opinion Research Center found more than
nine out of ten Americans replying " Yes " to the question: " , after the war, people in some of
the countries in the world are starving, do you think the United States should help to feed the
people in these countries?" As for the financing of such a program , about a third of those interviewed favored government loans to the needy countries , another third preferred voluntary
contributions through the Red Cross and similar organizations , and only a few thought such a
program should be financed directly through taxation in the United States. (The remainder made
still other suggestions or were undecided,)
In January ' 43 and
again
in March '
, NORC asked more specific questions which revealed
significant shift in opinion on sending food to the Axis peoples.
public opinon was definitely divided on the question of
a
At the height of the conHict
food should be
whether-after the war-
given free , sold to , or withheld entirely from the Germans and Japanese. Today the largest group
in the population clearly favors sending food to both countries in exchange for money or goods.
Americans look more leniently on the Germans than on the Japanese: more people would give or
sell food to Germany and fewer would send none. Particularly noticeable is the decline in the
centage who would send no food at all to the Japanese. After V- J
per-
Day, the wording of the question
was changed slighHy:
If the people in Japan are starving right after the war Cat the present time), do you
think the United States should sell them only what food they can pay for, or send them
food as a gift if they can t pay, or not send them any food at all?"
TO THE JAPANESE PEOPLE:
1946
1943
%
30%
100%
100%
Send food as a gift.--m----....--m--.m--....--.m .........--............ 39 %
Sell or exchange----mm........ ...m----mm... ..m.mmm----..n .. 41
..--..----..m..--. ----.m..-- " 16
none--....--.
Send
35%
Send food as a g!ftmmm........m._n ..m..m.mnn. ..--.--...m. .. 30
--..m._m.. 34
Sell or exchange.... .--------.m..m--....--.----...----Send none.----..m------m.--mmn.. ..n. ----.mm--...--...------mn.n. 31
Undecided... -- .......- --....
TO THE GERMAN PEOPLE:
Undecided..m.m.......----... --.......
----..m.......--......----.--.. 4
100%
100%
On the more recent survey, comparisons show , at least a plurality of every population group studied
believe that we should SELL
food to Japan in exchange for
Page 33
money or goods. In most cases the
""
-........-----...........---------------.......--....----..
......................---............----------...----.-..
................,...................._-----------.............
._._---..._...__.._-_.-._..
percentages replying either "Give"
or " Send none " DECREASED between 1943 and 1946. On
persons in the more privileged educational , economic , and occupational groups reply
Give " oftener and " None " less often than do those less privileged. The most significant com-
both surveys ,
parisons foUow:
FOOD TO THE JAPANESE:
1943
Give
Sell
Attended college ........................... 46 %
Attended high school.._.....-....-.. ....-..
Eighth grade or less..--._...-.............
Professional
business, and white
collar workers m........----......--..--.
Manual and factory workers.............
Service workers mm.m--.......--....----
32%
J946
None
J9%
Undecided
Give
3%=JOO%
38%
Sell
None
44%
Undecided
15%
3% =100%
Farmers ..M...._-.....
New England and Middle Atlantic
states
Midwest
Rocky Mountain and
Pacific states....
South
Except in one or two instances ,
at least a plurality of all
groups studied think that we should sell
food to Germany. The percentages replying " Send food as a gife' run consistently higher for
Germany than for Japan. As in the case of Japan , more people reply " Sell" on the post-war survey
than on the wartime one , and fewer people in almost every group answer either " Give " or
Send none.
A related question asked on the March ' 46 survey reveals that 68 per cent of the public said they
would " be willing to have meat and butter rationed again so that w could send more food to needy
countries that fought on our side * in the war. " Only 29 per cent were not willing, and 3 per cent
were undecided. When replies to the two questions are compared , it is found that those willing to
resume rationing- for
the sake of the Allies-more frequently
favor sending food as a gift
Germany and Japan than do those unwilling to resume rationing. For example:
Of those WILLING to resume meat and butter
Of those NOT WILLING to go back
rationing for the benefit of the Allies:
to rationing:
36 % favor sending food as a gift to Japan.
ONLY J 9
favor sending free
food to Japan.
39% favor sending food as a gift to Germany.
24 % favor sending free
food to Germany.
In Their
Own WQrds
the 30 per cent who would send food to the Japanese people as a gift, a number
volunteer comments which explain their opinion on the issue. A common attitude is that
GIFT Among
of an Ottumwa , Iowa , housewife , who adds: " Send food whether they can pay for it or not'" The wife
of a Hammond , Indiana , steel worker is one of a number to comment: " I don t want anybody to
starve. " A retired railroad conductor in Pennsylvania , who is not willing to resume rationing to
help feed the people of the Allied nations , nevertheless answers: " Give the Japanese and Germans
what they must have. I don t believe in letting people starve. They re human- but sell them what
they can pay for.
Others introduce a religious element: " Christianity demands that we keep even our enemies from
II
If America is going tobe a Christian nation , we have to forgive and forget.
Charity
starving.
is a great commandment
Boldface for report purposes only.
Many of those interviewed gave like answers regarding the Japanese and Germans and , did not differentiate in their comments.
Page 34
""
" "
" "
The following comments represent four different implied qualifications appearing in a number
of interviews:
countries, I would GIVE the food
to them.
Give the Japanese only enough to keep them from starving
Teacher
"For the babies in bot
s wife , Oak Park, Illinois
Hardware dealer , Goshen ,
Indiana
to death.
The Germans and Japanese should get LAST consideration,
though. Take Clare of all the others first.
Give them food until they are built up as a nation ,
Foreman , automotive factory,
Toledo
Bakery clerk , Chicago
and
then let them support themselves.
OccasionalLy, still other
angles are introduced. For example:
We can
If we give them food, there won t be so much hatred.
There wil be a revolution if we don t feed them.
If we leave them to starve, it might spread disease."
If we send ' food at all, we ll have to give it. They don
Custodian s wife , Indiana
Plasterer s wife, Philadelphia
Housewife , Chicago
Laborer s wife, Connecticut
The poor people aren t
Wife of railroad inspector , lorain
t expect to re-educate hungry people."
have any money."
told.
to blame-hey do what they
Lawyer,
Portland ,
Oregon
Ohio
SELL OR EXCHANGE Among the 46 per cent plurality who believe that we should send food
to the Japanese only in exchange for money or goods, perhaps the most
common reaction is typified by this comment from a garage owner in Glendale , California: " They
stole from every other country. Why feed them free?" Similarly, a Fredericksburg, Virginia
housewife is one of several to add a remark such as: " It' s
not the Christian way, but they treated
our boys so terribly!" Others say: " Much as we dislike them , we must feed them all
the Christian thing to do-of course, they won t appreciate it.
" or " It's
only
A Pennsylvania storekeeper recommends: " Sell the Japanese and the Germans all they can pay
for, then give them the remainder that they need; our occupation forces can take charge of it.
starve!1f
Only rarely do respondents go so far as to say: If lf they can t pay let them
Some lay special emphasis on the desirability of sending food on a trade or barter basis: " Make
it straight barter. Let them give anything we can use now. If they can t furnish enough now, make
them even up later when they have more. If Each country must have something we can use or need
It' s be tter for the morale of the Japanese and German
like raw materials in exchange for food.
Let them
peoples to know that they are paying or exchanging something of value for the food.
pay for it , and it will make them a little more thrifty and independent, Sell the Japanese and
Gerl1ans what they can pay for. That will keep up business and commerce between the countries.
Scattered comments introduce still other considerations into the picture:
Feed them on a subsistence basis. Make them pay no matter
how long it takes."
Let them pay so they wil realize what it means to have
war/
Send them only surplus goods. If they could feed their
armies during the war, they should be able to feed their
Government information specialist
Mount Ranier, Maryland
Wife
of automobile salesman , Port-
land , Oregon
Railroad supervisor, Dunmore, Penn-
sylvania
people now.
I believe they should learn to help themselves-besides I
starving."
don t believe the people in either country are actually
Retired teacher , Manning,
South
Carolina
A few of those who favor seWng food to Germany but sending none at all to Japan explain their
reasons for this differentiation. A Reading, Pennsylvania housewife , for example , comments:
Page 35
/::
::::: .;;:;
:::
;::,::'
;::: ,:;:,.
::,:
people are smart , they can give us something which they make in exchange for food
German
BUT " Let the Japs die if they don t have food!U
A strong feeling of bitterness toward the Japanese and Germans is the common denominator of many comments from those who would send no food to the Axis nations
any terms. For instance:
NONE
They were against us-Iet
them starve.
They done us dirty-why should we feed them?"
They cost us enough now-tey can root hog or die.
They started it. Let them get out of it. I have
no sym-
pathy for them:'
Serviceman s mother, Van Buren
Arkansas
Tru k driver s wife , Amherst, Ohio
Owner of antique shop, Philadelphia
State highway patrolman
Santa
Barbara, California
They caused enough trouble-they caused two wars, and
if they haven t got the ' guts' to knock out their leaders,
let them suffer.
Don t send them any food at all. Let them die out. They
seemed to be doing all right while the war was on.
If you use brotherly love, you must ,
build them up to fight us again?"
of course, but
why
Wife of arsenal employee ,
Morris-
town , New Jersey
Farmer,
near Blacksburg, Virginia
Farmer ,
near Vermillion ,
Ohio
Some question the actual need for food on the part of the Axis peoples. A Pennsylvania respondent
for example , believes: " These countries have money salted away. They also have reserves of food
stolen from other countries.
II
Japanese nor the Germans
A Virginia secretary who thinks neither the
should be sent food adds:
ve
got plenty starving right here as well as them-for lack of work
and money to buy food.
Another NORC question asked in late September ' 45-several
weeks
after V- J Day-found
a
clear majority of people in the United States of the opinion that food should be sent to the Japanese
if the need were urgent, This question put the issue directly to the public:
During the next year or so, if the Japanese get to the point of starvation , do you feel that
we should help them?"
Yes ................55%
ttttttttttt
No .......... ..,... 36
\W .
) 8
th
; t-
t=S%
'= f::
tWjI W
It depends...... 5
Undecided .... 4
=100%
Disarmament, Peace, and World Organization
In a now famous speech before the United States Senate on January 10 ,
1945-four months before
E Day-Senator Arthur Vandenburg of Michigan proposed (1) that the Allies make a definite
agreement to keep Germany and Japan permanently disarmed ,
have the power ,
and (2) that the President
should
without having to obtain Congressional approval beforehand , to use force immediately should Germany or Japan move to re-arm. A series of three Gallup questions , released a few
weeks after Vandenburg s speech indicated that , while the public was overwhelmingly in favor of
permanent disarmament, opinion was divided regarding the most desirable means of implementing
this policy.
Page 36
,.."..... -... ,........ ,...........
" - ....... -..
.. -
___
The questions:
After the war,
should Germany and Japan be kept permanently
disarmed?"
Yesm..m.... 92 % NO..n...n...n 6 % Undecided..--..--....--.. 2 % = 100 %
Should the United States, England , Russia, and China make a writtn agreement now to
keep Germany and Japan disarmed, or should we wait until the war is over to make such
an agreement?"
Make agreement before end of war.......--.....-..---..-------.-----.--.---- 57 %
Wait ...----_._--m--mm----m_..--------.--..--'-""'- --"-- ..-...n._no --.._..----.m 39
.---..- --... mn." - . -" --." m .-Undec i ded -.
100%
If it becomes necessary to use force to keep Germany and Japan from arming again, should
the President have the right to order the use of American armed force immediately, or
should approval of Congress be obtained first?"
President.m.n A 1 % Congress...--.. 54 % Undecided....... 5 % = 100 %
.
A question asked by the Canadian Institute of Public Opinion in December,
countries
1942 , approached
the problem of world peace from a somewhat different angle:
After this war, which of these two steps do you think would
peace?
1. " Complete domi.nation
do most to
insure future
by the United Nations , including
of Axis
complete control of their industry, trade, and politics. mmm.............m.m.m--' 51 %
2. " Formation
of a League of Nations in which every country in the world,
including Germany, Italy, * and Japan, would be represented, and which would
decide differenc,s between nations. " --.m...,_.no._m --_.----m_.. mmm'_"'_'m 37
."-.., --. m....',," ...
Undeci ded .. ,......... ,.m..... moo ', -.. - oo
-- -.,.. -. -.. no. ' -- --..... ... - _m 1 2
100%
In the fall of 1943 an NORC survey showed that:
ALTHOUGH 83% of the public
thought that " a union of nations would have the best chance of working
if all
countries were members
ONLY . 54 % thought that Germany, Italy, * and Japan should be members of the union.
In January of the same year , when the question of membership was
asked without the preceding
question on workabil, ity, only 39 per cent of the public favored membership for Japan , and 44 per
cent for Germany;
Japan
Political Future
SHOULD JAPAN BE PERMITTED FREE ELECTIONS?
Although prior to the end of the war a clear majority of people in the United States favored allowing
free elections in Germany after surrender , public opinion was almost evenly divided on the question
of free elections in Japan. The more educated elements in the population were most favorably
disposed toward allowing citizens of the Axis
countries a degree of poUtical responsibility. NORC
asked the question about Germany in the spring of 1944 , the question about Japan a year later:
After the war, do you think we should let the people in Germany (Japan) vote in a free
choo the kind of government they want?"
JAPAN?
.. . IN GERMANY?
FREE ELECTIONS
Yes
No Undecided Yes No
All adultsinterviewed_.--..m--._.----.-,. 56% 37% 7%=100% 42% 47% 11%=100%
36
election to
... IN
Undecided
Attended college .mmn..m.. --....m--..
66
Attended high schooL.........--...----.. 58
Eighth grade or less._....------.--.......-. 48
30
36
43
57
41
50
35 50
Opinions regarding free elections in Japan varied widely among the different population groups
studied- Clear majorities of the more privileged educational , economic , and occupational groupings
favored the idea ,
and clear majorities of other groups were just as definitely against it. The most
interesting comparisons follow:
* Asked before the surrender of Italy.
Page 37
~~~
After the war, do you think we should let the people in Germany (Japan) vote in a free
election to chooe the kind of government they want?"
All adults interviewed
Attended college
Attended high school
8th grade or fess
Men
Women
Profes?ional people
if:
1ilt
1?(t!ilwi
!tii.
White collar workers
BL!siness men
Domestic, personal
service , and 'protective
workers
Manual and factory
war kers
Farmers
Rocky Mountain and
Pacific Coast states
New England and
Middle Atlantic
states
Midwest
South
Republicqn voters, 1944
Democratic voters, 1944
Page 38
'"
In Their
Qrds
Own
A sixth (7%) of the 4.2 per cent who favored free elections made certain qualifications. They
would wait until the people have shown that they can be
trusted or they would hope for some
Allied review or supervision of political activities:
The Japanese shollid have an election when they are ready
for it-maybe not at first, bllt later on.
Aftr a certain length of time an election might be all
right if the Japanese showed they were going in the right
Salesman s wife , New Iberia
Louisiana
Railroad switchman , Atchison
Kansas
direc:ion. "
d favor an elec:ion when conditions are established which
wil enable the Japanese to
exercise a free vote intell
gently."
If YOIl could pick men in Japan that could be trusted, I'
say ' Yes.
The Japanese wil have to be watched by some international group."
Most of those interviewed who answered ,
allowed to hold a free election
without
Attorney, Winfield , New York
X-ray salesman ,
Chicago
Woman clerical worker,
qualification
that the Japanese should be
made no comment. A few, however, mentioned either practical
or ideological reasons why a free election would be desirable:
Filing station manager,
We couldn t try to tell Japan what government to have
without keeping a whole standing army over
intellgently.
Mississippi
them.'J
Looks to me like we d prett nearly have to let them have
their elections. We can t manage the entire world.
There are enough
Schenec-
tady, New York
people that would be able
to vote
All human beings ought to rule themselves."
Nurse,
Indiana
Engineer's wife ,
Minneapolis
Apartment house superintendent
The Bronx
That s what we prac:ice here-emocracy. Why should we
curtail anyth ing over there?"
Truck driver, Minnesota
A number of the 47 per cent who opposed the idea of free elections in Japan made comments
explaining their point of view. Most frequently expressed was the opinion that the Alled nations
should make all decisions regarding the government of Japan:
A government should be established on the right principles,
Wife of government employee
They should be governed by an Alled council for a long
Montgomery, Alabama
School teac her, Indiana
and we should force the Japanese to accept it.
time.
lf
we are going to have a permanent peace ,
and if we are
Wife of truck driver, Onawa, Iowa
the ones who win the war-they must accept a govern-
ment like ours.
Not what THEY want, but what WE want is what we
better see to.
Negro
laborer Chester , South Caro-
lina
Others questioned the probable judgment the Japanese might exercise in voting in a free election:
I believe the Japanese are incapable
of establishing a
desirable government."
t showed good sense in their government; it would take years to train them before they could
The Japanese haven
choose their own."
They d choose one Just like they have now.
Soldier s
Mechanic
York
wife , Bruning, Nebraska
s wife , Plattsburg,
New
Trucker, Wilard, Oklahoma
EXPERT OPINION: HOPES FOR A LIBERAL JAPAN?
The questionnaire submitted by the Bureau of Applied Social Research to the panel of experts on
the Far East included several questions regarding future political developments in Japan. In
essence the experts believe that , if the Alled authorities deal with political problems effectively
if they chooe their occupation policies wisely, liberal and non miltaristic groups within Japan
can become sufficiently strong for satisfactory self-rule.
Page 39
The first question on this aspect of the Japanese problem asked of the experts read:
If reasonable opportunities for recovery are provided, * what chance do you think there is
that during the next 10 or 15 years Japan wil develop a non-miltaristic spirit and wil
have a government which can be trusted not to move toward new wars of aggression?"
Little or no chance.................--.----.--..............-----...mm-.....-..... 7 %
Fair chance ---'-"""""'"'''''-'''
..u"""",,--,""""""'-""'" .....m."'_" " 4 9
Good chance ...--..........-. -.. m'- m...U ....- -
Doubtful or impossible to saY--.....m......
1J
100%
From the more pessimistic element among the experts come comments to the effect " that the time
mentioned (10- 15 years) is too short , and, that the long history of militarism in Japan must be
taken into consideration. " One of the group remarked:
Japan has never had democracy. There is no precedent on which to build a non-miltaristic
govern ment."
From the more optimistic panel members come comments which point to " hopeful factors in
Japanese history and psychology. . . that the Japanese are an adaptable people and that militarism
is not inherent; that there are significant anti-militarist and liberal elements in Japan; that the
political developments in Japan of the 1920' s
military will be a helpful factor. "
give reason for hope; that the discrediting of the
For example:
I am convinced that a larger percentage of the population are against war and wil
be only
too glad to become free from the regimentation which has driven them to it. They are. not
naturally warlike; it is the system which has compelled acquiescence with the war
program."
Freedom of thought, political activity, and press wm soon create strong progressivefor
which are able to do nation-wide re- education work. I consider the re-educational success
of the Japanese Communist leader Okano in Yenan, in his school for Japanese war
prisoners, proof 9f the educabilit of the Japanese people."
People of Japan wil be sick of war and wil be starved for outside contacts, uncensored
news, etc., and convinced their military misled them. They wil wish to return to the more
liberal period of the 1920' s, when they were in pro ss of establishing responsible parliamentary government.
these:
what wil happen to Japan is contingent upon
certain conditioning factors , the most important of which are the direction of Allied Far Eastern
policy and the atmosphere created for democratic elements to emerge in Japan, " Included were
A third group of responses stresses the fact " that
The chance is considered only fair because of a degree of skepticism about the abilty
of
the victors to apply correctly and adequately the policies required to make the best use of
the opportunities for change.
fair chance' would be ' good chance ' if I had more confidence in the State Department.
Geographical disarmament, i. e., loss of all jumping-off places on the c:ntinent, represents
a tremendous weakening of Japan. Without its colonies and with a minimum of controls
Japan can never be as great a menace as Germany, taking into consideration the latter
large and well-balanced resources for heavy industry. Stripped of its colonies Japan falls
definitely into a second or third class power as it was half a century before the AngloJapanese allance. Consequently, there is reasonable hope that intellgent Japanese would
accept the futilty of renewed aggression. Another condition of Japanese armistice, of
c:urs, is agreement among the great powers. Aggressive elements in Japan wil only take
heart if there is major discord among the powers.
This is all contingent upon the establishment of an over-all organization of life in the
Pacific which assures security, and free access to essential materials, with fair trade
powers. Japan wm follow their
lead. Otherwise, I am afraid Japan wil before long be in collusion with one or another of
us, in preparation for the resumption of the power-struggle in World War m."
It is impossible to say whether or how soon the now United Nations wil return to a Balance
of Power policy, in which one oranot)ler wil consIder the desirability of ' using Japan ' as
heck (a) upon the rIsing influence of the Soviet Union , (b) upon the dominance of
Anglo-American capitalism, or (c) upon the growing strength of Chinese and Indian
practices, and peaceful policies on the part of the leading
nationalism.
Japan s basic internal needs to become peaceful and free are the end of parasitic landholding and usury and political r form abolishing the Emperor s autocratic position and
making possible representative government.
'This question followed one reg
rdjng economic policy in post.war Japan , see page 27 above.
Page 40
Reactions to another ' question showed that a majority
of the experts felt that a reformed non-
militaristic Japan would be most likely to result from a policy of dealing with new leaders rather
than with the old established business and governmental elements. The Bureau of Applied Social
Research asked:
In your iudgment, which of the two following types of policy is more likely to lead to a
reformed non-miltaristic Japan:
J. " If the victorklus- powers
encourage and work with a Japanese government
composed of the ' moderate'
elements from the business groups and former
government circles. "'"--'--000"", ''--'''--'0''''''--'-'''----''----00''_'''''''''''.............. 16 %
to the old
2. " If the powers avoid working with the groups that have been close
movements and
government, but instead give encouragement to any new
leaders that begin to have popular support and that are opposed
to the old
:th
100%
commented: " Several of the replies which
choose (the first policy J explain this choice by saying that there are no new elements capable of
assuming leadership in Japan , or that a coaUtion government , comprising labor and liberal groups
Dr. Kornhauser in the
SUPPLEMENTARY REPORT
as well as the ' moderates ' is the desideratum. Only one expert is outspokenly
good will and desire for peace of the ' moderates.
confident of the
According to the same analysis , most of the experts who chose the second policy emphasize "the
necessity for eliminating the control of the old ruling class completeLy. They point to the fact that
the ' moderate ' elements are too closely connected with the old militarists for comfort. Some of
these experts are convinced that Japan will organize new wars of aggression unless all the old
elements are swept out. Others' point to the analogy of Allied policy in the European war.
The following comments are representative of the larger number reported:
Stability in Japan is impossible without a complete change in national political economy.
The business community includes strong realistic elements that can, if their su!'ival
depends on it, as easily be won for a welfare-motivated program of development as it was
won for a miltaristic one. Experience
in Italy, Greece , and elsewhere has shown that
friction for the Alles is intensified rather than eased when they uphold reactionaries in the
vain hope of thus quickly re-establishing law and order.
AU remnants of feudalistic control both by the miltarists and the Zaibatsu * must be
eliminated. Power must be transferred from the industrialists and miltarists to the
people.
It wil be more diffcult for our forces to establish a regime composed of new leaders;
it wil, therefore, take longer for our forces to achieve
stabilty; but once achieved, such
stabilty might endure after our withdrawal.
Some of the panel laid particular stress on the fact that the Japanese must do their own reforming
and on certain other points. For instance:
Japan needs new leaders, and the only way in which
they can be properly encouraged
to re-make Japan is by our agreeing to let the Japanese people alone (free from miltary
occupation and long-term control) and by our wilingness to let them develop their
industry and commerce.
Again, domestic conditions in Japan wil reflect the state of the Pacific world, and the
terms of our victory, degrees of coercion by our occupying forces, their policies, etc. The
initiative wil be wit us, not Japan. Our ' encouragement' of new movements is a most
delicate matter. We do not know enough about Japanese life to attempt safely to direct
its reconstruction. Occupation should
be limited to miltary policing, maintenance
of order.
One qualification I would add is that, although preferring to deal with groups popularly
supported which are opposed to the ' old gang ' in Japan, we should not rule out the possi-
bility that some
individuals represented in (1) (see
(perhaps for reasons of enlightened self- interest)
question above) might be wiling
cooperate with groups (2) (see
to
exclusion is not advisable since it is to our
question above). Consequently too rigid an
advantage to have as many responsible Japanese as possible convinced that it is in Japan
best interest to coopBlate peacefully with its neighbors.
'Group of
families controlling Japanese industry.
Page
Most of those who do not choose either atternative suggest that the two possibilities presented
are not necessarily mutually exclusive. Two remarks were:
. . . The able leaders. . . should be sought out, whether inside the government or not, and
given the backing of our government to work out a satisfactory system."
Liberalism is not a c.lass phenomenon in Japan, but a personal one-the cleavage is
vertical, not horizontal, between liberals and reactionaries. Our aim should be to encourage
liberalism, wherever located."
Results on a question coupled with the one just quoted
indicate that a majority of the experts
expect to see significant liberal and democratic movements in Japan after the war:
As far as you can judge now, are significant liberal and democratic movements likely
to exist in Japan after the war?"
Yes.......m.. S8 % NOm........ 14 %
Doubtful and other answers.m'H..... 28 % = 1 00 %
Reasons given by the majority who are convinced of the existence of definite
include , among others;
liberal elements-
They have always. existed but have been cruelly suppressd.
Milions of votes against fascism at home and aggression abroad in the 1936 and 193
elections; strikes even during the war in big war factories; a land- hungry and oppressed
peasantry; peace ' agitation' denounced by Japan s war leaders in recent months, arrests
of thousands of oppositionists, continuing through the war.
The thoughts most frequently expressed by those who answered ' ' to this question are that
the liberals in Japan have aU been slaughtered or imprisoned and that a radical or communist
movement may emerge , rather than a liberal or democratic one.
From those who did not check a definite answer come suggestions emphasizing primarily "that
what happens will depend upon the direction of Allied Pacific policy, and that , too , little is known
of the present- day development of democratic movements in Japan to make prediction possible.
These two comments seem particularly provocative:
The whole question depends upon our liberalit. Do we believe in democracy enough to
believe that the Japanese people wil want it too? Or do we think that democracy is a
special 'culture ' instead of a ' gospel' ? If the former, we shall make mistakes which wil
bring Japan a period of chaos."
The old liberals wil be few in number. They were mostly old men, probably too old to
steer Japan through the cpming !=risis. There are probably no young liberals since the
younger generation has been so thoroughly indoctrinated with the miltary tenets.
u. S. Policy in
Occupied Japan?
What do the people
of the United States think about Allied and
Japan? What are popular reactions
American policy in occupied
to what is known about occupation policy- in theory and
practice? Although public opinion on the issues involved may neither determine nor change
policy, attitudes revealed in this highly controversial
importance.
and rapidly shifting area
are of
eal
IS U. S. POLICY TOUGH ENOUGH?
That a considerable demand exists for a tougher policy toward Japan seems evidenced by findings
of polls asked by both NORC and AIPO. When a comparison is made of attitudes toward policy in
Japan and policy in Germany, the demand for a harsher policy in Japan is definitely stronger than
the demand for stricter measures in Germany.
An NORC survey made shortly before the surrender of Japan indicated that , among those somewhat familiar with the surrender terms presented to Japan by the United States, Great Britain
and China , more than half considered the terms about right-neither too harsh nor too easy. It is
significant, however, that a third said that the terms should be harder-because they favored
(1) punishing or even annihilating the Japanese people and their leaders; (2) destroying Japan
Page 42
" " " "" "
" "
,"
" "
as a nation; (3) ' eliminating the Emperor; or still other measures
" "
not understood to be included
in the proposed terms.
Many of the harshest answers were similar to that of a Denver waitress , who said: " We should
have said that we would wipe them all out, every last one. " Others brought in additional angles:
d like to see the Japs wiped off the earth. They started
this war and if allowed to live can start another.
They should be wiped off the earth. We don t
raise boys to fight them again.
want to
Look at the way they have tortured our boys! I think they
Wife of mechanical engineer ,
ville, New Jersey
Restaurant owner , Atlanta
Belle-
Clerk, Detroit
should be exterminated!"
We need to wipe them from the face of the earth. This
Traffic engineer,
atomi.c bomb wil do iW'
Indiana
Housewife , California
Business executive, Royal Oak
Michigan
Stockroom clerk, Reading, Pennsylvania
aint in favor of letting them live!"
They should be exterminated like rats. I have SOI:S in this
war, and I think we should use gas on these Japs."
Cleanup the whole nation and kil them all off. They are
a menace to civilization!"
Unconditional surrender is too easy. The terms should say
I h'
to burn or kil all the Japs.
Elevator operator,
South Bend
Brooklyn
A number of respondents believed that the surrender terms should specify destruction of Japan
as a nation and complete internal control. A Homewood , Alabama , housewife, for instance
replied: " We did not demand enough. Japan should be comp!etely destroyed as a
ation. " A
Pennsylvania advertising man would " do away with the Japanese nation entirely. The name
Japanese ' should cease to exist. " A variety of more specific suggestions were embodied in
answers such as these: " I think the Allies should just take over the country and the government
and run it and not let the Japs have
They should make them give up their
They should be wiped out as a nation and
absorbed by some other country, China perhaps.
I think Japan should be divided up and made
into small countries under the rule of the United States.
a thing to say.
present form of government and their religion ,
too.
need-unmet in the surrender terms as understood by the public
for disposing of the Emperor. . . territorial adjustments. . . disarmament. . . reparations. An
Indiana school teacher, for example , remarks: " They haven t said a thing about getting rid of the
Emperor . If they get rid of him , I think there will be a much better situation. I am in favor of a
democracy for Japan. " The wife of a zoo employee in St. Louis said: " The Japanese should be
Other answers emphasize the
made to learn to live like us in a democratic
government and not allowed to have the Emperor
business. "
A Fairbury, Nebraska , housewife criticized the surrender terms on the following grounds: 1 think
Japan was left the main islands, and they did not have to pay for any damage , only losing the
land they had stolen, " According to an insurance salesman in St. Joseph , Missouri The offer
was too easy on the Japanese homeland. The Allies agreed to let the Japs keep all their home
islands and Hirohito-they shouldn t be allowed the same form of government, " The manager
of a Los Angeles filling station believed: " They should give us all the islands we fought and died
for. " A New York City advertising ,man replied: " No punishment could be severe enough, I
never read the terms , but all the !and the Japs have gotten since 1895 should be taken awaythat's unconditional surrender as we originally meant it.
These views, too, were expressed: " The surrender terms offered the Japanese too much freedom.
The Japanese should never be allowed to have an army or navy again.
The Japs should be fixed
so they can never come back and fight-don t !et them have anything that they could make
war materials out of.
Japan should not be given the right to buy
shouldn t be allowed to use their industries for war purposes again.
Page 43
in the open market.
They
The handful who considered the terms too harsh explained their feeling in words such as these:
The terms should be easier if we want the Japs to sur-
Tool grinder, South " Bend, Indiana
render at once.
If we had not told them they must do away with their
Building contractor,
present system of government, perhaps we would have a
New Jersey
quicker surrender.
Unconditional surrender is
to hard, and it puts too many
Stock clerk, New York City
obstacles in the way of an early peace. The Japs feel they
won
t survive.
We shouldn t
tell
ANY country what they should
God didn t give us ANY right to
Landscape gardener, Wichita
Minister s wife, Denver
do.
control other nations.
The PEOPLE of Japan will have to pay for that which the
Truck farmer , near Laurinburg,
war lords are alone responsible for.
North Carolina
An NORC question asked at the end of August , 1945
the
nfy two weeks after V-J
Day- illustrates
fact that various population groups studied tend to differ only in degree in their opinions
regarding policy toward Japan, while attitudes toward Germany vary widely. NORC asked:
In general, would you say the Alled program for the treatment of Germany is too hard,
about right, or not hard enough? How about the Alled program for the treatment of
Japan?"
POLICY TOWARD JAPAN
POLICY TOWARD GERMANY
Too Un.
Enough Right Hard decided
Not Hard About
All adults interviewed.. 68 % 21
Eighth grade or
49%
Attended high schooL.. 69
Too Un.
Hard decided
43%
7%=100%
Enough Right
% 1 % 10% = 100 %
19
22
:.... 60
less._--- 70
Attended college....
Not Hard About
53 44
36
50
39
25
1%
55
Note that this question suggests " About right " as a possible evaluation. Two months later Gallup
released results of a somewhat differently worded question suggesting only two alternatives , yet
a considerable minority volunteered the answer "About right. " The question:
What is your opinion of the way we are treating the Japanese (the Germans)-are we
being too tough or not tough enough?"
Not Tough
Enough
Japanese moo....__---....--... 61 %
Germany _hun. _........---.
About
Right.
32%
Too
Tough
Undecided
6% =100%
SO
On the AIPO question regarding the JAPANESE, " Not tough enough" replies were distributed as
63%, attended college-46%j adults
follows: eighth grade or less- 68%, attended high school-
21-29- 68%, adults 30 and over-59%.
Between the Quotes
Comments volunteered by those interviewed
in the NORC survey are surprisingly similar in
intent to comments reported in the second section of this report ("What shall we do with the
Japanese people?" ) and those made regarding the peace terms. Of the 68 per cent who considered
the Allied program for Japan not hard enough, a number added comments such as these:
I don t think that we could find anything hard
do to Germany and Japan.
Nothin"g is too bad for the Japanese.
enough to
They were so terrible to qur boys who were prisonersY"
We can never get even for their atrocities.
We should kil all the Japs right off.
. - Page 44
Farmer s wife, near Blair, Okla.
homa
Dairy farmer, near Helena , Montana
Housewife, Leesburg, Virginia
Farmer s wife, near Marshall
Indiana
Laborer s wife , Taylor, Pennsylvania
,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,
....----..--..--
'''''''--'''
Less common were reactions such as that of an Iowa farmer: " Japan is entirely too cocky for a
defeated nation ' and unless we take it out of her we will be fighting her again before long.
re entirely too lenient-you
couldn t be too severe. But the American way seems'
forget " says a clothing cutter in Cincinnati. And a retired businessman in Bell ,
emphasizes the point: " Bring the Japanese leaders to justice.
to be to
California
Some of the 21 per cent answering "About right " make remarks such as that of a Kentucky bar, tender s wife: "We are the leading nation and must set the example-even though the Japanese
don t really deserve fair treatment. " At Points of Rocks , Maryland , a laborer s wife suggests: "The
Bible teaches us to do good for evil." A Pennsylvania farmer feels: " If they continue to send our
men to occupy Japan and run things over there , I' d say it's about right. " And a retired majorgeneral near Kansas City exclaims: " It's all right. I don t know what the Allied program is for
Japan , but I do know MacArthur!"
THE MacARTHUR ADMINISTRATION
. Replies to three different survey questions seern to suggest a considerable
with the MacArthur administration as
NORC asked the following question:
such
degree of satisfaction
, in its early stages at least. In late September '
Who do you think should . make the decisions on what to do with Japan-he people in
Washington or General MacArtur?"
MacArthur... .54 % Washington.... 17 % Both.... 19 % Other... 3 % Undecided.... 7 %
=100%
An AIPO question released in November ' 45 indicated that United States public opinion did not
at that time endorse the Allied control plan which was to go into effect a month later. Gallup asked:
Do you think we should continue ruling Japan as we are, or should an Alled council with
representatives from England, Russia, China, and the United States rule Japan?"
Continue single authority.... 60 % Allied counciL.. 27 % Undecided.... 13 % = 100 %
A Fortune Survey question reported in December,
1945 , approached a
specific phase of the
MacArthur policy:
There seem to be two schools of thought as to the way we are now running civilian affairs
in Japan. One group feels that we are letting the Japanese
have too much to do with
running their civilan affairs, while others feel this is the only way the situation could be
handled so far. With which do you agree?"
Situation wen handled"""""--'--'--"--""'H"'--"'" 61
.. 27
Japanese have too much influence...
Undecided .................--....--......--.--................ 12
100%
General MacArthur s great personal popularity, together with skillfully handled publicity, may
account in part for the high degree of satisfaction Americans evince regarding the progress of the
United States ' occupation of Japan. Nine months after V-J Day-according to a Gallup release
dated June ' 46-people felt that the occupation of Japan was being carried out far more successfully than tpe occupation of Germany.
Good ..
The American Institute of Public Opinion asked:
Do you think we have done a geod job or a poor job in handling our occupation of
Japan? .. . . Germany?"
Japan
Germany
31%
"""'''''''''--'--''''''m'''''m------''--,''',,,--,,, 60 %
Fair ""'"'''--' C''''--''--''--''''
--'''''--''''''''''''''''''''--... 15
Poor ",-",,,,,,,, ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,",',,"''''.--..m.....--n....m...... 4
Don
knoW"''''''''''''''''--'''''''''''''''''--''''''''''''''''''''''H' 21
JOO%
Page 45
100%
,"
,'
........
;................
.-- ...
....
Gallup comments: " The two occupations present, of course , somewhat different problems , since
American forces control the whole of Japan but only a part of Germany. Also the great personal
popularity of General Douglas MacArthur with the American public is undoubtedly a factor which
enters into the more favorable reaction toward the Japanese occupation.
The " excellent "
leadership of MacArthur is mentioned again and again by respondents explaining
why they think the United States has done a " good job" in handling the occupation of Japan.
According to the release by far the largest number of comments deal with MacArthur and his
personal leadership. People also mention the lack of trouble in Japan. So far as they have been
able to see , they say, everything is going very smoothly. There is evidence , they point out , of a
successful effort at democratizing Japan-witness that women recently went to the polls. Finally,
people point out that there has been little interference with MacArthur , unified command,' as
contrasted to Germany with its zones of occupation.
ARMY OF OCCUPATION
General MacArthur has stated that it "will take many years to fulfill the terms of surrender " in
Japan. Stassen of Minnesota and Dr. Herbert V. Evatt , Australian Minister of State for External
Affairs , too, have stressed the need for long- term supervision. Particularly since the surrender
of Japan , American public opinion , as indicated by NORC and AIPO survey results , is in substantial agreement with the views of these experts. A short period of occupation-no more than
five years-was anticipated by a 55 per cent majority of the public in early August ' 45 , before
J Day (according to NORC), but by only a 21 per cent minority three and a half months later
(according to the Gallup Poll). While the lapse of time-an eventful period during which the atom
bomb was dropped on Hiroshimo
and Nagasaki , and Japan surrendered suddenly-obviously
accounts for much of the difference between the two sets of findings , the distinction in emphasis
as expressed in the wording of the questions must also be taken into account.
. During the first week in August , 1945 , NORC asked:
After Japan surrenders, how long do you think it wil be necessary for the Alles to keep
an army of occupation in Japan?"
In November ' 45 Gallup reported results of both a general and a specific question in this area.
The general question:
the Japanese many years, or do you think we can
withdraw our police
troops
in a few years?"
Do you think we wil have to
Many years needed.--.. 64
% Few years neededn--.. 23 % Undecided--.. 13 % = 1 00
or " Few " were asked more specifically: " How many years?" Results of
the two specific questions compare as follows:
Those replying " Many "
August '
JAPAN SHOULD BE OCCUPIED FOR:
1 year or lessm..............--.....
More than 1 'through
November '
(NORC)
(AI PO)
............--.. 17
2 years....--..----........... 15
More than 2 through 5 years.....--
.......--...--. 23
TOTAL-S years or less..................--.----...
55%
through 10 years--..----..----... ..... 12
More than 10 through 20 years.--.. ...--.--....--.... 6
More than 20 through 50 years........................
21 %*
17%
More than 5
5
More than 50 years--....... ..............--..--.--.... 1
Forever .--....m.......--.--....--....--...........--...--.... 5
29%
51.
100%
100%
Undecided ....-- --..----.......--........ ..... ....... ''''''''
Undecided on primary question.........--.--.....--.
No occupation period needed......
*Ga!lup reports combined percentage only.
Page 46
The Pacific
Islands?
Who should govern the island stepping ' stones of the Pacific? This is a question of vita! concern
to the people of the United States and the people of Australia as well as to other members of the
United Nations. Most of the islands in question were German possessions up to World War I and
were subsequently assigned to Japan as mandates. Public opinion in Australia has been inclined
to favor some sort of joint control under the United Nations as a whole or some combination of
interested member-nations. In the United States , however , the largest segment of opinion has
tended to support retention by the United States of some or all of the Pacific islands as military
bases , either independently or as a trusteeship to be delegated by the United Nations.
In the spring of 1944 , the American Institute of Public Opinion reported the following question:
After the war should the United States keep all of the Japanese islands which we conquer
between Hawaii and the Philippines?"
Yes .m.m........_.. 69
% No ..mm"m.m... 17 % Undecided m......m........ 14 % = 1 00 %
An NORC question , asked in the fall of 1945 , after V-J
somewhat different angle:
Day, approached the problem from a
There s a goo deal of discussion about what should be done with the islands in the Pacific
that we captured from the Japanese. Which one of these plans do you think would be best?
The United States should own these islands outright-just like we own Hawaii and Alaska.
The United States should not own these islands outright, but we should be allowed to
govern them for the United Nations Organization, and should have the right to fortify
them.
It is significant that , while Democrats and Republicans held almost the same views on the issue
persons with a
college background were considerably
more likely than those
with a limited
education to concede a degree of trusteeship to the UNO. The comparison:
THE UNITED STATES SHOULD:
Own Outright
Govern under UNO
All adults interviewed........--.............--......... 37 %
Attended college 'mm.m....--..............._..m.. 29
Attended high school mm...... m.....m.. .....m.. 36
Eighth grade or less................--........--mmn 41
FDR voters, 1944.m.......m........... ....--.,........' 37
Dewey voters,
1944mm..mm....... '..n...........
57%
Undecided
6%=100%
36
period , the National Opinion Research Center has studied opinion in this country
on the somewhat more general issue of what the post-war territorial policy of the United States
should. be. The NORC trend question reads:
Over a four- year
Which of these four statements comes closest to what you think the United States should
do about NEW land and possessions in the world after the war?"
Aug. Nov.
Jan. June
July 1943
Feb. 1942
1945
1943March
1945 1945
1942
March
1946
The United States should:
. . . give up all the land outside of the
United States that is difficult to defend... 10%
. . . be satisfied with the amount of land
in the world she had before she entered
the war.
.. . try to get new miltary bases, but
nothing else. ...--..............mm.....n.....
. . . try to get as much new land in the
world as she can. " ...--..--......m"m"'"''
100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100% 100%
Undecided ...--.m..
8% 8% 5% 4% 6% 5% 7%
When the question was first asked , in February, 1942 , the largest single group-42 percent
of those with definite opinions-believed that the United States " should be satisfjed with the
Page 47
amount of land in the world she has now " (the wording used before the fall of the Philippines).
Only 34 per cent believed the United States should try to get new military bases. The temporary
decrease in interest in new military bases noted between July
42
and January
43
may have been
a reaction to the costly Solomons campaign with the heavy casualties at Guada Icana I, . Between
June ' 43 and March ' 45 the proportion thinking that the United States should attempt to get new
miltary bases after the war increased from 44 to 53 per cent. Possibly even mare significant, historically speaking, was the rise from 53 per cent in March ' 45 to 60 per cent during the
firs
week of August' , just before the )apanese surrender.
Page 48
PURPOSES OF TH E
NATIONAL OPINION RESEARCH CENTER
1.
To establish the first non- profit , non-commercial organization to measure public opinion in the
United States. Through a national staff of trained investigators , representative cross-sections or
samples of the entire population are personally interviewed on questions of current importance.
available to legislators , government departments , academicians , and organizations a
staff of experts in the science of public opinion measurement and a highly trained nation-wide
2. To make
corps of interviewers.
3.
To analyze and review the results of surveys made by other polling organizations.
4.
To create a research center to discover , test , and perfect new methods , techniques , and devices
for ascertaining the status of public opinion.
5.
To provide the University with a graduate department devoted to the newest of the social sci-
ences
, public opinion research.
SPONSORS
The National Opinion Research Center was established by a grant from the Field Foundation , Inc.,
of New York City, in a ssociation with the University of Denver. The Center was incorporated on
October 27 , 1941 , as a non- profit organization under the laws of Colorado.
TRUSTEES
Gordon W. Allport , Professor of Psychology, Harvard University.
Hadley Cantril , Professor
Opinion Research.
of Psychology, Princeton University; Director , Office of Public
Ben M. Cherrington , Director , Social Science Foundation , University of Denver.
Homer Folks, Director , The Field Foundation; Secretary, State Charities Aid Association , New
York City.
S. Arthur Henry, Attorney for the Board
of Trustees of the University of Denver.
Samuel A. Sto uffer, Professor of Sociology, Harvard Univ rsity.
Louis S. Weiss , Director and Secretary, The Field Foundation ,
Inc.
PERSONNEL
Mary Railey Pearson
Bette Richardson
Anne Schuetz
Harry H. Field , Director
Don Cahalan
Gordon M, Connelly
Olive Halbert
Edna P. Mitchell
Elizabeth Mosher
Paul B. Sheatsley
Virginia Trevor
Louise M. Van Patten
Page
49 .
How
Is
a-
Opinion Survey Made?
Public
The subjects for the Center s surveys are determined in consultation with its Board of Trustees and
other experts. Members of the Center s staff collaborate in drawing up a questionnaire. The individual questions are carefully " pre- tested " that is , tried out on various types of respondents in order
to eliminate , insofar as possible , the chance of more than one interpretation and to produce wordings universally understandable and capable of measuring all shades of opinion relative to a specific
attitudinal area. " Specifications " or sets of directions for interviewers , are also compiled to insure
uniform interviewing procedure. Each member of the Center s personally trained interviewing staff
is sent a set of questionnaires and assigned a quota of interviews he is to secure , together with the
distribution by sex , age , economic or rent level , and general place of residence.
When the completed
questionnaires are returned to the
Center the answers are classified and given code numbers
fcr transfer to a punched card. A separate card is punched
for each questionnaire , with a punch for the answer to
each question. The punched cards are then run through
a special tabulating machine which can be set to count
the answers , to separate the cards into categories , and in
other ways materially to assist tbe statisticians.
The final percentaged results-the responses to
the
vari-
ous questions-are reported . not only for the total cross
section interviewed , but also for comparisons between
various population sub- groups , such as men and women
young. people and older people , groups of people with
varying educational and economic backgrounds, farm and
city dwellers ,
and
residents of various sections of the
country. The differences of opinion shown in these breakdowns are often of even greater significance than the
opinions of the enti re cross-section.
The results of the Center s surveys are published in news
releases and reports wh ich
are
util ized by educators, scientists, government officials , publishers and broadcasters
businessmen , and others especially interested in keeping
up- to- date on public opinion trends.
Comparisons of NORC's results with those of other opinion-finding organizations are frequently published in
OPINION NEWS-the Center s
fortnightly digest of out-
standing polls and surveys.
Factual Information
The Cross-Section . The population samples upon which
NORC surveys are made are representative , within a
small degree of error, of the national population 21 years
of age and over. That is , the samples used are stratified
according to certain sociological characteristics of the
adult population of the United States.
Geographical Distribution Within each of the nine Census
Divisions of the country, interviews are properly appor-
tioned among the adult civilian population in the metropolitan districts, towns, and rural areas of that division.
For the urban population the interviews are apportioned
to metropolitan districts, with the proper proportion be-
tween central city and suburbs, and towns in various size
groups, while in the rural areas the interviews are properly apportioned among farm and non- farm residents.
Size of Cross-Section As a result of statistical research
it is now known that a poll will not be accurate , no
matter how large a sample is taken (short of a total
census of the entire population) , if the cross-section is
not an accurate miniature of the whole population.
According to a statistical table copyrighted by the President and Fellows of Harvard College; the number of interviews in a national survey necessary to be within 3 per
cent correct on questions that divide evenly is 2 500.
This number is sufficient 997 times in 1
000. The Har-
vard table adds that tlALF this sample , or 1
views ,
250 inter-
would be within 3 per cent correct 962 times in
000. NORC surveys used in this report are based on
over 2 500 interviews.
Age and Sex
those between 21 and 39 years. Today NORC interviews
only the adult civilian population. The resulting sex split
is 47 per cent men and 53 per cent women. On the age
distribution ,
56 per cent are 40 and over , with the remainder between 21 and 39.
Race Within each Census Division are obtained a number of Negro respondents proportional to the Negro population in that area. These interviews are properly
apportioned among the urban, rural non- farm , and farm
residents.
Economic Status Within each sex group the interviews
among the White population are assigned on the basis of
four standard-of- living
categories. For purposes of tabula-
tion the two upper groups are combined in this . report.
The economic characteristics of persons in each one of
these three groups can be defined roughly as follows:
Upper (16 per cent of the sampleJ- Those persons
who have all the necessities of life and some of the
luxuries characteristic to their community. Two per
is made up of what is under-
cent of the sample
stood as the wealthy group. The remaining 14 per
cent is made up of persons who can afford some
luxuries, but must choose
rather carefully which
ones to buy.
Middle (52 per cent of the sampleJ-This group is
called the great middle class of America. They have
incomes large enough to maintain an adequate
standard of living but can seldom afford luxuries.
Lower (32 per cent of the sampleJ-
Before the war, the adult population for
the entire country could be said to be split approximately
equally between persons 40 years of age and over and
Page
This group has
difficulty in maintaining an adequate standard of
living. Included are the lowest income non-relief
families and also those receiving government aid.
'Pee
The National Opinion Research Center , University of Denver, offers the following publications:
21. The Public Looks at Education. What Americans think
Reports
of education
1. One Week before Pearl Harbor. Attitudes toward the
war in Europe. December , 1941. .n..m--mmm. Out of Print
Opinion on Current and Post-War Problems.
March , 1942. (32 pages)..........--...... ,.......m.m.......
2. National
3. Regional Opinion on Vital Economic and Political
Questions. Rocky Mountain attitudes toward postwar problems. April , 1942. (32 pages with mapL....
wide attitudes on compulsory military training after
the war. December , 1944 . (18 pages)*
RegIonal Opinion toward Federal Regulation. Federal
vs. state control of utilities, services, etc. May, 1942.
24. Germany and the Post. War
Measures. National opinion on tax pro-
should be accorded the German people.
posals, wartime regulation of prices, incomes , and
6.
Francisco Conference. A summary of public opinion
up to the time of the world conference, April , 1945. *
26.
lems. August, 1942. (32 pages with map)............... .
Current ..nd Post. War Problems. Special graphic sup-
- 1. Testing
Opinion Surveys at the Polls. Report of an
dates. January, J 943. (32 pages with 4 charts!........ .
Edition. Report of a nation-
28.
wide survey largely devoted to a study of what sacri.
-city survey made by personal interview
for the American Library. Association and cooperating
libraries. The study presents data on people
Reconversion Period from War to Peace. Nationwide opinions regarding employment , social seCUriy,
9. The
and other economic issues involved in the reconversion from a wartime to a peacetime economy.
29.
.
regarding the ability of the organization to prevent
11. Lend. Lease
to England: What Are We Getting? What
Should We Get? August, 1943. (J I pagesL............ .
2. Attitudes toward the Axis Peoples. Trend report
based on three nation-wide surveys. August , 1943.
30. Should Price and Rent Control Be Continued? April
this and other aspects of the world food problem.
May, 1946. (25 pages with chartsL......--................. .
World. July, 1946. (52 pages
with charts) Additional copies--............................... .
chart) .
32. Japan and the Post-War
.
Special Reports
What Do the American People Think about Federal
.
Inevitable? A consensus of American opinIon. December, 1943. (4 pages with chart)..... Out of print
17. Public Attitude toward: Subsidies... Prices... Wages
and Salaries. December, 1943. * ........m....mmOut of Print
18. Should Soldiers Vote? A report of a special spot.check
survey. January 1944. * ........o.................o.Out of print
Health Insurance? Analysis
16. Are Wars
Public Looks at World Organization. A consenof American . opinion , expressed in various. na-
responsibility for the health of the nation.
ber ,
m.m............m............--.................... .
Novem-
w.......m........................... .
Peace. An analysis
of American attitudes on various issues of the peace
settlement. Reprinted from The Public Opinion
, No. 4...................0.....0...m... .
Quarterly, Vol. 8
Now Let s
Look at the Real Problem: Validity. A limited
study of question wordings and interpretations in the
evaluation of the results of public opinion research.
Reprinted from The Public Opinion Quarterly, Vol.
20. The Public Looks at Politics and Politicians. National
( 1 9 pages)'
1944. (66 pages)*
If the American People Made the
1944. (32 pages with 9 charts)........--..........m...-- .
opinions regarding politics as a career, the men in
politics, and the way they do their jobs. March , 1944.
of a survey conducted
for the Physicians' Committee on Research , Inc. , to
determine opinions regarding certain aspects of medical care, especially the United States government
powers of
a post-war world union and the possible responsi.
bilities entailed in United States' membership. April
"""W"'--'"''''''''''''' .
We Return to Rationing? National opinion on
1946. (18 pages with charts)'
31. Should
(4 pages with chartL........................................... .
J 3. Has the United States Any Territorial Ambitions?
tional polls, regarding the functions and
of library services and financing. January, 1946. (32
pages - with map and chartsL...--......--....--....-..--..--..--. .
Can the UNO Prevent Wars? A summary of public
information about the UNO and national opinion
wars between big or small nations, the veto vote in
the Security Council , and other vital issues. February, 1946. * (20 pages with map and chartsL...----.. .
ion survey. July, 1943. (9 pages)
sus
s reading
preferences and habits , their attitudes toward public
libraries , their use of the library, and their knowledge
pages) .
19. The
the Record... Public Opinion Misses on Russia
. . . But Scores on World Organization. September
1945. (4 pagesL.....--..........--............----...........---- .
What... Where. . . Why. . . Do People Read? Report of a 17
fices the American people may be willing to make to
help establish a world union. March, 1943. (40
14. The American People and the War Effort. Trend report. September , 1943. (4 pages with chartJ.............
15. Public Opinion on Gasoline Rationing. Trend report.
October, 1943. (4 pages with chard..mm..............
June , 1945.
.,........n--............m..........m,.. .
27. For
8. War and Peace- 1943
Trend report. September, 1943. (4 pages with
Wages. . .
Public Opinion on Control of Prices..
Salaries. . . during War and Reconversion. A sum.
(25 pages)..........
election experiment on economic issues and candi.
1943. (24 pages with 12 charts)....................
10. Should the Churches Plan for Peace? A national opin.
(32 pages)--m.....m--...--........--..--...m...mm..--.n.. .
mary of national opinion 1941- 1945.
1942. (16 pages with 12 charts)..,. .
June ,
January,
25. Public Opinion on World Organization up to the San
National Opinion toward Federal Regulation. June,
1942. (8 pagesL...........................................-... .
A Nation. Wide Survey of Post- War and Current Probplement. October ,
of
1945. (64 pages with 8 chartsL....,.--.--.m.....m----. .
pages with mapL.......m. .
45. (Supplement to Report No.
5.
mm.......... .
World. An analysis
opinion regarding the economic and political disposition of Germany after the war and what treatment
(8 pagesL....m............................m.m............_....... .
profits. June , J 942. (24
schools , what they
23. Compulsory Miltary Training in Peacetime? Nation-
.
3S. (Supplement to Report No.
4. Anti- Inflation
today-the public
teach , and federal financial aid for education.
August, 1944. (40 pages)--m.----..----.--.--.......--...n.. .
22. Do Negroes Have Equid Economic Opportunities?
Why? An analysis of nation-wide opinion , including
both white and Negro respondenfs in every section
of the United States. April , 194.4. (11 pages)* m'.m .
, No. 1""''''''--''''''''''''''
Mrs. Jones '
."'''''--'''''00--''''''''''''''''' .
Ethnic Attitudes: A Ballot Analysis. A case
study (with cross-section comparisons) on white attitudes toward Negroes. Reprinted from The Journal
of Abnormal and Social Psychology, Vol. 40 , No. 2...
. Mimeographed
Page 51
.
--....--....--_..... $ .
.."........--.............................--..
, , ,------__ $ .
G SERIES (J 944 Presidential Election,)
(Revised) Population 21 Years of Age and
Over- 1940. Outline map of the United
States showing size of states if area were proportional to the population , according to revised census figures. (8 Yz by 11 inchesJ..--....
Base Map Outline
were proportional
(8 Yz by
11 inches) ".m',"',',""--'...--.-------m----.------
3
American Voters in 1944.
Percentage of Citizens Voting in 1944 Presidential Election.
United States Senate: Party Membership in
the 79th Congress by States.
6 U. S. House of Representatives:
4) (11 by 15 inches)..--..
Party Mem-
bership in the 79th Congress by States.
Distribution of World Population. Map of the
Democratic and Republican Governors- 1945.
world showing countries of over T 00 000 pop-
8 State- by-
ulation as they would appear if their area were
Election.
by 15
State Majorities-1944 Presidential
9 How Each State Voted in 4 Roosevelt Elections.
All map 8 Yz by T T inches. $. T 0 each, Set of 10...
inches) .--. ---- ---- ------.----......---22 by 34 inches , bond paper (for framingJ...... 1.00
tJfJtt 1t
What Is It?
Opinion News is the only fortnightly digest of polls and surveys
educators ,
vote for
Roosevelt and Dewey States- 1944 Election.
Voters and Treaty- Making Power.
How the 531 Electoral Votes Represented
Distribution of Population, 21 Years of Age
and Over, States and Metropolitan Districts.
proportional to their population. (J 1
to the popular
President in 1944.
(Revised) Total Population- 1940.
In two colors. (No.
map of the United States show-
ing states as they would appear if their area
available to businessmen ,
government officials,
, and others who must follow closely the trends of public opinion. Opinion News brings together
in an easy-to-read summary the most significant findings of all the leading public opinion research organizations.
O. N. is based on the nation-wide research of NORC; Gallup Polls in the United States, Canada , Great Britain,
Australia, France Sweden Finland , and Denmark; the Fortune Poll (Elmo Roper); the Netherlands Institute of
Public Opinion; and also on the findings of more specialized organizations. A complete index is published every
librarians
six months.
What Subjects Are Covered?
Recent issues of O. N. have included these articles among others:
International
Domestic
How Control the Atomic Bomb?
The Security Council and the Veto
The USSR-An AmeriC'n Appraisal
Relief for Europe and Asia?
The Future of Germany
Reparations from Japan?
Settling Industrial Disputes
The Public Looks at Housing
Toward Government Ownership?
Peacetime Conscription?
Does. . '
. or SHOULD Congressional
Action Reflect Public Opinion?
Set4e'tpfH 'iate
REPORTS AND MAPS
(Yearly Membership)
Sustaining Member ............................-....--...
OPINION NEWS
(26 Issues a Year)
One year ...........
$25.
Contributing Member m..m ..--n'--"--""'...m.......
Subscribing Member _n. """""".m--.--......---....-.
Spec;ial Library Membership, Three Years for....--. '
$10.
Six months '-.""''',----""",,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,.,,.,,,,,, 5.
Single issues, each m..--...............--................ .'''.'
Indexes, Vol. I, II, II, IV, V, VI, each.--..--....... .
5.
2.
6.
A membership includes all reports and maps published
Membership also includes press releases and Opinion News.
A sample copy of Opinion News will be sent on request.
by
the Center for a period of twelve months. A Sustaining
INTERVIEWING FOR NORC
This only complete manual of interviewing techniques and methodology
is based upon the
experience gained as a result of
some 300 000 personal interviews made by NORC' S interviewing staff duriD9 the past five years. "fhe book is a " mustll
ies , pollng an9
for advertising agencies, in tructors and students of pUblic opinion , Ii
organizations
ychojogists,
sociologists, and all others Interested in II How polls are made. " Interviewing for NORC IS 7.sea
inspirng and helpful
well worth
waiting for, and " fills a great need" -experts comment.
---m-----.nnn -m-m__m----_
168 pages with illustrations. bibliography. and a complete indexm_----_--m--m--.m-.--.----.-.-...-.------$2.
Page 52