University of Khartoum
Faculty of Engineering
Department of Agricultural Engineering
This Thesis is a Partial Fulfilment of the Degree of Bachelor of Science
in Agricultural Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of
Khartoum
Determination of Fuel Properties and Engine Performance of
Ethanol/Gasoline Blends
for Spark Ignition Engine
Prepared by:
Mathani Yusuf Hassan
Mohammed Abd Elazeem Hussien
Hind Izzeldin Osman
Supervisor:
Dr. Abd Elmutalib Fadel Almula
July 2010
Dedication
Without you I couldn't go left or right
Lose my sight
Our great mothers
Without you life would be darkness
World has no hope no light
Our fathers
To whom that they made our life colorful
Our friends
To all special people in our life
………………………….
With all love
Mohamed, Mathani and Hind
ACKNOWLEDGMENT
We are heartily thankful to our supervisor
Dr Abdu El Mutalib F. Khierallah
Whose encouragement, guidance and support from the initial to the final
level enabled us to complete this project
It is a pleasure to thank who made this thesis possible
Mustafa
Special thanks to
Khartoum University Faculty of engineering and Architecture
Department of Agriculture Engineering
Lastly, we offer our regards and blessings to all of those who supported us in
any respect during the completion of the project.
i
TABLE OF CONTENS
Acknowledgment …………………………………………………
i
Arabic abstract …………………..……………….………….…....
2
English abstract ………………………………………………..…..
3
Chapter One
1
INTRODUCTION ……………………………………….……
4
1.1
Background ……………………………………………….……
4
1.2
Statement of objective ………………………………..………
7
Chapter Two
2
LITERATURE REVIEW………………………..…………
8
2.1
Ethanol production ……………...…………...……………….
10
2.1.1
Ethanol Manufacturing Process ………..…...……..…………
12
2.1.1.1 Fermentation ………..……………………………..…….……
12
2.1.1.2 Distillation ………………………………………….…...……
13
2.2
Bio-ethanol Fuel Properties………………………..…………
14
2.3
Fuel properties definitions ………………………...…………
16
2.3.1
Density, API & Specific gravity …………………..…………
17
2.3.2
Viscosity …………………………………………..…………
17
2.3.3
Flash and fire point ………………..…………………………
18
2.3.4
Cloud and Pour Point ………………………………………...
19
2.3.5
Octane rating …………………….…………..………………
19
2.3.6
Heat value ………………………………….………………...
21
2.3.7
Fuel Volatility …...………………….……………………...…
22
2.3.7.1 Distillation ………………………….………………………...
22
2. 4
Engine Performance and Emissions .………………………...
24
2.5
Ethanol Production in Sudan………...……………...………
27
2.5.1
Sugar cane …………………………..…..……….......……...
27
2.6
Kenana Ethanol Project ….…………………………………
28
Chapter Three
3
MATERIALS AND METHODS…………………....………
29
3.1
Material………………………………………..…………….
29
3.1.1
Fuel blends material ……………………………..…………
29
3.1.2
Fuel Properties equipment …………………….……………
30
3.1.2.1
Viscometer …………………………………….……………
30
3.1.2.2
Hydrometer ……………………………………….…………
30
3.1.2.3
Flash and fire point ………….…………………….…………
30
3.1.2.4
Cloud and pour point ……..…………………………………
30
3.1.2.5
CFR Engine (Cooperative Fuels Research)….………………
33
3.1.2.5.1
Specification …………………………..……………………
33
3.1.2.5.2 Mechanical accessories ……………….……………………
34
3.1.2.5.3
Instrumentation ……………………..….….……...………..
35
3.1.2.6
Bomb Calorimeter ………………………….……….……..
36
3.1.2.6
Distillation device ………………………….………..……..
36
3.1.3
Engine test…………….……………………………………
38
3.2
Method………………….……………………………………
43
3.2.1
Blends preparation ……………….………….………………
43
3.2.2
Fuel abbreviation …………………………….………………
43
3.2.3
Fuel properties determination ………….…….………………
43
3.2.3.1
Density measurement ………………….………..……………
44
3.2.3.2
Viscosity determination …………………….……………...…
44
3.2.3.3
Gross Heating Value measurement…………….…….…..……
45
3.2.3.4
Measuring Octane rating ……………………….…….….……
45
3.2.4
Performance Tests ………………..…………….…….….……
47
3.2.4.1
Test procedure ………………………………….…….….……
47
3.2.4.2
Power calculation ……………..……………….…….….……
49
3.2.4.3
Torque calculation……. ……………………….…….….……
49
3.2.4.4
Brake thermal efficiency ……………………….…….….……
50
Chapter Four
4
RESULT AND DISCUSSION ……………..………………
51
4.1
Density and API Gravity ………………………………..……
51
4.1.2
Fire and Flash Point ……………………………………….…
53
4.1.3
Heat of Combustion ……………………………………….…
54
4.1.4
Cloud point ………………….……………………………..…
55
4.1.5
Kinematic Viscosity..……….………..………….……………
56
4.1.6
Octane number ………………….……..…………….…….…
58
4.1.7
Distillation ………………….……..……………………….…
60
4.2
Engine performance ……….……..……………………….…
61
4.2.1
Power output ………………….……..……………………….
61
4.2.2
Engine torque ………………….……..……………………….
62
4.2.3
Fuel Consumption Rate (L/h)....……..………………………..
62
4.2.4
Specific Fuel Consumption (L/KW.h)………………………..
64
4.2.5
Brake Thermal Efficiency …….……..……………………….
64
4.2.6
Speed ………………….……..…………….…………………
65
Chapter Five
5
CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATION……..…………
67
REFERENCES ………………………………………………………
69
APPENDEX A ………………………………………………………
70
APPENDEX B ………………………………………………………
75
APPENDEX C ………………………………………………………
81
APPENDEX D ………………………………………………………
85
LIST OF FIGURES
Chapter two
FIGURE 2.1 Ethanol Manufacturing Process ……………………………
14
FIGURE 2.2 Distillation curves of gasoline …………………………...…
24
Chapter three
FIGURE 3.1 Cannon-Fenske opaque viscometer ………………………..
31
FIGURE 3.2 Hydrometer …………………………………………………
31
FIGURE 3.3 Pensky-Martens cup …………..……………………………
32
FIGURE 3.4 Apparatus for Cloud Point Test …………………….………
32
FIGURE 3.5 CFR Engine (Cooperative Fuels Research)…………………
36
FIGURE 3.6 Bomb Calorimeter ……………..……………………...……
37
FIGURE 3.7 Distillation device …………..…….…………………...……
37
FIGURE 3.8 Hond EMS 3000…………………………..………..………
40
FIGURE 3.9 Tachometer…………………………………………………
40
FIGURE 3.10 Variable electrical loader………………….……….………
41
FIGURE 3.11 Ammeter……………………………………………………
41
FIGURE 3.12 Voltmeter……………………………………………………
42
FIGURE 3.13 Electric balance 3 Kg……………………….………………
42
FIGURE 3.14 Layout electric circuit diagram…...........................................
48
FIGURE 3.15 Engine performance Test setup ….........................................
49
Chapter four
FIGURE 4.1 Blends densities versus ethanol pourcentage ………………
52
FIGURE 4.2 Blends API gravity versus ethanol percentage ……...………
53
FIGURE 4.3 Blends heat values versus ethanol percentage.………………
55
FIGURE 4.4 Blends kinematic viscosity versus ethanol percentage………
57
FIGURE 4.5 Blends Octane Number versus ethanol percentage …………
60
FIGURE 4.6 Distillation curves blends and gasoline ………………..……
61
FIGURE 4.7 Power output Vs. loads curves ………………..……..……
62
FIGURE 4.8 Torque Vs. loads curves ………………………………..…
63
FIGURE 4.9 Fuel consumption Vs. loads curves …………..….….……
63
FIGURE 4.10 Specific fuel consumption Vs. loads curves……..…….……
64
FIGURE 4.11 Brake thermal efficiency Vs. loads curve……..……….……
65
FIGURE 4.12 Speed Vs. loads curves …………….………………….……
66
List of tables
Chapter two
TABLE 2.1 Properties of Ethanol alcohol ………………………………
16
TABLE 2.2 Existing Sugar Capacities …………………….……………
27
TABLE 2.3 Sudan Grand Sugar Plan 2014…………………….……...…
28
TABLE 2.4 Kenana’s Ethanol Capacity and Product Specifications ……..
28
Chapter three
TABLE 3.1 Tested Fuels Samples Abbreviation…………………………
43
Chapter four
TABLE 4.1 Mean density and API gravity of tested blends ………………
52
TABLE 4.2 Flash point and fire point of tested blends ……………………
54
TABLE 4.3 Mean gross heat content of tested blends …….….……………
55
TABLE 4.4 Cloud point of tested blends ……………….…………………
56
TABLE 4.5 Kinematic viscosity of tested blends ………….………………
57
TABLE 4.6 Octane number of tested blends ………….……...……………
59
Abstract
Fuel properties of Ethanol/Gasoline blends were studied and compared with pure
gasoline fuel. Those blends were named E10, E15, E20, and E25. The performance of a
constant speed, single cylinder spark ignition engine with these blends was tested.
Fuel properties test results showed that blends densities and kinematics viscosity
were found to increase continuously and linearly with increasing percentage of ethanol
while API gravity and heat value decreased with decreasing percentage of ethanol
increase. Furthermore, cloud point, flash and fire points were found to be higher than
gasoline fuel. The tested blends Octane rating based Research Octane Number (RON)
increased continuously and linearly with increasing percentage of ethanol.
The power output and torque producing for blends increased in E10 and E20, and
decrease in E15 and E25 at low loads. The fuel consumption rate and specific fuel
consumption decreased for blends. Break thermal efficiency for blends was a slight
variation compared to gasoline fuel. The performance with tested blends showed diverse
results due to difference in fuel properties.
1
‫المـــــل ّخص‬
‫ُ‬
‫حَج دراست خصائض خييط اإليثاّىه ٍع اىبْسيِ ‪ ،‬وٍقارّخها ٍع وقىد اىبْسيِ اىصافي‪.‬‬
‫وحَج حسَيج اىخيطاث ‪ E10‬و‪ E15‬و ‪ E20‬و ‪ . E25‬وقذ حَج حجربت أداء اىَاميْت‬
‫بسرعت ثابخت في ٍحرك رو اسطىاّت واحذة يعَو با إلشخعاه اىذاخيي‪.‬‬
‫وقذ أظهرث ّخائج اخخباراث خصائض اىىقىد أُ مثافاث اىخيطاث واههزوجت اىنيَْاحينيت‬
‫حسداد بصىرة ٍسخَرة وبشنو خطي ٍع زيادة ّسبت اإليثاّىه ‪ ،‬بيَْا اّخفضج اىقيَت‬
‫اىحراريت و اىثقو ‪ٍ API‬ع اّخفاض ّسبت اإليثاّىه ‪ .‬عالوة عيى رىل وجذ أُ‬
‫اىـغيَت وّقطت اىىٍيط و اإلشخعاه‬
‫ّقطت‬
‫ماّج أعيى ٍِ وقىد اىبْسيِ‪ٍ .‬عذالث األومخيِ‬
‫اىَخخبرة اىَبْيت عيى أساش رقٌ بحث األومخيِ )‪ (RON‬في اىخيطاث ازدادث بصىرة‬
‫ٍسخَرة وخطيت ٍع زيادة ّسبت اإليثاّىه‪.‬‬
‫اىقذرة اىْاحجت واىعسً باىْسبت‬
‫ىيخيطاث ازدادث في اىَسيج‬
‫‪ E10‬واىَسيج ‪E20‬‬
‫واّخفضج في اىَسيج ‪ E15‬واىَسيج ‪ E25‬عْذ اىخحَيو اىَْخفط ‪ٍ .‬عذه اسخهالك‬
‫اىىقىد واسخهالك اىىقىد اه ّىعي اّخفط في جَيع اىخيطاث اىَخخبرة ‪ .‬األداء هىَسيج‬
‫اىَخخبر أظهر ّخائج ٍخخيفت ّسبت إلخخالف خصائض اىىقىد ‪ .‬ىقذ أظهر أداء اىَاميْت عْذ‬
‫إسخخذاً عيْاث اىىقىد اىَخخبرة ّخائج ٍخبايْت ّسبت ىإلخخالف في خىاص اىىقىد‪.‬‬
‫‪2‬‬
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
A steady growth in world population has taken place in tandem with everincreasing per capita energy consumption. Moreover, population has grown
geometrically in the last 1,000 years, placing additional pressure on energy resources. To
satisfy the ever-increasing demand, humanity has made use of different energy sources,
and the relative importance of these resources has differed between industrialized and
developing countries.
Petroleum formed a quantum leap in the field of energy and became a vital
source; but the studies of 18,000 petroleum fields around the world revealed that
petroleum will begin to recede within the next five years due to the limited quantities of
petroleum in the world and the increasing rates of consumption. The production of
petroleum began to recede since 2005, while the demand increases by 2% annually.
Obviously this indicates that there is shortage which will reach up to 40% by the year
2020, thus leading to increase in petroleum prices. With the harmful effects of petroleum
on the environment in mind, scientists and researchers resorted to finding new forms and
sources of energy to resolve the problem of petroleum being the traditional fuel. So
3
people will search for alternative energy source, for example: solar energy, wind energy,
hydroelectric energy and bio-fuel.
Bio-fuels are a wide range of fuels which are in some way derived from biomass.
The term covers solid biomass, liquid fuels and various biogases. Bio-fuels are gaining
increased public and scientific attention, driven by factors such as petroleum price spikes
and the need for increased energy security. Bio-fuel is a fuel made from ethanol alcohol
that used as a total or partial replacement for gasoline runs in spark ignition engine. It can
be produced in large commercial quantities by fermenting the sugar or starch portion of
raw material and thus the crops used for ethanol production vary by region- such as sugar
cane, maize, grains, sugar beet, etc, it release CO2 when burned in internal combustion
engines, they differ from fossil fuels partly because their use reduces the net emission of
carbon dioxide and other gases associated with global climate change and partly because
they are biodegradable. The main benefits identified in connection with CO2 emission is
usually explained by the theory of carbon recycling. When plants develop, they capture
carbon dioxide from the atmosphere in order to facilitate photosynthesis necessary for
their growth. Carbon dioxide and water in presence of light captured by chlorophylls
produce oxygen and sugar glucose. Glucose converted to cellulose builds plant tissue or
is stored as starch. Starch crops and the resulting cellulosic biomass provide feedstock for
bio-fuel production. Whilst green plants operate as carbon sinks absorbing atmospheric
carbon dioxide, the net CO2 output of bio-fuel is theoretically zero. Accordingly the
released returns to carbon cycle, meaning that bio-fuel may also be considered carbon
neutral. So it is an environmentally friendly alternative to petroleum. Although it is easy
4
to manufacture and process, it is expensive to do research and used by human, but it will
not be expensive anymore when the petroleum price is high enough.
Utilization of renewable sources of energy available in Sudan is now a major
issue in the future energy strategic planning for the alternative to the fossil conventional
energy to provide part of the local energy demand. Sudan's renewable portfolio is broad
and diverse, due in part to the country's wide range of climates. It has a long history in
renewable energy utilization like many of the African leaders. Sudan has a very unique
geographical location and an area of about one million square miles. Bordering nine
African countries, and also distinguished by its fertile land, heavy rains and the
availability of water resources River Nile, Blue Nile, White Nile, Bahr Al- Arab and
underground water, over and above the Sudan enjoys the third largest industrial basis in
Africa after South Africa and Egypt. Although the utilize capacities are low ranged
between 20-25 %.
Sugar industry in Sudan will be the base for production of ethanol from sugar
plenty molasses. Kenana the world's largest integrated cane sugar manufacturing plant
will be the focus of ethanol production. Hundred million liters would be considered a
possible ethanol production capacity due to an increase in production capacity in the
Sudan together with the production capacity of the White Nile sugar factory and the
existing production capacities of the other cane sugar production factories such as
Assalaya, Sennar, El-Guneid and Halfa. To date the arrangements to introduce ethanol in
Sudan as fuel for cars, generators and motorcycles engines is limited. Consequently, the
5
use of the ethanol as fuel at present should be advocated strongly for research and
development as well as a quick and subsidized market introduction (i.e. tax credit
exception).
1.2 Statement of Objective:
The purpose of this study is to determine fuel properties and engine performance of
Ethanol /Gasoline blends for spark ignition engine. Specific objectives were:
-
To determine properties of blends such as density, API gravity, viscosity, cloud
point, flash and fire point, heat value and compare them with those of gasoline
fuel.
-
To determine Octane rating based on Research Octane Number (RON) for blends
and compares them with those of gasoline fuel.
-
To evaluate engine performance on Ethanol/Gasoline blends compared to
gasoline fuel; performance parameters being: power output, engine torque, fuel
consumption rate, specific fuel consumption and brake thermal efficiency.
6
CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW
Ethanol:
Ethanol ethyl alcohol (ETOH) made from grains or other plants, is produced by
fermenting and distilling grains such as corn, barley and wheat. Another form of ethanol,
called bio-ethanol, can be made from many types of trees and grasses, and it is an
alcohol-based alternative fuel that is blended with gasoline to produce a fuel with a
higher octane rating and fewer harmful emissions than unblended gasoline.
Chemistry:
The chemical formula for ethanol is CH₃CH₂OH. Essentially, ethanol is ethane with a
hydrogen molecule replaced by a hydroxyl radical, -OH, which is bonded to a carbon
atom.
Structure of ethanol molecule (All bonds are singles bonds)
Glucose (a simple sugar) is created in the plant by photosynthesis.
7
6 CO₂ + 6 H₂O + light → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6 O₂
During ethanol fermentation, glucose is decomposed into ethanol and carbon dioxide.
C₆H₁₂O₆ → 2 C₂H₅OH + 2 CO₂ + heat
During combustion ethanol reacts with oxygen to produce carbon dioxide, water, and
heat:
C₂H₅OH + 3 O₂ → 2 CO₂ + 3 H₂O + heat
After doubling the combustion reaction because two molecules of ethanol are produced
for each glucose molecule, and adding all three reactions together, there are equal
numbers of each type of molecule on each side of the equation, and the net reaction for
the overall production and consumption of ethanol is just:
Light → heat
The heat of the combustion of ethanol is used to drive the piston in the engine by
expanding heated gases. It can be said that sunlight is used to run the engine.
Ethanol may also be produced industrially from ethene (ethylene). Addition of water to
the double bond converts ethene to ethanol:
CH₂=CH₂ + H₂O → CH₃CH₂OH
This is done in the presence of an acid which catalyzes the reaction, but is not consumed.
The ethene is produced from petroleum by steam cracking.
2.1 Ethanol Production
8
Ethanol is a form of renewable energy that can be produced from agricultural
feedstocks. It can be made from very common crops such as, potato, wheat, barley, sugar
beet and sugar cane. Sugar crops such as sugar cane, sugar beets and sweet sorghum are
extracted to produce a sugar-containing solution that can be directly fermented by yeast.
Starch feedstock; however must be carried through and additional conversion step.
A.R. Navarro, et al. (2000) studied a concentration-incineration process of vinasse
that has been in use for several years in order to deal with pollution resulting from the
industrial production of ethanol by fermentation and distillation. However, as vinasse
concentration had a high energy demand, a bio-concentration method with no energy
consumption. Vinasses was used instead of water in the preparation of the fermentation
medium and repeatedly recycled. A final solid concentration of 24% dry matter was
produced, an amount that positively modifies the energy balance of the concentrationincineration process. A decrease of 66% in nutrients addition, 46.2% in fresh water and
50% in sulfuric acid requirement was achieved together with an improvement in the
efficiency of the fermentation. The final vinasse had a significant amount of non-volatile
by-products of commercial importance such as glycerol. A mathematical model is
proposed for the prediction of the final solids concentration in vinasse under various
working conditions. (1)
Farid Talebnia et al. (2004) investigated the performance of encapsulated
Saccharomyces cerevisiae CBS 8066 in anaerobic cultivation of glucose, in the presence
and absence of furfural as well as in dilute-acid hydrolyzates. The cultivation of
encapsulated cells in 10 sequential batches in synthetic media resulted in linear increase
9
of biomass up to 106 g/L of capsule volume, while the ethanol productivity remained
constant at 5.15 (±0.17) g/L.h (for batches 6-10). The cells had average ethanol and
glycerol yields of 0.464 and 0.056 g/g in these 10 batches. Addition of 5 g/L furfural
decreased the ethanol productivity to a value of 1.3(±0.10)g/L.h with the encapsulated
cells, but it was stable in this range for five consecutive batches. On the other hand, the
furfural decreased the ethanol yield to 0.41-0.42 g/g and increased the yield of acetic acid
drastically up to 0.068 g/g. No significant lag phase was observed in any of these
experiments. The encapsulated cells were also used to cultivate two different types of
dilute-acid hydrolyzates. While the free cells were not able to ferment, the hydrolyzates
within at least 24 hours. The encapsulated yeast successfully converted to glucose and
mannose in both of the hydrolyzates in less than 10 hours with no significant lag phase.
However, the hydrolyzates were too toxic; the encapsulated cells lost their activity
gradually in sequential batches.
Dimple K. Kundiyana et al. (2006) studied ethanol production from sweet
sorghum in the United States. Sweet sorghum has the potential to be used as a renewable
energy crop, and has become a viable candidate for ethanol production. The idea to use
sweet sorghum for commercial ethanol production is not new. But previous barriers to
commercialization of this process have been the high capital costs involved in ensilage
and fermentation at a central processing plant that may be operated only seasonally. In
order to diminish the high capital investment necessary in a central processing facility,
the proposed process involves in-field production of ethanol from sweet sorghum. The
process includes a newly designed field harvester capable of pressing and collecting the
juice, large storage bladders for fermentation, and a mobile distillation unit for ethanol
10
concentration. In order to achieve in-field ethanol fermentation in large bladders, one of
the remaining questions is whether fermentation can take place in the environment with
no process control. The focus of the current research was to evaluate the effects of yeast
type, pH adjustment, and nutrient addition on fermentation process efficiency.
Also, it was found that the engine performance improves as the percentage of ethanol
increases in the blend within the range studied.
2.1.1 Ethanol Manufacturing Process:
Ethanol can be made synthetically from petroleum or by microbial conversion of
biomass materials through fermentation. In 1995, about 93% of the ethanol in the world
was produced by the fermentation method and about 7% by the synthetic method. The
fermentation method generally uses two steps namely fermentation and distillation (see
Figure 2.1). (3)
2.1.1.1 Fermentation:
At this point the starch has been broken down to the simple sugar glucose and is
now in a form which microorganisms called yeasts can feed on. Yeasts, in metabolizing
glucose, produce ethanol and carbon dioxide. As with the enzymes, yeasts have an
optimum temperature range. The mash is transferred to the fermentation tank and cooled
to the optimum temperature (around 80 - 90°F). Care has to be taken to assure that no
infection (other organisms that compete with the yeast for the glucose) occurs.
2.1.1.2 Distillation:
11
Distillation separates the ethanol from the beer, which is mostly water and
ethanol. (In some alcohol plants, distillation takes place in one, very tall column; the
process diagrammed above uses two separate columns, a stripper column and a rectifying
column).
Ethanol boils at 172°F (at sea level), while water boils at 212°F. By heating the
beer to 172°F, the ethanol can be boiled off and the vapour captured and condensed to
produce 192-proof (96 percent) ethanol concentration producible by conventional
distillation. 200-proof (anhydrous) alcohol (which is required for blending gasohol) can
be obtained through additional dehydration steps. Lower-grade ethanol (170-190 proof)
can be used by itself in vehicles modified for alcohol use.
12
Source: Solar Energy Research Institute (SERI), 1617 Cole Boulevard, Golden, CO
80401.
Figure 2.1: Ethanol Manufacturing Process
2.2 Bio-ethanol Fuel Properties:
R. J. Dinu et al (2001) studied opportunities for matching wood chemical and
physical properties to manufacturing and product requirements via genetic modification
have long been recognized. Exploitation is now feasible due to advances in trait
measurement, breeding, genetic mapping and marker, and genetic transformation
technologies. With respect to classic selection and breeding of short-rotation poplars,
genetic parameters are favourable for decreasing lignin content and increasing specific
13
gravity, but less so for increasing cellulose content. Knowledge of functional genomics is
expanding, as is that needed for eventual application of marker-aided breeding, trait
dissection, candidate gene identification, and gene isolation. Research on gene transfer
has yielded transgenic poplars with decreased lignin and increased cellulose contents, but
otherwise normal growth and development. Until effective marker-aided breeding
technologies become available, the most promising approach for enhancing ethanol fuel
and fibre production and processing efficiencies centres on selecting and breeding
poplars for high wood substance yields and genetically transforming them for decreased
lignin and increased cellulose contents
J. Yamin (2006) investigated the effect of ethanol addition to low octane number
gasoline, in terms of calorific value, octane number, compression ratio at knocking and
engine performance. Locally produced gasoline (octane number 87) was blended with
five different percentages of ethanol, namely 5%, 10%, 15%, 20% and 25% on volume
basis. The properties of the respective fuel blends were first determined. Then they were
tested in an engine. It was found that the octane number of gasoline increases
continuously and linearly with ethanol percentages in gasoline. Hence, ethanol is an
effective compound for increasing the value of the octane number of gasoline. Also, it
was found that the engine performance improves as the percentage of ethanol increases in
the blend within the range studied.
Recently, the oxygenated and Octane enhancing benefits of ethanol have been
highlighted as a potential substitute for Methyl Tertiary Butyl Ether (MTBE). MTBE has
been shown to be highly toxic.
14
Table 2.1 Properties of Ethanol alcohol
Molecular wt.
46.07
Density
0.789 kg/L
Viscosity
1.19 mm2/s at 20C
Boiling temperature
78.4°C
Heat value
27000 (kJ/ kg)
Solve temperature
-114.3°C
citrus temperature
15H+
2.3 Fuel properties definitions:
The internal combustion engine was invented more than one hundred years ago, and
numerous improvements have been made since its invention. The development of fuels
paralleled the development of the engine. Many standards concerning the required
properties of engine fuels and tests for measuring those properties have been set. Most of
the standards were developed through the cooperative efforts of the American Society for
Testing Materials (ASTM), the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE), and the
American Petroleum Institute (API). Only the most important of the many standards will
be discussed here. Some standards apply to only one type of fuel. For instance, fuel
viscosity is relevant only to CI engine fuels. Other standards, such as heating value, apply
to all types of fuels.
15
2.3.1 Density, API & Specific gravity:
Specific gravity is a measure of the density of liquid fuels. It is the ratio of the
density of the fuel at 15.6 C to the density of water at the same temperature. The density
of water at 15.6 is 1 kg/L, so the specific gravity of a fuel is equal to its density in kg/L.
Density of liquids decreases slightly with increasing temperatures. Therefore, densities
must be measured at the standard temperature of 15.6 C or must be corrected to that
temperature.
The API (American Petroleum Institute) has devised a special scale for gravities. It is
expressed in API degrees and is calculated as follows:
API = (141.5/S.P)−131.5
Where:
SG = specific gravity of fuel at 15.6 C.
In general high API gravity implies high octane number of fuel.
2.3.2 Viscosity:
Kinematic viscosity is measure of the resistance to flow of a fluid under
gravity, it is important to note that viscosity critically depends on temperature and
numerically value of viscosity has no significance or meaning unless the temperature of
the test is specified. So in determining any viscosity of fuel the temperature during the
test must always be state. ASTM D445 is a standard test procedure for determining the
16
kinematics viscosity of liquids. It provides a measure of the time required for a volume of
liquid to flow under gravity through a calibrated glass capillary tube. The kinematics
viscosity is then equal to the product of this time and a calibration constant for the tube.
The dynamic viscosity can be obtained by multiplying the kinematics viscosity by the
density of the fluid. The viscosity must be high enough to ensure proper lubrication of the
injector pump. If viscosity is too low, the fuel will flow too easily and will not maintain a
lubricating film between moving and stationary parts in the pump. If viscosity is too high,
the injectors may not be able to atomize the fuel into small enough droplets to achieve
good vaporization and combustion. Injection line pressure and fuel delivery rates also are
affected by fuel viscosity.
2.3.3 Flash and fire point:
The flash point varies with fuel volatility but is not related to engine performance.
Rather, the flash point relates to safety precautions that must be taken when handling a
fuel. The flash point is the lowest temperature to which a fuel must be heated to produce
an ignitable vapour-air mixture above the liquid fuel when exposed to an open flame. At
temperatures below the flash point, not enough fuel evaporates to form a combustible
mixture. Insurance companies and governmental agencies classify fuels according to their
flash points and use these points in setting minimum standards for the handling and
storage of fuels. Gasoline's have flash points well below the freezing point of water and
can readily ignite in the presence of a spark or flame.
17
The fire point is the lowest temperature at which application of an ignition source
causes the vapours of a test specimen of the sample to ignite and sustain burning for a
minimum 5 sec under specific conditions of test.
2.3.4 Cloud and Pour Point:
As a liquid is cooled, a temperature at which the larger fuel molecules begin to form
crystals is reached. With continued cooling, more crystals form and agglomerate until the
entire fuel mass begins to solidify. The temperature at which crystals began to appear is
called the cloud point, and the pour point is the highest temperature at which the fuel
ceases to flow. The cloud point typically occurs between 5 and 8 C above the pour point.
Cloud and pour points become important for heavier fuels in the higher boiling ranges.
Although the pour ability of gasoline is not a problem, SAE provides guidelines for
specifying pour points of diesel fuel.
2.3.5 Octane rating:
Octane rating is a measure of the knock resistance of gasoline. Knock is avoided in
a spark-ignition engine when burning starts at the spark plug and a flame front sweeps
smoothly across the combustion chamber to consume the fuel. Knock occurs when the
end gases–the gases ahead of the flame front–ignite spontaneously and generate a rapid,
uncontrolled release of energy. The quick release causes a sharp rise in pressure and
pressure oscillations, which may lead to an audible ping or knock.
18
The octane number of a fuel is measured in a test engine, and is defined by
comparison with the mixture of iso-octane and heptane which would have the same antiknocking capacity as the fuel under test: the percentage, by volume, of iso-octane in that
mixture is the octane number of the fuel This does not mean that the petrol contains just
iso-octane and heptane in these proportions, but that it has the same detonation resistance
properties. Because some fuels are more knock-resistant than iso-octane, the definition
has been extended to allow for octane numbers higher than 100.
The octane number given automotive fuels is really an indication of the ability of the
fuel to resist premature detonation within the combustion chamber. Premature detonation,
or engine knock, comes about when the fuel/air mixture ignites spontaneously toward the
end of the compression stroke because of intense heat and pressure within the combustion
chamber. Since the spark plug is supposed to ignite the mixture at a slightly later point in
the engine cycle, pre-ignition is undesirable, and can actually damage or even ruin an
engine.
The ASTM has developed two different methods for measuring octane ratings of
gasoline. Both methods use the same CFR engine, but different operating conditions. The
motor method is more severe and results in a lower octane rating than does the research
method. The Research Octane Number (RON) is typically about eight numbers higher
than the Motor Octane Number (MON) for a given gasoline sample. Many service
stations now post an anti-knock index on their pumps. The anti-knock index is simply the
numerical average of the RON and MON.
19
2.3.6 Heat value:
The heating value of a fuel is a measure of how much energy we can get from it on
a per-unit basis, be it pounds or gallons. When comparing alcohol to gasoline, it's obvious
that ethanol contains only about 63% of the energy that gasoline does. Mainly because of
the presence of oxygen in the alcohol's structure. But since alcohol undergoes different
changes as it's vaporized and compressed in an engine, the outright heating value of the
ethanol isn't as important when it's used as a motor fuel.
The fact that there's oxygen in the alcohol's structure also means that this fuel will
naturally be leaner in comparison to gasoline fuel without making any changes to the jets
in the carburettor. This is one reason why we must enrich the air/fuel mixture (add more
fuel) when burning alcohol by increasing the size of the jets, which we'll discuss further
in another section.
The purpose of fuels is to release energy for doing work. Thus, the heating value of
fuels is an important measure of their worth. Heating values can be measured by burning
the fuel in a bomb calorimeter. The combustion creates water and energy from the fuel is
used to convert that water to vapour in the bomb. The heating value measured by the
bomb is therefore called the lower, or net, heating value of the fuel. The gross , or higher
heating value is found by adding to the net heating value the latent heat of vaporization of
the water created in combustion. When engine efficiencies are calculated, it is important
to state whether the higher or lower heating value of the fuel is used in the calculation.
Published heats of combustion are usually higher heating values and are therefore often
20
used to calculate engine efficiencies. (Goering 1989). Heat of combustion is normally
expressed in kilojoules per kilogram.
2.3.7 Fuel Volatility:
Fuels must vaporize before they can burn. Volatility refers to the ability of fuels
to vaporize. Fuels that vaporize easily at lower temperatures are more volatile than are
fuels that require higher temperatures to vaporize. Reid vapour pressure and distillation
curves are both indicators of fuel volatility. Distillation curve gives a more complete
picture of fuel volatility.
2.3.7.1 Distillation:
Is a method of separating mixtures based on differences in their volatilities in a
boiling liquid mixture. Distillation is a unit operation, or a physical separation process,
and not a reaction. Commercially, distillation has a number of applications. It is used to
separate crude oil into more fractions for specific uses such as transport, power
generation and heating. (6)
Distillation was introduced to medieval Europe through Latin translations of Arabic
chemical treatises in the 12th century. In 1500, German alchemist Hieronymus
Braunschweig published Liber de arte destillandi (The Book of the Art of Distillation) the
first book solely dedicated to the subject of distillation, followed in 1512 by a much
expanded version. In 1651, John French published The Art of Distillation the first major
English compendium of practice, though it has been claimed that much of it derives from
21
Braunschweig's work. This includes diagrams with people in them showing the industrial
rather than bench scale of the operation.
.
In general results of distillation tests are plotted as shown in Figure 2.2 the curves are
especially important for gasoline, and three points on the distillation curve are of special
interest. The points T10, T50, and T90 refer, respectively, to the temperatures on the curve
at which 10%, 50%, and 90% of the fuel has been distilled. For the easy starting of a
gasoline engine in winter conditions, the T10 temperature must be sufficiently low to
allow enough fuel to evaporate to form a combustible mixture. The T50 point is associated
with engine warm-up: a low T50 temperature will allow the engine to warm up and gain
power quickly without stalling. The T90 temperature is associated with the crankcase
dilution and fuel economy: if the T90 temperature is too high, the larger fuel molecules
will condense on the cylinder liners and pass down into the lubricating oil in the
crankcase instead of burning. Gasoline volatility is adjusted by petroleum refiners to suit
the season and location (see SAE Recommended Practice J312 [SAE, 1999a] in the
References and Suggested Readings). (6)
22
Distillation curves of gasoline
TEMPERATURE ºC
250
200
150
100
TYPICAL WINTER
GASOLINE
50
TYPICAL SUMMER
GASOLINE
0
0
50
100
150
PERCENT DISTILLED
Source: off-Road Vehicle engineering principles St.Joseph, Mich: ASAE (American
Society of Agricultural Engineering).
Figure 2.2 Distillation curves of gasoline
2.4 Engine Performance and Emissions
Suri Rajan et al. (1982) investigated miscibility characteristics of hydrated ethanol
with gasoline as a means of reducing the cost of ethanol/gasoline blends for use as a
spark ignition engine fuel. For a given percentage of water in the ethanol, the
experimental data showed that a limited volume of gasoline can be added to form a stable
mixture. Engine experiments indicate that, at normal ambient temperatures, a
water/ethanol/gasoline mixture containing up to 6 volume % of water in the ethanol
constitutes a desirable motor fuel with power characteristics similar to those of the base
gasoline. As a means of reducing the smog causing components of the exhaust gases,
such as the oxides of nitrogen and the unburnt hydrocarbons, the water/ethanol/gasoline
mixture was superior to the base gasoline. (7)
23
T. K. Bhattacharya et al. (2001) studied a constant speed; direct-injection diesel
engine rated at 7.4 kW was tested on diesel fuel and four different ethanol-1-butanoldiesel micro emulsions. The stable and homogeneous micro emulsions were obtained by
mixing 160, 170, and 180 Proof ethanol-1-butanol-diesels in 1:2.5:5.5 as well as 180.
Proof ethanol-1-butanol-diesel in 1:2:3 proportions. The characteristic fuel properties
such as relative density, kinematics viscosity and gross heat of combustion of the micro
emulsions were found to be close to that of diesel fuel. The power-producing capability
of the engine was found similar on diesel fuel and the micro emulsions. The emission of
CO was found to be marginally lower but that of unburnt hydrocarbons and NO
X
were
higher on micro emulsions. An engine durability test of 310 h was successful.
Xiao-Guang Yan et al. (2002) investigated the effect of ethanol blended gasoline
fuels on emissions and catalyst conversion efficiencies in a spark ignition engine with an
electronic fuel injection (EFI) system. The addition of ethanol to gasoline fuel enhanced
the octane number of the blended fuels and changes distillation temperature. Ethanol
could decrease engine-out regulated emissions. The fuel containing 30% ethanol by
volume could drastically reduce engine-out total hydrocarbon emissions (THC) at
operating conditions and engine-out THC, CO and NOx emissions at idle speed, but
unburned ethanol and acetaldehyde emissions increase. Pt/Rh based three-way catalysts
are effective in reducing acetaldehyde emissions, but the conversion of unburned ethanol
was low. Tailpipe emissions of THC, CO and NOx have close relation to engine-out
emissions, catalyst conversion efficiency, engine's speed and load, air/fuel equivalence
ratio. Moreover, the blended fuels could decrease brake specific energy consumption.
24
Jun Wanga et al. (2004) studied the emission characteristics from a four-stroke
motorcycle engine using 10% (v/v) ethanol–gasoline blended fuel (E10) at different
driving modes on the chassis dynamometers. The results indicated that CO and HC
emissions in the engine exhaust were lower with the operation of E10 as compared to the
use of unleaded gasoline, whereas the effect of ethanol on NOX emission was not
significant. Furthermore, species of both unburned hydrocarbons and their ramifications
were analyzed by the combination of gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS)
and gas chromatography/flame ionization detection (GC/FID). This analysis showed that
aromatic compounds (benzene, toluene, xylene isomers (o-xylene, m-xylene and pxylene), ethyltoluene isomers (o-ethyltoluene, m-ethyltoluene and p-ethyltoluene) and
trimethylbenzene isomers (1, 2, 3-trimethylbenzene, 1, 2, 4-trimethylbenzene and 1, 3, 5trimethylbenzene) and fatty group ones (ethylene, methane, acetaldehyde, ethanol,
butene, pentane and hexane) were major compounds in motorcycle engine exhaust. It was
found that the E10-fueled motorcycle engine produces more ethylene, acetaldehyde and
ethanol emissions than unleaded gasoline engine does. The no significant reduction of
aromatics was observed in the case of ethanol–gasoline blended fuel.
J.Basanavičiaus (2006) investigated experimentally and compared the engine
performance and pollutant emission of a SI engine using ethanol–gasoline blended fuel
and pure gasoline. The results showed that when ethanol is added, the heating value of
the blended fuel decreases, while the octane number of the blended fuel increases. The
results of the engine test indicated that when ethanol–gasoline blended fuel is used, the
engine power and specific fuel consumption of the engine slightly increase; CO emission
decreases dramatically as a result of the leaning effect caused by the ethanol addition; HC
25
emission decreases in some engine working conditions; and CO2 emission increases
because of the improved combustion.
2.5
Ethanol Production in Sudan
Sudan is rich of fertile land a lot of water from irrigation and wide range of
climates which leads to different crops and this is helpful to produce many thinks like
ethanol the most important crop to produce ethanol is sugar cane.
2.5.1 Sugar cane
Processing of cane sugar will be the base for production of ethanol. Kenana the
world's largest integrated cane sugar manufacturing plant will be the focus of ethanol
production. An increase in production capacity in the Sudan together with the production
capacity of the White Nile sugar factory and the existing production capacities of the
other cane sugar production factories like Assalaya, Sennar, El-Guneid and Halfa. 100
million liters would be considered a possible ethanol production capacity
Table 2.2: Existing Sugar Capacities
Project
Estimated ethanol capacity (liter)
Kenana sugar company
65,000,000
Sudanese sugar company
40,000,000
White Nile sugar company
40,000,000
Subtotal
145,000,000
26
Table 2.3: Sudan Grand Sugar Plan 2014
project
Estimated ethanol capacity (liter)
Western White Nile projects
90,000,000
Gazira Scheme projects
380,000,000
Subtotal
470,000,000
Grand total
615,000,000
2.6 Kenana Ethanol Project:
The ethanol plant of the stated capacity will required around 1.5 MWh which can
easily be supplied by the exiting KSC power house without the need for any additional
investment in power generation equipment. Eight high capacity steam boilers are
available in the factory. Kenana has a storage capacity of 55.000 MTs molasses an
ethanol plant of around 50 million litters will required a molasses storage capacity of
around 60,000 MTs Kenana’s exiting storage capacity is considered enough to enable the
plant to operate continuously during the off-crop period. The factory has adequate well
fenced and protected land characterized by suitable gravel base for laying the necessary
foundation establishing the ethanol plant.
Table 2.3: Kenana Ethanol Capacity and Product Specifications
Capacity
66 million liter ethanol annually
Product specification of Anhydrous alcohol
Alcohol degree
99.8% min by weight
Specific mass
20 c max
Appearance
clear, free of material in suspension
Row material
Molasses
27
0.795 kg /L
CHAPTER III
MATERIAL AND METHODS
Fuel properties experiments were carried out in Center Petroleum
Laboratories (CPL), Ministry of Petroleum and laboratories of Petroleum and Gas
engineering department university of Khartoum. while engine performance tests were
carried out in Power and Machinery, Agricultural Engineering department at Faculty of
Engineering, University of Khartoum.
3.1 Materials:
3.1.1 Fuel Blends Materials
-
Gasoline (benzene): Gasoline was a volatile, flammable liquid obtained
from local fuel petroleum station.
-
Ethanol: ethanol was color less alcohol having concentration of 98.3%
and extracted from sugar molasses. The ethanol sample was Kenana Sugar
Company product. (2)
-
The tested sample blends was prepared by adding ethanol alcohol up to
25% to pure gasoline to run small engine. During this quick function test
to this ratio there was no sign of water phase separation or any engine
modification.
28
3.1.2 Fuel Properties equipment:
3.1.2.1 Viscometer:
Cannon-Fenske Opaque Viscometer, glass capillary type, having model No. H50
and Calibration Factor of C = 0.004142, C = 0.003114 (see Figure 3.1).
3.1.2.2 Hydrometer:
A glass hydrometer is calibrated and read at liquid level the density or API gravity,
(see Figure 3.2).
3.1.2.3 Flash and fire point:
Pensky-Martens cup apparatus consisted of the test cup, heating plate; test flame
applicator; heater and thermometer (see Figure 3.3).
3.1.2.4 Cloud and pour point:
Test Jar, clear, cylindrical glass, flat bottom, 33.2 to 34.8-mm outside diameter and
115 and 125-mm height. The inside diameter of the jar may range from 30 to 32.4 mm
within the constraint that the wall thickness be no greater than 1.6 mm. The jar should be
marked with a line to indicate sample height 546.3 mm above the inside bottom. (see
Figure 3.4)
29
Figure 3.1: Cannon-Fenske opaque viscometer
Figure 3.2: A Hydrometer for measuring density
30
Figure 3.3: Pensky-Martens cup apparatus
Figure 3.4: Cloud Point Test Apparatus
31
3.1.2.5 Cooperative Fuels Research (CFR) Engine
The engine test was using a standardized single cylinder, four-stroke cycle,
variable compression ratio and carbureted for the determination of Octane Number. It is
manufactured as a complete unit by Waukesha Engine Division, Model CFR F-1
Research Method Octane Rating Unit. (See Figure 3.5)
3.1.2.5.1 Specifications
Test Engine: CFR F-1 Research Method Octane Rating Unit with cast iron, box
type crankcase with flywheel connected by V-belts to power absorption electrical motor
for constant speed operation.
Cylinder type: Cast iron with flat combustion surface and integral coolant jacket
Compression ratio Adjustable 4:1 to 18:1 by cranked worm shaft and worm wheel drive
assembly in cylinder clamping sleeve.
Cylinder bore (diameter), in
3.250 (standard)
Stroke, in
4.50
Displacement, in
37.33
Lubrication
Forced lubrication, motor driven pump,
plate type oil filter, relief pressure gauge
on control panel
32
Cooling
Evaporative cooling system with water
cooled condenser, Water shall be used in
the cylinder jacket for laboratory locations
where the resultant boiling temperature
shall be 100  1.5°C Water with
commercial glycol-based antifreeze added
in sufficient quantity to meet the boiling
temperature requirement shall be used
when laboratory altitude dictates
3.1.2.5.2 Mechanical accessories:
Fuel system (Carburetor)
Single vertical jet and fuel flow control to
permit adjustment of fuel-air ratio
Ignition
Electronically triggered condenser discharge
through coil to spark plug
Ignition timing
Constant 13° before TDC
Multiple fuel tank system with selector valving.
Intake air system with controlled temperature.
33
3.1.2.5.3 Instrumentation:
Critical Instrumentation:
Knock Measurement System
Detonation pickup (sensor), a detonation meter to
condition the knock signal, and a knockmeter
Detonation Pickup
Model D1 (109927) having a
pressure sensitive
diaphragm, magnetostrictive core rod, and coil.
Detonation Meter
Signal Cables
Non-Critical Instrumentation:
Temperature Measurement
Temperature Controller.
-
Cylinder Jacket Coolant Thermometer.
Engine Crankcase Lubricating Oil Temperature
Indicator.
Pressure Measurement
-
Crankcase Internal Pressure Gage
(pressure/vacuum gage).
Exhaust Back Pressure Gage.(2)
34
Figure 3.5: Cooperative Fuels Research (CFR) Engine
1.1.2.5 Bomb Calorimeter
Record calorimeter complied with PARR 1266 (ASTM D240) standards, France (See
Figure 3.6).
3.1.2.7 Distillation device
The device is measuring distillation in manual method (ASTM D 86) (See Figure 3.7)
35
Figure 3.6: Recording Bomb Calorimeter
Figure 3.7: Distillation device
36
3.1.3 Engine Test:
Generator Honda EMS 3000
Honda EMS 3000 electric generating set consisted of single cylinder gasoline
engine and a 3.0 kW (2.8 kW for 50 Hz) alternating current generator Figure (3.8)
Table 3.1: Generator Specifications:
Generator model
Honda EMS 3000
type
4- stroke
Stroke
95 mm
Bore
76 mm
Displacement
272 cc
Voltage (AC)
220 V
Frequency
50 Hz
Rated output
2.5 kVA
Max output
2.8 kVA
Phase
1
Digital Tachometer:
A digital model SYSTEMS tachometer indicated directly the engine speed in
revaluation per minute (See Figure 3.9). It had operating range (60- 100, 000) with
accuracy ±(0.05% 1 digit).
37
Variable electrical loader (damming load):
A dead load (15A- 220/110V) was used as an external load for generator. The
load was varied and adjusted by means of a turning wheel connected to the loader (See
figure 3.10)
Ammeter:
(0-15A) was connected in series generator to reads current output from generator.
(See figure 3.11)
Voltmeter:
High impedance OTC digital Voltmeter model MY-67 MASTECH, AC/DC Voltohm measurements. It was connected across the variable loader to measure voltage drop.
(See figure 3.12)
Electric Balance:
Electric balance used to measure weight for range between (0-3) kg as shown in
(See figure 3.13)
38
Figure 3.8: Honda EMS 3000
Figure 3.9: Tachometer
39
Figure 3.10: Variable electrical loader
Figure 3.11: Ammeter
40
Figure 3.12: Voltmeter
Figure 3.13 Electric Balance (3 kg capacity)
41
3.2 Methods
3.2.1 Blends preparation:
90%, 85%, 80% and 75% (vol. basis) gasoline were mixed with 10, 15, 20 and
25% Ethanol respectively; all blends visually appeared to be homogenous mixture with
no distinct phase separation.
3.2.2Fuel abbreviation
For simplicity fuel abbreviation system were presented as shown in Table 3.1
Table 3.1: Tested Fuels Samples Abbreviation
No
Fuel
Symbol
1
100%gasoline (reference fuel)
gasoline
2
90%gasoline +10% ethanol (98.3% Conc. )
E10
3
85%gasoline +15% ethanol (98.3% Conc. )
E15
4
80%gasoline +20% ethanol (98.3% Conc. )
E20
5
75%gasoline +25% ethanol (98.3% Conc. )
E25
3.2.3 Fuel properties determination:
Properties of tested fuels were determined in accordance with ASTM and DIN
procedures for petroleum products.
42
3.2.3.1 Density measurement:
The density of each tested sample was measured by hydrometer (ASTM D287); the
simplest formula for density is mathematically expressed as:
𝐃𝐞𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐲 𝐨𝐟 𝐛𝐥𝐞𝐧𝐝 @ 𝟑𝟎⁰𝐂
S.G = 𝐃𝐞𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐲 𝐨𝐟 𝐰𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐫 @ 𝟑𝟎⁰𝐂
……… (3.1)
API = (141.5/S.G) − 131.5
...……. (3.2)
Where: S.G = Specific gravity.
API = American Petroleum Institute.
3.2.3.2 Viscosity determination:
Viscometer were used for determining viscosity of the fuel (ASTM D445), the
simplest formula for Kinematic viscosity is mathematically expressed as:
V=
𝑉₁ + 𝑉₂
...……. (3.3)
2
…….. (3.3a)
V₁ = t₁*C₁
C1= 0.004142
……… (3.3b)
V₂ = t₂*C₂
C2=0.003114
43
Where: V=Viscosity mm2/sec @ 20C.
t1, t2: time in second.
3.2.3.3 Gross Heating Value measurement:
PARR 1266 and (ASTM D240) standards were use for measuring heat of
combustion. A bomb calorimeter (Record) was used for this test. The calorific value of
the sample was determined by equating the heat generated to heat transfer to calorimeter.
3.2.3.4 Measuring Octane rating:
The test procedure for determining octane rating by CFR engine was as follows:
Preparing Reference Fuel No. 1:
Prepare a fresh batch of a PRF (primary reference fuels, for knock testing,
isooctane,n-heptane, volumetrically proportioned mixtures of isooctane with n-heptane,
or blends of tetraethyl lead in isooctane that define the octane number scale.) blend that
has an O.N. estimated to be close to that of the sample fuel, then introduce Reference
Fuel No. 1 to the engine Position the fuel-selector valve to operate the engine on
Reference Fuel No. 1 and perform the step-wise adjustments required for determining the
fuel level for maximum K.I and Record the equilibrium knockmeter reading for
Reference Fuel No. 1.
44
Preparing Reference Fuel No. 2:
Select another PRF blend that can be expected to result in a knockmeter reading
that causes the readings for the two reference fuels to bracket that of the sample fuel, the
maximum permissible difference between the two reference fuels is dependent on the
O.N. of the sample fuel, Prepare a fresh batch of the second PRF blend. Introduce
Reference Fuel No. 2 to the engine, and repeat the same steps of reference fuel NO.1.
Checking Guide Table Compliance:
Check that the cylinder height, compensated for barometric pressure, used for the
rating is within the prescribed limits of the applicable guide table value of cylinder height
for the sample fuel O.N. At all O.N. levels, the digital counter reading shall be within
20 of the guide table value. The dial indicator reading shall be within
0.014 in. of the
guide table value.
Starting the engine:
The fuel sample was poured into one of the blow carburetor. The selector value
was turned to fill up the blow, after the fuel system was purged; the key switch and starter
were turned and pressed, respectively.
Fuel sample octane number:
The octane rating of the tested sample at octane rate was obtained by interpolation
from a guide curve. A guide curve for this purpose was prepared by blends of n-heptane
and isooctane the air rate values for these blends were determined. Entering these values
45
into a coordinate system, a curve showing the dependence of air rate upon octane number
was obtained.
Calculation of O.N.:
O.N.S = O.N.LRF +
K.I.LRF – K.I.S
𝐾.𝐼.𝐿𝑅𝐹−𝐾.𝐼.𝐻𝑅𝐹
(O.N.HRF – O.NLRF)
…………. (3.4)
Where:
O.N.S = octane number of the sample fuel.
O.N.LRF = octane number of the low PRF.
O.N.HRF = octane number of the high PRF.
K.I.S = knock intensity (knockmeter reading) of the sample fuel.
K.I.LRF = knock intensity of the low PRF.
K.I.HRF = knock intensity of the high PRF.
3.2.4 Performance Tests
3.2.4.1 Test procedure:
The experiments were carried out using Kenana Ethanol/Gasoline blends. Honda
EMS3000 single cylinder, spark ignition gasoline engine (Honda Co. Ltd. Japan) with
specifications as shown in Table (3.1). Experimental apparatus included four major
systems, i.e., the engine system, power measurement system, engine speed system
measurement and fuel consumption measurement.
46
Extensive testing starting with warming by pure gasoline for 15 min at no load
before tests on the selected fuels blends was conducted. This typical engine was
commonly used in agricultural operations such as lift irrigation, milling, chaff cutting,
and threshing, and is used as the prime mover in electric generators, The performance
tests of the engine on ethanol/gasoline fuel were conducted at no-load, 25%, 50%, 75%
and 100% load as per Indian Standard IS:10000 (Part VIII):1980. The engine speed was
set at constant 2200 rpm at no-load condition without modification on all fuel blends
tests. Then engine was then gradually loaded to determine the power developed at
different loads and the corresponding fuel consumption. After engine had reached steady
state, engine speed; current load and voltage drop were recorded from tachometer,
ammeter and voltmeter, respectively. Fuel consumption was measured on weight with
electric balance and stop watch.
The total time of experiment was about 2 hour for up-loading (increase the load
from 0-100%).The data were recorded every 5. After each stabilization period the load
was varied to get other sets of readings.
47
(2)
V
(1)
AC generator
1.
3.
(3)
A
AC generator
AC Ammeter (0-15A)
2.
4.
(4)Variable
load
Voltmeter (0-300V)
Variable load (15 A 220/110 V)
Figure (3.14): Layout electric circuit diagram
Figure 3.15: Engine performance Test setup
48
3.2.4.2 Power calculation:
P=
V*I
………………. (3.5)
Where power P is in watts, voltage V is in volts and current I is in amperes
3.2.4.3 Torque calculation:
Engine torque was determined by the following equation:
P= 2 π N T/60
……………………….(3.6.a)
T = 60 P/2 π N
……………………..(3.6.b)
Where N is speed in RPM and T is engine torque in N.m.
3.2.4.4 Brake Thermal Efficiency Determination
The brake thermal efficiency of the selected tested fuels was determined by the
following formula:
B.T .E 
Pin 
Pout
........................(3.7.a)
Pin
q f   f  hg
3600
................(3.7.b)
Where B.T.E = Brake thermal efficiency
P1 = Power output.
q f = Fuel consumption (L/hr)
 f = Fuel density (kg/L)
hg = Gross (Higher) heating value of fuel.
49
CHAPTER IV
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The results of fuel properties determination and engine performance are presented
and discussed below:
4.1 Fuel Properties
4.1.1 Density and API gravity
Table 4.1 shows average values of density and API gravity for blends at
temperature of 15oC. From the result in appears that the blend densities where found to
vary from 0.7400 kg/L for gasoline to 0.7571 kg/L for E25. It was 0.05 % lighter than
gasoline for E10 but 1.26 %, 1.87% and 2.25% heavier than gasoline fuel for E15, E20
and E25, respectively. Figure 4.1 shows the plot of densities and ethanol percentage in
the blends. Blends densities increase linearly as the ethanol percentage increased and is
expressed in the following formula:
Y=0.0008X+0.7373
with
R2=0.8476
(4.1)
The API gravity of blends varied between 57.510 to 55.21 degrees. The gasoline
fuel API gravity was lighter being 59.53 degrees. Figure 4.2 shows the plot of API
gravity and ethanol percentage in the blend. The blends API gravity decreased linearly as
ethanol percentage increased and is expressed in the following formula:
Y= -0.167X+59.314
with
R2=0.9604
50
(4.2)
In general the densities and API gravity are within the range that can be handled by
internal combustion engine.
Table (4.1): MEAN DENSITY AND API GRAVITY OF TESTED BLENDS:
Fuel blend
Gasoline
Density, kg/L
0.7400
API gravity degree
59.530
E10
0.7396
57.10
E15
0.7495
57.09
E20
0.7541
55.95
E25
0.7571
55.21
DENSITY
0.76
DENSITY Kg/L
0.755
0.75
0.745
DENSITY
Линейная (DENSITY)
0.74
0.735
0%
10%
20%
30%
ETHANOL%
Figure 4.1: Blends densities versus Ethanol percentage.
51
API , deg
API
60
59.5
59
58.5
58
57.5
57
56.5
56
55.5
55
54.5
API
Линейная (API)
0%
10%
20%
30%
ETHANOL%
Figure 4.2: Blends API gravity versus Ethanol percentage
4.1.2 Flash and Fire point
Table 4.2 shows values of flash and fire points for blends. From the results, it
appears that the blends flash point for E20 and E25 were 29.2 and 30 C, respectively.
The fire points were found to be 29, 29.1, 30 and 32 C for E10, E15, E20 and E25,
respectively. However, E10, E15 and gasoline started to fire without determining its flash
point. The flash point varies with fuel volatility but is not related to engine performance.
Rather, the flash point relates to safety precautions that must be taken when handling a
fuel. Blends flash and fire points according to their values above far the standards values
for the handling and storage of gasoline fuels which having flash point below the freezing
point of water.
52
Table 4.2: FLASH POINT AND FIRE POINT OF TESTED BLENDS:
Fuel blend
Gasoline
Flash Point C
_
Fire Point C
25.0
E10
_
29.0
E15
_
29.1
E20
29.2
30.0
E25
30.0
32.0
4.1.3 Heat of Combustion
Table 4.3 shows values of gross heat content for the fuels tested. The gross heat
content for blends decrease by 0.127%, 0.4%, 0.53% and 0.61% compared to gasoline
fuel (47.09 MJ/kg) for E10, E15, E20 and E25, respectively. Figure 4.3 shows the plot of
blends heat values and ethanol percentage. Blends heat value decreased linearly as the
percentage of ethanol increased and is expressed in the following formula:
Y= 0.0125X + 47.108
with
R2=0.9465
(4.3)
The decreased of heat values present in the blends were due to ethanol that having
lower heat value of 29.70 MJ/kg.
53
Table 4.3: MEANS GROSS HEAT CONTENT OF TESTED BLENDS:
Fuel blend
Gasoline
Heat value, MJ/kg
47.09
E10
47.03
E15
46.90
E20
46.84
E25
46.80
HEAT VALUE
47.15
HEAT VALUE Kj/Kg
47.1
47.05
47
46.95
HEAT VALUE
46.9
46.85
Линейная (HEAT
VALUE)
46.8
46.75
0%
10%
20%
30%
ETHANOL%
Figure 4.3: Blends heat values versus Ethanol percentage
4.1.4 Cloud Point
Table 4.4 shows values of the cloud points for the blends. From the results, it appears
that the ethanol /gasoline blends cloud point for gasoline is -22 C and above 8 C for
E10, E15, E20 and E25, respectively. The cloud point typically occurs between 5°C and
8°C above the pour point. Cloud and pour points become important for heavier fuels in
54
the higher boiling ranges. Thus, although the pour-ability of gasoline is not a problem,
but it was specified in the guideline of fuel properties standards .
Table 4.4: CLOUD POINT OF TESTED BLENDS:
Cloud point C
-22
Fuel blend
Gasoline
E10
>8
E15
>8
E20
>8
E25
>8
4.1.5 Kinematic Viscosity
The results in Table 4.5 illustrate the kinematic viscosity of blends at 30⁰ C. They
were found to be 10.4%, 15.3% , 23.3% and 30.9% more viscous than gasoline fuel
(0.4872mm2/s) for blends fuel E10% , E15% , E20% , E25% , respectively. Figure 4.4
shows the plot of blends kinematic viscosity and ethanol percentage. Blends kinematic
viscosity increased linearly as percentage of ethanol increase and is expressed in the
following formula:
Y = 0.006 X + 0.4814
with
R2=0.9868
(4.4)
Viscosity is a measure of the flow resistance of a liquid. Fuel viscosity is an
important consideration when fuels are carbureted or injected into combustion chambers
by means of fuel system. If viscosity is too low, the fuel will flow too easily and will not
maintain a lubricating film between moving and stationary parts in the carburetor or
pump. If viscosity is too high, may not be able to atomize the fuel into small enough
55
droplets to achieve good vaporization and combustion. In general the blends viscosities
were within acceptable range for spark ignition engine.
Table 4.5: KINEMATIC VISCOSITY OF TESTED BLENDS:
Kinematic Viscosity, mm2/s
0.4872
Fuel blend
Gasoline
E10
0.5383
E15
0.5619
E20
0.6007
E25
0.6380
KINEMATIC VISCOSTY mm²/s
KINEMATIC VISCOSITY
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
KINEMATIC VISCOSITY
0.3
0.2
Линейная (KINEMATIC
VISCOSITY )
0.1
0
0%
10%
20%
30%
ETHANOL %
Figure 4.4: Blends kinematic viscosity versus Ethanol percentage
56
4.1.6 Octane number
The results in Table 4.6 show the octane number They were found to be 4%,
5.4%, 8.08%, and 6.33% higher than gasoline fuel (93.2) for blends fuel for E10% ,
E15% , E20% , E25%, respectively. Figure 4.5 shows the plot of Octane Number and
ethanol percentage in the blend. Blends Octane Number increased linearly as percentage
of ethanol increased and is expressed in the following formula:
Y = 0.2927 X + 93.862
with
R2=0.9868
(4.5)
The octane rating is a measure of the knock resistance of gasoline. Yamin et al.
(2006) investigated the effect of ethanol addition to low Octane Number gasoline, in
terms of calorific value, Octane Number, compression ratio at knocking and engine
performance. They blended locally produced gasoline (Octane Number 87) with five
different percentages of ethanol, namely 5%, 10%, 15%, 20% and 25% on volume basis.
They found that the Octane Number of gasoline increases continuously and linearly with
ethanol percentages in gasoline. They reported that the ethanol was an effective
compound for increasing the value of the Octane Number of gasoline. Also, they found
that the engine performance improves as the percentage of ethanol increases in the blend
within the range studied.
Many additives have been developed to improve the performance of petroleum
fuels to increase knock resistance and raise the octane number. Fuel refiners were able to
use a wide variety of lower octane hydrocarbons in gasoline and then use TEL (tetraethyl
lead) and MTBE (methyl tertiary butyl ether) additives to boost octane ratings to
acceptable levels. More recently, the oxygenated and octane enhancing benefits of
57
ethanol have been highlighted as a potential substitute for Methyl Tertiary Butyl Ether
(MTBE), an oxygenated additive used to enhance octane and also reduce CO emissions.
However, TEL poisons the catalysts in catalytic emission control systems, and MTBE has
been shown to be highly toxic even in small quantities when it contaminates groundwater
Table 4.6: OCTANE NUMBER OF TESTED BLENDS:
Fuel blend
Gasoline
Octane number
93.2
E10
97.1
E15
98.6
E20
101.4
E25
99.5
58
OCTANE NUMBER
OCTANE NUMBER
102
101
100
99
98
97
96
95
94
93
92
OCTANE NUMBER
Линейная (OCTANE
NUMBER)
0%
10%
20%
30%
ETHANOL%
Figure 4.5: Blends Octane Number versus Ethanol percentage
4.1.7 Distillation:
The results in Figure 4.6 shows the distillation for gasoline and blends fuel E10%,
E15%, E20%, E25%. Three points were taken on the distillation curve to compare the
distillation between Gasoline and the blends. The points T10, T50, and T90 refer,
respectively, to the temperatures on the curve at which 10%, 50%, and 90% of the fuel
has been distilled. At T10 the gasoline temperature is 60oC when 10% was distilled, the
blends fuel E10%, E15%, E20% and E25% decrease by 13.3%, 12.8%, 12.1% and 12.5%
respectively form gasoline temperature. The blends decrease by 22.5%, 25.5%, 24.2%
and 22.4% respectively for T50 when gasoline temperature at 50% distilled is 950C, and
increase by 11.7%, 10.3%, 9.7% and 11.4% at T9o when gasoline temperature at 90%
distilled is 1450C.
59
Temperature°C
Distillation
200
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
GASOLINE
E10
E15
E20
E25
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
Distilled%
Figure 4.6: Distillation curves blends and gasoline
4. 2. Engine performance
Engine performance test results on Ethanol/Gasoline blends were presented on
Appendix C and D. For comparisons of engine performance, loading at no-load, 25% and
50% was consider low loads while loading at 75% and 100% was consider high loads.
4. 2.1 Power Output:
Fig 4.7 and Table C.1 (Appendix D) illustrate power output versus loads for
various Ethanol/Gasoline blends. The engine power output increase at low loads by
5.14%, and 6.67% for E10 and E20 respectively, and decrease by 4.36%,3.02% for E15
and E25, respectively comparing with gasoline while at high loads decrease by 10.39%,
13.61%, 10.15% and 16.84% for E10, E15, E20 and E25 respectively .
60
POWER (KW)
Power Vs Load
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
GASOLINE
E10
E15
E20
E25
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
120%
LOADS
Figure 4.7: Power output Vs. loads curves comparing various
Ethanol/Gasoline blends
4.2.2 Engine Torque
Fig 4.8 and Table C.2 (Appendix D) represent mean engine torque versus loads
curve comparing various Ethanol/Gasoline blends. The engine torque increased at low
loads by 3.01% and 6.8%, for E10 and E20 respectively and decreased by 3.69% and
6.29% for E15 and E25 comparing with gasoline while at high load increased by 6.6%
for E15 and decreased by 6.67%, 7.69% and 11.88% for E10, E20 and E25 respectively.
4.2.3 Fuel Consumption Rate (L/h):
Fig.4.9 and Table C.3 (Appendix D) represent mean engine fuel consumption
versus loads for various ethanol/gasoline blends. The fuel consumption rate decreased at
low loads by 10.52%, 22.05%, 17.29% and 10.16%
for E10, E15, E20 and E25
respectively, comparing with gasoline while at high loads decreased by 16.38%,
29.69%,16.3% and 8.43% for E10, E15, E20 and E25 respectively.
61
Torque Vs Load
4
Torque(N.m)
3.5
3
2.5
GASOLINE
2
E10
1.5
E15
1
E20
0.5
E25
0
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
120%
Load
Figure 4.8: torque Vs. loads curves comparing Ethanol/Gasoline blends
CONSUMPTION(L/h)
Consumption Vs Load
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
GASOLINE
E10
E15
E20
E25
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
120%
LOAD
Figure 4.9: Fuel consumption Vs. loads curves comparing Ethanol/Gasoline blends
62
4.2.4 Specific Fuel Consumption (L/KW.h):
Fig.4.10 and Table C.5 (Appendix D) represent mean engine brake specific fuel
consumption versus loads for various blends. The specific fuel consumption decreased at
low loads by 15.28%, 20.41%, 24.25% and 8.46% for E10, E15, E20 and E25,
respectively, comparing with gasoline while at high loads increased by 9.59% for E25
and decreased by 1%, 6.44%, 18.56%, and 6.96% for E10, E15 and E20 respectively.
4.2.5 Brake Thermal Efficiency
The mean brake thermal efficiency of blend is illustrated in Fig. 4.11 and Table
C.6 (Appendix D). The brake thermal efficiency increased at low loads by 14.93%,
18.53%, 21.55% and 6.54% for E10, E15, E20 and E25 respectively, compared with
gasoline, while at high load increased by 6.41%, 11.74% and 6% for E10, E15 and E20
and decreased by 10.69% for E25.
S.F.C Vs Load
3
S.F.C (L/KW.hr)
2.5
2
GASOLINE
1.5
E10
1
E15
0.5
E20
0
E25
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
120%
LOAD
Figure 4.10: Specific fuel consumption Vs. loads curves comparing ethanol-gasoline
blends
63
B.T.E Vs Load
8%
7%
B.T.E
6%
5%
GASOLINE
4%
E10
3%
E15
2%
E20
1%
E25
0%
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
120%
LOAD
Figure 4.11: Brake thermal efficiency Vs. loads curves comparing Ethanolgasoline blends
4.2.6 Speed
Fig.4.12 and Table C.4 (Appendix D) represent mean speed versus loads for
blends. Throughout the test, the engine speeds were found to be increased at low loads
by 4.24% for E10, comparing with gasoline and decreased by 2.5%,1.01% and 3.12% for
E15,E20 and E25 respectively while for at high loads decreased by 4.18%, 12.89%,
12.07%, and 5.73% for E10, E15, E20, and E25 respectively.
64
Speed Vs Load
3000
SPEED(rpm)
2500
2000
GASOLINE
1500
E10
1000
E15
500
E20
0
E25
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
120%
LOAD
Figure 4.12: speed vs. loads curves comparing gasoline with Ethanol
During engine testing, the ethanol produce by Kenana blended to gasoline up to
25% ethanol ratio without blends phase separation or engine practical operations
problems encountered. However, extra ethanol ratio engine will faced problem on
starting and operation. All the selected blends were successfully run on the constant
speed small spark ignition engine for 10 hours. The operation of the engine was found to
be satisfactory on the selected blends with no sign of engine trouble. The external visual
inspection on engine components after testing showed no coking and wears signs.
65
CHAPTER V
CONCLUSIONS
The following conclusions could be drawn from this study work:
1. Fuel properties of tested Ethanol/Gasoline blends such as density and
viscosity increased continuously and linearly with increasing percentage of
ethanol while API gravity and heat value decreased with decreasing
percentage of ethanol increase. Furthermore, cloud point, flash and fire
points were found to be higher than gasoline fuel.
2. The tested blends Octane rating based Research Octane Number (RON)
increased continuously and linearly with increasing percentage of ethanol.
3.
The tested blends developed higher power and fuel consumption rate with
increase brake thermal efficiency.
4. Ethanol fuels can be use as alternative fuel for gasoline engine up to 25%
blends without engine modification.
66
RECOMMENDATIONS
Based on the results obtained during this study work it can be suggested that:
1- Comprehensive and extensive testing on fuel properties, engine performance and
emissions of ethanol/gasoline blends on spark ignition engine should be tested for
long time.
2- Research and collaboration should be carried out in with sugar industry and GIAD
motors regarding using ethanol as alternative for spark ignition engines.
67
REFERENCES
1. A.R.Navarro, M. del C. Sepúlveda and M. C. Rubio.2000,Bio-concentration of
vinasse from the alcoholic fermentation of sugar cane molasses Paper No.
312764.
2. ASTM International, Standard Specification for Denatured Fuel Ethanol for
Blending with Gasoline for Use as Automotive Spark Ignition Engine Fuel1.
Designation: D 4806 – 01a.
3. Ethanol Production using a Soy Hydrolysate-Based Medium or a Yeast
Autolysate-Based Medium.2008, Ethanol Production
( http://www.freepatentsonline.com). 23 January, 2008
4. Jun Wang and Man-Qun Linba.2004, Influence of ethanol–gasoline blended fuel
on emission characteristics from a four-stroke motorcycle engine. bTianjin
Motorcycle Technical Center, Tianjin 300072, PR China.
5. Lynd, L.R., et al., Fuel ethanol from cellulosic biomass. Science, 1991. 251: p.
1318-1323
6. Mr.Victor MENDIS (Experimental Study on Ethanol and its Blends with
Gasoline as a Motor Fuel).
7. Suri Rajan and Fariborz F. Saniee.2001, Water—ethanol—gasoline blends as
spark ignition engine fuels. Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, IL 62901,
USA.
8. T. K. Bhattacharya, S. Chatterjee, T. N. Mishra.2001, Performance of a Constant
Speed CI Engine on Alcohol-Diesel Microemulsions.Published in Applied
Engineering in Agriculture Vol. 20(3): 253-257.
9. Tyson, K.S., Riley, C. J., and Humpreys, K.K. 1993. Fuel Cycle Evaluations of
Biomass-Ethanol and Reformulated Gasoline; Report No. NREL/TP-463-4950,
National Renewable Energy Laboratory: Golden, CO. Vol. 1.
68
APPENDIX A
69
APPENDIX A1
EXAMPLE OF CALCULATION FOR FUEL
API GRAVITY
Using equation (3.1) and equation (3.2)
For example E20 sample:
𝐃𝐞𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐲 𝐨𝐟 𝐛𝐥𝐞𝐧𝐝 @ 𝟑𝟎⁰𝐂
S.G = 𝐃𝐞𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐲 𝐨𝐟 𝐰𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐫 @ 𝟑𝟎⁰𝐂
Density of blend @ 300C = 0.7541
Density of water @ 300C = 0.999
S.G =
𝟎.𝟕𝟓𝟒𝟏
𝟎.𝟗𝟗𝟗
= 0.7548
API = (141.5/S.G) − 131.5
API = (141.5/0.7548) − 131.5 deg
Therefore, API gravity for E15 sample = 55.95
70
APPENDIX A2
EXAMPLE OF CALCULATION FOR FUEL
VISCOSITY
Using equation (3.3), (3.3a) and (3.3b)
For example E20 sample:
V1 = t1×C1
t1 = 145 sec
C1= constant = 0.004142
V1 = 145×0.004142 = 0.60059
V2 = t2×c2
t2 = 193 sec
C2 = constant= 0.003114
V2 = 193×0.003114 = 0.601002
VAV =
𝑉₁ + 𝑉₂
2
=
0.60059 + 0.601002
2
VAV = 0.6007 mm2/sec
71
APPENDEX A3
EXAMPLE OF CALCULATION FOR FUEL
OCTANE NUMBER
Using equation (3.4)
For example E15 sample:
O.N.S = O.N.LRF +
K.I.LRF – K.I.S
𝐾.𝐼.𝐿𝑅𝐹−𝐾.𝐼.𝐻𝑅𝐹
(O.N.HRF – O.NLRF)
O.N.LRF = 98
O.N.HRF = 99
K.I.LRF = 60
K.I.S = 51
K.I.HRF = 32
O.N.S = 98+ (
60 – 51
60−32
) × (99 – 98)
O.N.S = 98.6
72
APPENDIX A4
EXAMPLE OF CALCULATION FOR FUEL
BRAKE THERMAL EFFICIENCY
Using equation (3.7.a) and equation (3.7.b)
B.T .E 
Pin 
Pout
Pin
q    hg
3600
For example E20 sample (Appendix C, table C.6)
Data:
Pout  0.5375kW
q  0.7479L / hr
  0.7541kg / L
hg  46840kj / kg
Pin 
0.7479  0.7541 46840
 7.33kW
3600
B.T .E 
0.5375
 100  7.33%
7.33
Brake thermal efficiency of sample= 7.33%
73
APPENDIX B
DISTILLATION TABLES
74
Table 4.7.1: DISTLLATION OF TESTED GASOLINE SAMPLE:
Distillation
IBP
unit
c0
Result
48.0
10% recovered
c0
60.0
20% recovered
c0
65.0
30% recovered
c0
75.0
40% recovered
c0
84.0
50% recovered
c0
95.0
60% recovered
c0
106.0
70% recovered
c0
119.0
80% recovered
c0
132.0
90% recovered
c0
145.0
95% recovered
c0
159.0
Recovery
ml
98.0
Loss
ml
0.5
Residue
ml
1.5
75
Table 4.7.2: DISTLLATION OF TESTED ETHANOL 10% + GASOLINE 90%:
Distillation
IBP
unit
c0
Result
39.8
10% recovered
c0
52.6
20% recovered
c0
57.9
30% recovered
c0
62.1
40% recovered
c0
66.1
50% recovered
c0
73.6
60% recovered
c0
105.5
70% recovered
c0
123.4
80% recovered
c0
142.6
90% recovered
c0
164.3
95% recovered
c0
183.1
ml
97.7
Recovery
Loss
ml
1.3
Residue
ml
1.0
76
Table 4.7.3: DISTLLATION OF TESTED ETHANOL 15% + GASOLINE 85%:
Distillation
IBP
unit
c0
Result
39.3
10% recovered
c0
52.3
20% recovered
c0
58.1
30% recovered
c0
40% recovered
c0
50% recovered
c0
60% recovered
c0
79.5
70% recovered
c0
119.6
80% recovered
c0
140.7
90% recovered
c0
161.7
95% recovered
c0
180.3
Recovery
ml
97.7
Loss
ml
1.2
Residue
ml
1.1
62.9
66.7
70.7
77
Table 4.7.4: DISTLLATION OF TESTED ETHANOL 20% + GASOLINE 80%:
Distillation
IBP
unit
c0
Result
36.6
10% recovered
c0
52.7
20% recovered
c0
59.0
30% recovered
c0
63.8
40% recovered
c0
68.5
50% recovered
c0
72.0
60% recovered
c0
74.7
70% recovered
c0
107.1
80% recovered
c0
137.5
90% recovered
c0
160.6
95% recovered
c0
180.0
Recovery
ml
97.3
Loss
ml
1.5
Residue
ml
1.2
78
Table 4.7.5: DISTLLATION OF TESTED ETHANOL 25% + GASOLINE 75%:
Distillation
IBP
unit
c0
Result
41.0
10% recovered
c0
55.2
20% recovered
c0
62.0
30% recovered
c0
66.9
40% recovered
c0
50% recovered
c0
60% recovered
c0
70% recovered
c0
80% recovered
c0
137.5
90% recovered
c0
163.7
95% recovered
c0
184.9
Recovery
ml
96.7
Loss
ml
2.0
Residue
ml
1.3
70.6
73.5
75.7
79.0
79
APPENDIX C
GENERATOR TEST DATA
80
GENERATOR TEST DATA –100% GASOLINE
Table C.1
Loads
Speed
RPM
Time
Consum.
kg
Voltage
(V)
Current
(A)
No
Load
2842
5 min
0.0568
220
2.40
0.25
Load
2471
5 min
0.0805
210
3.25
0.5
Load
2327
5 min
0.0866
182
4.00
0.75
Load
2260
5 min
0.0975
155
5.20
Full
Load
2230
5 min
0.1000
130
6.00
GENERATOR TEST DATA –10 % ETHONOL & 90% GASOLIN
Table C.2
Loads
Speed
RPM
Time
Consum.
kg
Voltage
(V)
Current
(A)
No
Load
2765
5 min
0.0510
215
2.5
0.25
Load
2665
5 min
0.0725
210
3.5
0.5
Load
2393
5 min
0.0770
190
4.1
0.75
Load
2228
5 min
0.0800
150
5.0
Full
Load
2075
5 min
0.0855
120
5.6
81
GENERATOR TEST DATA –15 % ETHONOL & 85% GASOLINE
Table C.3
Loads
Speed
RPM
Time
Consum.
kg
Voltage
(V)
Current
(A)
No
Load
2701
5 min
0.044
200
2.4
0.25
Load
2514
5 min
0.0655
205
3.4
0.5
Load
2321
5 min
0.0680
170
4.2
0.75
Load
2143
5 min
0.0700
145
4.9
Full
Load
1770
5 min
0.0815
120
5.5
GENERATOR TEST DATA –20 % ETHONOL & 80% GASOLINE
Table C.4
Loads
Speed
RPM
Time
Consum.
kg
Voltage
(V)
Current
(A)
No
Load
2813
5 min
0.047
215
2.5
0.25
Load
2450
5 min
0.0685
200
3.8
0.5
Load
2355
5 min
0.0735
180
4.4
0.75
Load
2209
5 min
0.0810
145
5.0
Full
Load
2155
5 min
0.0875
125
5.6
82
GENERATOR TEST DATA –25% ETHONOL & 75% GASOLINE
Table C.5
Loads
Speed
RPM
Time
Consum.
kg
Voltage
(V)
Current
(A)
No
Load
2660
5 min
0.0550
215
2.5
0.25
Load
2493
5 min
0.0700
205
3.2
0.5
Load
2377
5 min
0.0795
185
3.8
0.75
Load
2178
5 min
0.0885
145
4.9
Full
Load
2055
5 min
0.0970
115
5.3
83
APPENDIX D
CALCULATED OF ENGINE PERFORMANCE
84
Table (C.1) CALCULATED POWER OUTPUT OF GASOLINE FUEL AND
ETHANOL (KW)
Gasoline
100 %
Blend .1
Ethanol 10%
Blend .2
Ethanol 15 %
Blend .3
Ethanol 20 %
Blend .4
Ethanol 25 %
No
Load
0.528
0.5375
0.48
0.5375
0.5375
0.25
Load
0.6825
0.735
0.697
0.760
0.656
0.5
Load
0.728
0.779
0.714
0.792
0.703
0.75
Load
0.806
0.750
0.7105
0.725
0.7105
0.78
0.672
0.66
0.7
0.6095
Loads
Full
Load
Table (C.2) CALCULATED ENGINE TORQUE OF GASOLINE FUEL AND
ETHANOL (N.m)
Loads
Gasoline
100%
Blend .1
Blend .2
Blend .3
Ethanol10% Ethanol15% Ethanol20%
Blend .4
Ethanol 25 %
No
Load
1.77
1.86
1.61
1.82
1.93
0.25
Load
2.64
2.63
2.65
2.96
2.51
0.5
Load
2.99
3.11
2.94
3.21
2.82
0.75
Load
3.41
3.21
3.17
3.13
3.12
3.34
3.09
3.56
3.10
2.83
Full
Load
85
Table (C.3) CALCULATED FUEL CONSUMPTION OF GASOLINE FUEL AND
ETHANOL (L/h)
Gasoline
100%
Blend .1
Ethanol10%
Blend .2
Ethanol15%
Blend .3
Ethanol20%
Blend .4
Ethanol25
%
No
Load
0.916
0.827
0.7045
0.7479
0.871
0.25
Load
1.31
1.168
1.048
1.09
1.109
0.5
Load
1.404
1.249
1.08
1.169
1.26
0.75
Load
1.581
1.297
1.12
1.288
1.402
Full
Load
1.62
1.38
1.13
1.392
1.53
Loads
Table (C.4) SPEED OF GASOLINE FUEL AND ETHANOL (rpm)
Loads
Gasoline
100%
Blend .1
Ethanol 10%
Blend .2
Ethanol 15 %
Blend .3
Ethanol 20 %
Blend .4
Ethanol25%
No
Load
2842
2765
2701
2813
2660
0.25
Load
2471
2665
2514
2450
2493
2327
2393
2321
2355
2377
2260
2228
2143
2209
2178
2230
2075
1770
2155
2055
0.5
Load
0.75
Load
Full
Load
86
Table (C.5) CALCULATED SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION OF GASOLINE
FUEL AND ETHANOL (L/KW.hr)
Gasoline
100%
Blend .1
Ethanol10%
Blend .2
Ethanol15%
Blend .3
Ethanol20%
Blend .4
Ethanol25
%
No
Load
1.73
1.538
1.467
1.391
1.62
0.25
Load
1.92
1.557
1.45
1.391
1.69
0.5
Load
1.928
1.603
1.512
1.434
1.792
0.75
Load
1.96
1.729
1.576
1.776
1.998
Full
Load
2.076
2.053
1.712
1.988
2.51
Loads
Table (C.6) CALCULATED BRAKE THERMAL EFFICIENCY OF GASOLINE
FUEL AND ETHANOL (L/KW.hr)
Gasoline
100%
Blend .1
Ethanol10%
Blend .2
Ethanol15%
Blend .3
Ethanol20%
Blend .4
Ethanol25
%
No
Load
6
6.72
6.98
7.33
6.26
0.25
Load
5.40
6.51
6.80
7.11
6.00
0.5
Load
5.35
6.45
6.77
6.90
5.66
0.75
Load
5.26
5.98
6.50
5.75
5.14
Full
Load
4.97
5.01
5.20
5.15
4.02
Loads
87
Abstract
Fuel properties of Ethanol/Gasoline blends were studied and compared with pure
gasoline fuel. Those blends were named E10, E15, E20, and E25. The performance of a
constant speed, single cylinder spark ignition engine with these blends was tested.
Fuel properties test results showed that blends densities and kinematics viscosity
were found to increase continuously and linearly with increasing percentage of ethanol
while API gravity and heat value decreased with decreasing percentage of ethanol
increase. Furthermore, cloud point, flash and fire points were found to be higher than
gasoline fuel. The tested blends Octane rating based Research Octane Number (RON)
increased continuously and linearly with increasing percentage of ethanol.
The power output and torque producing for blends increased in E10 and E20, and
decrease in E15 and E25 at low loads. The fuel consumption rate and specific fuel
consumption decreased for blends. Break thermal efficiency for blends was a slight
variation compared to gasoline fuel. The performance with tested blends showed diverse
results due to difference in fuel properties.
1
‫المـــــل ّخص‬
‫ُ‬
‫حَج دراست خصائض خييط اإليثاّىه ٍع اىبْسيِ ‪ ،‬وٍقارّخها ٍع وقىد اىبْسيِ اىصافي‪.‬‬
‫وحَج حسَيج اىخيطاث ‪ E10‬و‪ E15‬و ‪ E20‬و ‪ . E25‬وقذ حَج حجربت أداء اىَاميْت‬
‫بسرعت ثابخت في ٍحرك رو اسطىاّت واحذة يعَو با إلشخعاه اىذاخيي‪.‬‬
‫وقذ أظهرث ّخائج اخخباراث خصائض اىىقىد أُ مثافاث اىخيطاث واههزوجت اىنيَْاحينيت‬
‫حسداد بصىرة ٍسخَرة وبشنو خطي ٍع زيادة ّسبت اإليثاّىه ‪ ،‬بيَْا اّخفضج اىقيَت‬
‫اىحراريت و اىثقو ‪ٍ API‬ع اّخفاض ّسبت اإليثاّىه ‪ .‬عالوة عيى رىل وجذ أُ‬
‫اىـغيَت وّقطت اىىٍيط و اإلشخعاه‬
‫ّقطت‬
‫ماّج أعيى ٍِ وقىد اىبْسيِ‪ٍ .‬عذالث األومخيِ‬
‫اىَخخبرة اىَبْيت عيى أساش رقٌ بحث األومخيِ )‪ (RON‬في اىخيطاث ازدادث بصىرة‬
‫ٍسخَرة وخطيت ٍع زيادة ّسبت اإليثاّىه‪.‬‬
‫اىقذرة اىْاحجت واىعسً باىْسبت‬
‫ىيخيطاث ازدادث في اىَسيج‬
‫‪ E10‬واىَسيج ‪E20‬‬
‫واّخفضج في اىَسيج ‪ E15‬واىَسيج ‪ E25‬عْذ اىخحَيو اىَْخفط ‪ٍ .‬عذه اسخهالك‬
‫اىىقىد واسخهالك اىىقىد اه ّىعي اّخفط في جَيع اىخيطاث اىَخخبرة ‪ .‬األداء هىَسيج‬
‫اىَخخبر أظهر ّخائج ٍخخيفت ّسبت إلخخالف خصائض اىىقىد ‪ .‬ىقذ أظهر أداء اىَاميْت عْذ‬
‫إسخخذاً عيْاث اىىقىد اىَخخبرة ّخائج ٍخبايْت ّسبت ىإلخخالف في خىاص اىىقىد‪.‬‬
‫‪2‬‬
CHAPTER I
INTRODUCTION
1.1 Background
A steady growth in world population has taken place in tandem with everincreasing per capita energy consumption. Moreover, population has grown
geometrically in the last 1,000 years, placing additional pressure on energy resources. To
satisfy the ever-increasing demand, humanity has made use of different energy sources,
and the relative importance of these resources has differed between industrialized and
developing countries.
Petroleum formed a quantum leap in the field of energy and became a vital
source; but the studies of 18,000 petroleum fields around the world revealed that
petroleum will begin to recede within the next five years due to the limited quantities of
petroleum in the world and the increasing rates of consumption. The production of
petroleum began to recede since 2005, while the demand increases by 2% annually.
Obviously this indicates that there is shortage which will reach up to 40% by the year
2020, thus leading to increase in petroleum prices. With the harmful effects of petroleum
on the environment in mind, scientists and researchers resorted to finding new forms and
sources of energy to resolve the problem of petroleum being the traditional fuel. So
3
people will search for alternative energy source, for example: solar energy, wind energy,
hydroelectric energy and bio-fuel.
Bio-fuels are a wide range of fuels which are in some way derived from biomass.
The term covers solid biomass, liquid fuels and various biogases. Bio-fuels are gaining
increased public and scientific attention, driven by factors such as petroleum price spikes
and the need for increased energy security. Bio-fuel is a fuel made from ethanol alcohol
that used as a total or partial replacement for gasoline runs in spark ignition engine. It can
be produced in large commercial quantities by fermenting the sugar or starch portion of
raw material and thus the crops used for ethanol production vary by region- such as sugar
cane, maize, grains, sugar beet, etc, it release CO2 when burned in internal combustion
engines, they differ from fossil fuels partly because their use reduces the net emission of
carbon dioxide and other gases associated with global climate change and partly because
they are biodegradable. The main benefits identified in connection with CO2 emission is
usually explained by the theory of carbon recycling. When plants develop, they capture
carbon dioxide from the atmosphere in order to facilitate photosynthesis necessary for
their growth. Carbon dioxide and water in presence of light captured by chlorophylls
produce oxygen and sugar glucose. Glucose converted to cellulose builds plant tissue or
is stored as starch. Starch crops and the resulting cellulosic biomass provide feedstock for
bio-fuel production. Whilst green plants operate as carbon sinks absorbing atmospheric
carbon dioxide, the net CO2 output of bio-fuel is theoretically zero. Accordingly the
released returns to carbon cycle, meaning that bio-fuel may also be considered carbon
neutral. So it is an environmentally friendly alternative to petroleum. Although it is easy
4
to manufacture and process, it is expensive to do research and used by human, but it will
not be expensive anymore when the petroleum price is high enough.
Utilization of renewable sources of energy available in Sudan is now a major
issue in the future energy strategic planning for the alternative to the fossil conventional
energy to provide part of the local energy demand. Sudan's renewable portfolio is broad
and diverse, due in part to the country's wide range of climates. It has a long history in
renewable energy utilization like many of the African leaders. Sudan has a very unique
geographical location and an area of about one million square miles. Bordering nine
African countries, and also distinguished by its fertile land, heavy rains and the
availability of water resources River Nile, Blue Nile, White Nile, Bahr Al- Arab and
underground water, over and above the Sudan enjoys the third largest industrial basis in
Africa after South Africa and Egypt. Although the utilize capacities are low ranged
between 20-25 %.
Sugar industry in Sudan will be the base for production of ethanol from sugar
plenty molasses. Kenana the world's largest integrated cane sugar manufacturing plant
will be the focus of ethanol production. Hundred million liters would be considered a
possible ethanol production capacity due to an increase in production capacity in the
Sudan together with the production capacity of the White Nile sugar factory and the
existing production capacities of the other cane sugar production factories such as
Assalaya, Sennar, El-Guneid and Halfa. To date the arrangements to introduce ethanol in
Sudan as fuel for cars, generators and motorcycles engines is limited. Consequently, the
5
use of the ethanol as fuel at present should be advocated strongly for research and
development as well as a quick and subsidized market introduction (i.e. tax credit
exception).
1.2 Statement of Objective:
The purpose of this study is to determine fuel properties and engine performance of
Ethanol /Gasoline blends for spark ignition engine. Specific objectives were:
-
To determine properties of blends such as density, API gravity, viscosity, cloud
point, flash and fire point, heat value and compare them with those of gasoline
fuel.
-
To determine Octane rating based on Research Octane Number (RON) for blends
and compares them with those of gasoline fuel.
-
To evaluate engine performance on Ethanol/Gasoline blends compared to
gasoline fuel; performance parameters being: power output, engine torque, fuel
consumption rate, specific fuel consumption and brake thermal efficiency.
6
CHAPTER II
LITERATURE REVIEW
Ethanol:
Ethanol ethyl alcohol (ETOH) made from grains or other plants, is produced by
fermenting and distilling grains such as corn, barley and wheat. Another form of ethanol,
called bio-ethanol, can be made from many types of trees and grasses, and it is an
alcohol-based alternative fuel that is blended with gasoline to produce a fuel with a
higher octane rating and fewer harmful emissions than unblended gasoline.
Chemistry:
The chemical formula for ethanol is CH₃CH₂OH. Essentially, ethanol is ethane with a
hydrogen molecule replaced by a hydroxyl radical, -OH, which is bonded to a carbon
atom.
Structure of ethanol molecule (All bonds are singles bonds)
Glucose (a simple sugar) is created in the plant by photosynthesis.
7
6 CO₂ + 6 H₂O + light → C₆H₁₂O₆ + 6 O₂
During ethanol fermentation, glucose is decomposed into ethanol and carbon dioxide.
C₆H₁₂O₆ → 2 C₂H₅OH + 2 CO₂ + heat
During combustion ethanol reacts with oxygen to produce carbon dioxide, water, and
heat:
C₂H₅OH + 3 O₂ → 2 CO₂ + 3 H₂O + heat
After doubling the combustion reaction because two molecules of ethanol are produced
for each glucose molecule, and adding all three reactions together, there are equal
numbers of each type of molecule on each side of the equation, and the net reaction for
the overall production and consumption of ethanol is just:
Light → heat
The heat of the combustion of ethanol is used to drive the piston in the engine by
expanding heated gases. It can be said that sunlight is used to run the engine.
Ethanol may also be produced industrially from ethene (ethylene). Addition of water to
the double bond converts ethene to ethanol:
CH₂=CH₂ + H₂O → CH₃CH₂OH
This is done in the presence of an acid which catalyzes the reaction, but is not consumed.
The ethene is produced from petroleum by steam cracking.
2.1 Ethanol Production
8
Ethanol is a form of renewable energy that can be produced from agricultural
feedstocks. It can be made from very common crops such as, potato, wheat, barley, sugar
beet and sugar cane. Sugar crops such as sugar cane, sugar beets and sweet sorghum are
extracted to produce a sugar-containing solution that can be directly fermented by yeast.
Starch feedstock; however must be carried through and additional conversion step.
A.R. Navarro, et al. (2000) studied a concentration-incineration process of vinasse
that has been in use for several years in order to deal with pollution resulting from the
industrial production of ethanol by fermentation and distillation. However, as vinasse
concentration had a high energy demand, a bio-concentration method with no energy
consumption. Vinasses was used instead of water in the preparation of the fermentation
medium and repeatedly recycled. A final solid concentration of 24% dry matter was
produced, an amount that positively modifies the energy balance of the concentrationincineration process. A decrease of 66% in nutrients addition, 46.2% in fresh water and
50% in sulfuric acid requirement was achieved together with an improvement in the
efficiency of the fermentation. The final vinasse had a significant amount of non-volatile
by-products of commercial importance such as glycerol. A mathematical model is
proposed for the prediction of the final solids concentration in vinasse under various
working conditions. (1)
Farid Talebnia et al. (2004) investigated the performance of encapsulated
Saccharomyces cerevisiae CBS 8066 in anaerobic cultivation of glucose, in the presence
and absence of furfural as well as in dilute-acid hydrolyzates. The cultivation of
encapsulated cells in 10 sequential batches in synthetic media resulted in linear increase
9
of biomass up to 106 g/L of capsule volume, while the ethanol productivity remained
constant at 5.15 (±0.17) g/L.h (for batches 6-10). The cells had average ethanol and
glycerol yields of 0.464 and 0.056 g/g in these 10 batches. Addition of 5 g/L furfural
decreased the ethanol productivity to a value of 1.3(±0.10)g/L.h with the encapsulated
cells, but it was stable in this range for five consecutive batches. On the other hand, the
furfural decreased the ethanol yield to 0.41-0.42 g/g and increased the yield of acetic acid
drastically up to 0.068 g/g. No significant lag phase was observed in any of these
experiments. The encapsulated cells were also used to cultivate two different types of
dilute-acid hydrolyzates. While the free cells were not able to ferment, the hydrolyzates
within at least 24 hours. The encapsulated yeast successfully converted to glucose and
mannose in both of the hydrolyzates in less than 10 hours with no significant lag phase.
However, the hydrolyzates were too toxic; the encapsulated cells lost their activity
gradually in sequential batches.
Dimple K. Kundiyana et al. (2006) studied ethanol production from sweet
sorghum in the United States. Sweet sorghum has the potential to be used as a renewable
energy crop, and has become a viable candidate for ethanol production. The idea to use
sweet sorghum for commercial ethanol production is not new. But previous barriers to
commercialization of this process have been the high capital costs involved in ensilage
and fermentation at a central processing plant that may be operated only seasonally. In
order to diminish the high capital investment necessary in a central processing facility,
the proposed process involves in-field production of ethanol from sweet sorghum. The
process includes a newly designed field harvester capable of pressing and collecting the
juice, large storage bladders for fermentation, and a mobile distillation unit for ethanol
10
concentration. In order to achieve in-field ethanol fermentation in large bladders, one of
the remaining questions is whether fermentation can take place in the environment with
no process control. The focus of the current research was to evaluate the effects of yeast
type, pH adjustment, and nutrient addition on fermentation process efficiency.
Also, it was found that the engine performance improves as the percentage of ethanol
increases in the blend within the range studied.
2.1.1 Ethanol Manufacturing Process:
Ethanol can be made synthetically from petroleum or by microbial conversion of
biomass materials through fermentation. In 1995, about 93% of the ethanol in the world
was produced by the fermentation method and about 7% by the synthetic method. The
fermentation method generally uses two steps namely fermentation and distillation (see
Figure 2.1). (3)
2.1.1.1 Fermentation:
At this point the starch has been broken down to the simple sugar glucose and is
now in a form which microorganisms called yeasts can feed on. Yeasts, in metabolizing
glucose, produce ethanol and carbon dioxide. As with the enzymes, yeasts have an
optimum temperature range. The mash is transferred to the fermentation tank and cooled
to the optimum temperature (around 80 - 90°F). Care has to be taken to assure that no
infection (other organisms that compete with the yeast for the glucose) occurs.
2.1.1.2 Distillation:
11
Distillation separates the ethanol from the beer, which is mostly water and
ethanol. (In some alcohol plants, distillation takes place in one, very tall column; the
process diagrammed above uses two separate columns, a stripper column and a rectifying
column).
Ethanol boils at 172°F (at sea level), while water boils at 212°F. By heating the
beer to 172°F, the ethanol can be boiled off and the vapour captured and condensed to
produce 192-proof (96 percent) ethanol concentration producible by conventional
distillation. 200-proof (anhydrous) alcohol (which is required for blending gasohol) can
be obtained through additional dehydration steps. Lower-grade ethanol (170-190 proof)
can be used by itself in vehicles modified for alcohol use.
12
Source: Solar Energy Research Institute (SERI), 1617 Cole Boulevard, Golden, CO
80401.
Figure 2.1: Ethanol Manufacturing Process
2.2 Bio-ethanol Fuel Properties:
R. J. Dinu et al (2001) studied opportunities for matching wood chemical and
physical properties to manufacturing and product requirements via genetic modification
have long been recognized. Exploitation is now feasible due to advances in trait
measurement, breeding, genetic mapping and marker, and genetic transformation
technologies. With respect to classic selection and breeding of short-rotation poplars,
genetic parameters are favourable for decreasing lignin content and increasing specific
13
gravity, but less so for increasing cellulose content. Knowledge of functional genomics is
expanding, as is that needed for eventual application of marker-aided breeding, trait
dissection, candidate gene identification, and gene isolation. Research on gene transfer
has yielded transgenic poplars with decreased lignin and increased cellulose contents, but
otherwise normal growth and development. Until effective marker-aided breeding
technologies become available, the most promising approach for enhancing ethanol fuel
and fibre production and processing efficiencies centres on selecting and breeding
poplars for high wood substance yields and genetically transforming them for decreased
lignin and increased cellulose contents
J. Yamin (2006) investigated the effect of ethanol addition to low octane number
gasoline, in terms of calorific value, octane number, compression ratio at knocking and
engine performance. Locally produced gasoline (octane number 87) was blended with
five different percentages of ethanol, namely 5%, 10%, 15%, 20% and 25% on volume
basis. The properties of the respective fuel blends were first determined. Then they were
tested in an engine. It was found that the octane number of gasoline increases
continuously and linearly with ethanol percentages in gasoline. Hence, ethanol is an
effective compound for increasing the value of the octane number of gasoline. Also, it
was found that the engine performance improves as the percentage of ethanol increases in
the blend within the range studied.
Recently, the oxygenated and Octane enhancing benefits of ethanol have been
highlighted as a potential substitute for Methyl Tertiary Butyl Ether (MTBE). MTBE has
been shown to be highly toxic.
14
Table 2.1 Properties of Ethanol alcohol
Molecular wt.
46.07
Density
0.789 kg/L
Viscosity
1.19 mm2/s at 20C
Boiling temperature
78.4°C
Heat value
27000 (kJ/ kg)
Solve temperature
-114.3°C
citrus temperature
15H+
2.3 Fuel properties definitions:
The internal combustion engine was invented more than one hundred years ago, and
numerous improvements have been made since its invention. The development of fuels
paralleled the development of the engine. Many standards concerning the required
properties of engine fuels and tests for measuring those properties have been set. Most of
the standards were developed through the cooperative efforts of the American Society for
Testing Materials (ASTM), the Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE), and the
American Petroleum Institute (API). Only the most important of the many standards will
be discussed here. Some standards apply to only one type of fuel. For instance, fuel
viscosity is relevant only to CI engine fuels. Other standards, such as heating value, apply
to all types of fuels.
15
2.3.1 Density, API & Specific gravity:
Specific gravity is a measure of the density of liquid fuels. It is the ratio of the
density of the fuel at 15.6 C to the density of water at the same temperature. The density
of water at 15.6 is 1 kg/L, so the specific gravity of a fuel is equal to its density in kg/L.
Density of liquids decreases slightly with increasing temperatures. Therefore, densities
must be measured at the standard temperature of 15.6 C or must be corrected to that
temperature.
The API (American Petroleum Institute) has devised a special scale for gravities. It is
expressed in API degrees and is calculated as follows:
API = (141.5/S.P)−131.5
Where:
SG = specific gravity of fuel at 15.6 C.
In general high API gravity implies high octane number of fuel.
2.3.2 Viscosity:
Kinematic viscosity is measure of the resistance to flow of a fluid under
gravity, it is important to note that viscosity critically depends on temperature and
numerically value of viscosity has no significance or meaning unless the temperature of
the test is specified. So in determining any viscosity of fuel the temperature during the
test must always be state. ASTM D445 is a standard test procedure for determining the
16
kinematics viscosity of liquids. It provides a measure of the time required for a volume of
liquid to flow under gravity through a calibrated glass capillary tube. The kinematics
viscosity is then equal to the product of this time and a calibration constant for the tube.
The dynamic viscosity can be obtained by multiplying the kinematics viscosity by the
density of the fluid. The viscosity must be high enough to ensure proper lubrication of the
injector pump. If viscosity is too low, the fuel will flow too easily and will not maintain a
lubricating film between moving and stationary parts in the pump. If viscosity is too high,
the injectors may not be able to atomize the fuel into small enough droplets to achieve
good vaporization and combustion. Injection line pressure and fuel delivery rates also are
affected by fuel viscosity.
2.3.3 Flash and fire point:
The flash point varies with fuel volatility but is not related to engine performance.
Rather, the flash point relates to safety precautions that must be taken when handling a
fuel. The flash point is the lowest temperature to which a fuel must be heated to produce
an ignitable vapour-air mixture above the liquid fuel when exposed to an open flame. At
temperatures below the flash point, not enough fuel evaporates to form a combustible
mixture. Insurance companies and governmental agencies classify fuels according to their
flash points and use these points in setting minimum standards for the handling and
storage of fuels. Gasoline's have flash points well below the freezing point of water and
can readily ignite in the presence of a spark or flame.
17
The fire point is the lowest temperature at which application of an ignition source
causes the vapours of a test specimen of the sample to ignite and sustain burning for a
minimum 5 sec under specific conditions of test.
2.3.4 Cloud and Pour Point:
As a liquid is cooled, a temperature at which the larger fuel molecules begin to form
crystals is reached. With continued cooling, more crystals form and agglomerate until the
entire fuel mass begins to solidify. The temperature at which crystals began to appear is
called the cloud point, and the pour point is the highest temperature at which the fuel
ceases to flow. The cloud point typically occurs between 5 and 8 C above the pour point.
Cloud and pour points become important for heavier fuels in the higher boiling ranges.
Although the pour ability of gasoline is not a problem, SAE provides guidelines for
specifying pour points of diesel fuel.
2.3.5 Octane rating:
Octane rating is a measure of the knock resistance of gasoline. Knock is avoided in
a spark-ignition engine when burning starts at the spark plug and a flame front sweeps
smoothly across the combustion chamber to consume the fuel. Knock occurs when the
end gases–the gases ahead of the flame front–ignite spontaneously and generate a rapid,
uncontrolled release of energy. The quick release causes a sharp rise in pressure and
pressure oscillations, which may lead to an audible ping or knock.
18
The octane number of a fuel is measured in a test engine, and is defined by
comparison with the mixture of iso-octane and heptane which would have the same antiknocking capacity as the fuel under test: the percentage, by volume, of iso-octane in that
mixture is the octane number of the fuel This does not mean that the petrol contains just
iso-octane and heptane in these proportions, but that it has the same detonation resistance
properties. Because some fuels are more knock-resistant than iso-octane, the definition
has been extended to allow for octane numbers higher than 100.
The octane number given automotive fuels is really an indication of the ability of the
fuel to resist premature detonation within the combustion chamber. Premature detonation,
or engine knock, comes about when the fuel/air mixture ignites spontaneously toward the
end of the compression stroke because of intense heat and pressure within the combustion
chamber. Since the spark plug is supposed to ignite the mixture at a slightly later point in
the engine cycle, pre-ignition is undesirable, and can actually damage or even ruin an
engine.
The ASTM has developed two different methods for measuring octane ratings of
gasoline. Both methods use the same CFR engine, but different operating conditions. The
motor method is more severe and results in a lower octane rating than does the research
method. The Research Octane Number (RON) is typically about eight numbers higher
than the Motor Octane Number (MON) for a given gasoline sample. Many service
stations now post an anti-knock index on their pumps. The anti-knock index is simply the
numerical average of the RON and MON.
19
2.3.6 Heat value:
The heating value of a fuel is a measure of how much energy we can get from it on
a per-unit basis, be it pounds or gallons. When comparing alcohol to gasoline, it's obvious
that ethanol contains only about 63% of the energy that gasoline does. Mainly because of
the presence of oxygen in the alcohol's structure. But since alcohol undergoes different
changes as it's vaporized and compressed in an engine, the outright heating value of the
ethanol isn't as important when it's used as a motor fuel.
The fact that there's oxygen in the alcohol's structure also means that this fuel will
naturally be leaner in comparison to gasoline fuel without making any changes to the jets
in the carburettor. This is one reason why we must enrich the air/fuel mixture (add more
fuel) when burning alcohol by increasing the size of the jets, which we'll discuss further
in another section.
The purpose of fuels is to release energy for doing work. Thus, the heating value of
fuels is an important measure of their worth. Heating values can be measured by burning
the fuel in a bomb calorimeter. The combustion creates water and energy from the fuel is
used to convert that water to vapour in the bomb. The heating value measured by the
bomb is therefore called the lower, or net, heating value of the fuel. The gross , or higher
heating value is found by adding to the net heating value the latent heat of vaporization of
the water created in combustion. When engine efficiencies are calculated, it is important
to state whether the higher or lower heating value of the fuel is used in the calculation.
Published heats of combustion are usually higher heating values and are therefore often
20
used to calculate engine efficiencies. (Goering 1989). Heat of combustion is normally
expressed in kilojoules per kilogram.
2.3.7 Fuel Volatility:
Fuels must vaporize before they can burn. Volatility refers to the ability of fuels
to vaporize. Fuels that vaporize easily at lower temperatures are more volatile than are
fuels that require higher temperatures to vaporize. Reid vapour pressure and distillation
curves are both indicators of fuel volatility. Distillation curve gives a more complete
picture of fuel volatility.
2.3.7.1 Distillation:
Is a method of separating mixtures based on differences in their volatilities in a
boiling liquid mixture. Distillation is a unit operation, or a physical separation process,
and not a reaction. Commercially, distillation has a number of applications. It is used to
separate crude oil into more fractions for specific uses such as transport, power
generation and heating. (6)
Distillation was introduced to medieval Europe through Latin translations of Arabic
chemical treatises in the 12th century. In 1500, German alchemist Hieronymus
Braunschweig published Liber de arte destillandi (The Book of the Art of Distillation) the
first book solely dedicated to the subject of distillation, followed in 1512 by a much
expanded version. In 1651, John French published The Art of Distillation the first major
English compendium of practice, though it has been claimed that much of it derives from
21
Braunschweig's work. This includes diagrams with people in them showing the industrial
rather than bench scale of the operation.
.
In general results of distillation tests are plotted as shown in Figure 2.2 the curves are
especially important for gasoline, and three points on the distillation curve are of special
interest. The points T10, T50, and T90 refer, respectively, to the temperatures on the curve
at which 10%, 50%, and 90% of the fuel has been distilled. For the easy starting of a
gasoline engine in winter conditions, the T10 temperature must be sufficiently low to
allow enough fuel to evaporate to form a combustible mixture. The T50 point is associated
with engine warm-up: a low T50 temperature will allow the engine to warm up and gain
power quickly without stalling. The T90 temperature is associated with the crankcase
dilution and fuel economy: if the T90 temperature is too high, the larger fuel molecules
will condense on the cylinder liners and pass down into the lubricating oil in the
crankcase instead of burning. Gasoline volatility is adjusted by petroleum refiners to suit
the season and location (see SAE Recommended Practice J312 [SAE, 1999a] in the
References and Suggested Readings). (6)
22
Distillation curves of gasoline
TEMPERATURE ºC
250
200
150
100
TYPICAL WINTER
GASOLINE
50
TYPICAL SUMMER
GASOLINE
0
0
50
100
150
PERCENT DISTILLED
Source: off-Road Vehicle engineering principles St.Joseph, Mich: ASAE (American
Society of Agricultural Engineering).
Figure 2.2 Distillation curves of gasoline
2.4 Engine Performance and Emissions
Suri Rajan et al. (1982) investigated miscibility characteristics of hydrated ethanol
with gasoline as a means of reducing the cost of ethanol/gasoline blends for use as a
spark ignition engine fuel. For a given percentage of water in the ethanol, the
experimental data showed that a limited volume of gasoline can be added to form a stable
mixture. Engine experiments indicate that, at normal ambient temperatures, a
water/ethanol/gasoline mixture containing up to 6 volume % of water in the ethanol
constitutes a desirable motor fuel with power characteristics similar to those of the base
gasoline. As a means of reducing the smog causing components of the exhaust gases,
such as the oxides of nitrogen and the unburnt hydrocarbons, the water/ethanol/gasoline
mixture was superior to the base gasoline. (7)
23
T. K. Bhattacharya et al. (2001) studied a constant speed; direct-injection diesel
engine rated at 7.4 kW was tested on diesel fuel and four different ethanol-1-butanoldiesel micro emulsions. The stable and homogeneous micro emulsions were obtained by
mixing 160, 170, and 180 Proof ethanol-1-butanol-diesels in 1:2.5:5.5 as well as 180.
Proof ethanol-1-butanol-diesel in 1:2:3 proportions. The characteristic fuel properties
such as relative density, kinematics viscosity and gross heat of combustion of the micro
emulsions were found to be close to that of diesel fuel. The power-producing capability
of the engine was found similar on diesel fuel and the micro emulsions. The emission of
CO was found to be marginally lower but that of unburnt hydrocarbons and NO
X
were
higher on micro emulsions. An engine durability test of 310 h was successful.
Xiao-Guang Yan et al. (2002) investigated the effect of ethanol blended gasoline
fuels on emissions and catalyst conversion efficiencies in a spark ignition engine with an
electronic fuel injection (EFI) system. The addition of ethanol to gasoline fuel enhanced
the octane number of the blended fuels and changes distillation temperature. Ethanol
could decrease engine-out regulated emissions. The fuel containing 30% ethanol by
volume could drastically reduce engine-out total hydrocarbon emissions (THC) at
operating conditions and engine-out THC, CO and NOx emissions at idle speed, but
unburned ethanol and acetaldehyde emissions increase. Pt/Rh based three-way catalysts
are effective in reducing acetaldehyde emissions, but the conversion of unburned ethanol
was low. Tailpipe emissions of THC, CO and NOx have close relation to engine-out
emissions, catalyst conversion efficiency, engine's speed and load, air/fuel equivalence
ratio. Moreover, the blended fuels could decrease brake specific energy consumption.
24
Jun Wanga et al. (2004) studied the emission characteristics from a four-stroke
motorcycle engine using 10% (v/v) ethanol–gasoline blended fuel (E10) at different
driving modes on the chassis dynamometers. The results indicated that CO and HC
emissions in the engine exhaust were lower with the operation of E10 as compared to the
use of unleaded gasoline, whereas the effect of ethanol on NOX emission was not
significant. Furthermore, species of both unburned hydrocarbons and their ramifications
were analyzed by the combination of gas chromatography/mass spectrometry (GC/MS)
and gas chromatography/flame ionization detection (GC/FID). This analysis showed that
aromatic compounds (benzene, toluene, xylene isomers (o-xylene, m-xylene and pxylene), ethyltoluene isomers (o-ethyltoluene, m-ethyltoluene and p-ethyltoluene) and
trimethylbenzene isomers (1, 2, 3-trimethylbenzene, 1, 2, 4-trimethylbenzene and 1, 3, 5trimethylbenzene) and fatty group ones (ethylene, methane, acetaldehyde, ethanol,
butene, pentane and hexane) were major compounds in motorcycle engine exhaust. It was
found that the E10-fueled motorcycle engine produces more ethylene, acetaldehyde and
ethanol emissions than unleaded gasoline engine does. The no significant reduction of
aromatics was observed in the case of ethanol–gasoline blended fuel.
J.Basanavičiaus (2006) investigated experimentally and compared the engine
performance and pollutant emission of a SI engine using ethanol–gasoline blended fuel
and pure gasoline. The results showed that when ethanol is added, the heating value of
the blended fuel decreases, while the octane number of the blended fuel increases. The
results of the engine test indicated that when ethanol–gasoline blended fuel is used, the
engine power and specific fuel consumption of the engine slightly increase; CO emission
decreases dramatically as a result of the leaning effect caused by the ethanol addition; HC
25
emission decreases in some engine working conditions; and CO2 emission increases
because of the improved combustion.
2.5
Ethanol Production in Sudan
Sudan is rich of fertile land a lot of water from irrigation and wide range of
climates which leads to different crops and this is helpful to produce many thinks like
ethanol the most important crop to produce ethanol is sugar cane.
2.5.1 Sugar cane
Processing of cane sugar will be the base for production of ethanol. Kenana the
world's largest integrated cane sugar manufacturing plant will be the focus of ethanol
production. An increase in production capacity in the Sudan together with the production
capacity of the White Nile sugar factory and the existing production capacities of the
other cane sugar production factories like Assalaya, Sennar, El-Guneid and Halfa. 100
million liters would be considered a possible ethanol production capacity
Table 2.2: Existing Sugar Capacities
Project
Estimated ethanol capacity (liter)
Kenana sugar company
65,000,000
Sudanese sugar company
40,000,000
White Nile sugar company
40,000,000
Subtotal
145,000,000
26
Table 2.3: Sudan Grand Sugar Plan 2014
project
Estimated ethanol capacity (liter)
Western White Nile projects
90,000,000
Gazira Scheme projects
380,000,000
Subtotal
470,000,000
Grand total
615,000,000
2.6 Kenana Ethanol Project:
The ethanol plant of the stated capacity will required around 1.5 MWh which can
easily be supplied by the exiting KSC power house without the need for any additional
investment in power generation equipment. Eight high capacity steam boilers are
available in the factory. Kenana has a storage capacity of 55.000 MTs molasses an
ethanol plant of around 50 million litters will required a molasses storage capacity of
around 60,000 MTs Kenana’s exiting storage capacity is considered enough to enable the
plant to operate continuously during the off-crop period. The factory has adequate well
fenced and protected land characterized by suitable gravel base for laying the necessary
foundation establishing the ethanol plant.
Table 2.3: Kenana Ethanol Capacity and Product Specifications
Capacity
66 million liter ethanol annually
Product specification of Anhydrous alcohol
Alcohol degree
99.8% min by weight
Specific mass
20 c max
Appearance
clear, free of material in suspension
Row material
Molasses
27
0.795 kg /L
CHAPTER III
MATERIAL AND METHODS
Fuel properties experiments were carried out in Center Petroleum
Laboratories (CPL), Ministry of Petroleum and laboratories of Petroleum and Gas
engineering department university of Khartoum. while engine performance tests were
carried out in Power and Machinery, Agricultural Engineering department at Faculty of
Engineering, University of Khartoum.
3.1 Materials:
3.1.1 Fuel Blends Materials
-
Gasoline (benzene): Gasoline was a volatile, flammable liquid obtained
from local fuel petroleum station.
-
Ethanol: ethanol was color less alcohol having concentration of 98.3%
and extracted from sugar molasses. The ethanol sample was Kenana Sugar
Company product. (2)
-
The tested sample blends was prepared by adding ethanol alcohol up to
25% to pure gasoline to run small engine. During this quick function test
to this ratio there was no sign of water phase separation or any engine
modification.
28
3.1.2 Fuel Properties equipment:
3.1.2.1 Viscometer:
Cannon-Fenske Opaque Viscometer, glass capillary type, having model No. H50
and Calibration Factor of C = 0.004142, C = 0.003114 (see Figure 3.1).
3.1.2.2 Hydrometer:
A glass hydrometer is calibrated and read at liquid level the density or API gravity,
(see Figure 3.2).
3.1.2.3 Flash and fire point:
Pensky-Martens cup apparatus consisted of the test cup, heating plate; test flame
applicator; heater and thermometer (see Figure 3.3).
3.1.2.4 Cloud and pour point:
Test Jar, clear, cylindrical glass, flat bottom, 33.2 to 34.8-mm outside diameter and
115 and 125-mm height. The inside diameter of the jar may range from 30 to 32.4 mm
within the constraint that the wall thickness be no greater than 1.6 mm. The jar should be
marked with a line to indicate sample height 546.3 mm above the inside bottom. (see
Figure 3.4)
29
Figure 3.1: Cannon-Fenske opaque viscometer
Figure 3.2: A Hydrometer for measuring density
30
Figure 3.3: Pensky-Martens cup apparatus
Figure 3.4: Cloud Point Test Apparatus
31
3.1.2.5 Cooperative Fuels Research (CFR) Engine
The engine test was using a standardized single cylinder, four-stroke cycle,
variable compression ratio and carbureted for the determination of Octane Number. It is
manufactured as a complete unit by Waukesha Engine Division, Model CFR F-1
Research Method Octane Rating Unit. (See Figure 3.5)
3.1.2.5.1 Specifications
Test Engine: CFR F-1 Research Method Octane Rating Unit with cast iron, box
type crankcase with flywheel connected by V-belts to power absorption electrical motor
for constant speed operation.
Cylinder type: Cast iron with flat combustion surface and integral coolant jacket
Compression ratio Adjustable 4:1 to 18:1 by cranked worm shaft and worm wheel drive
assembly in cylinder clamping sleeve.
Cylinder bore (diameter), in
3.250 (standard)
Stroke, in
4.50
Displacement, in
37.33
Lubrication
Forced lubrication, motor driven pump,
plate type oil filter, relief pressure gauge
on control panel
32
Cooling
Evaporative cooling system with water
cooled condenser, Water shall be used in
the cylinder jacket for laboratory locations
where the resultant boiling temperature
shall be 100  1.5°C Water with
commercial glycol-based antifreeze added
in sufficient quantity to meet the boiling
temperature requirement shall be used
when laboratory altitude dictates
3.1.2.5.2 Mechanical accessories:
Fuel system (Carburetor)
Single vertical jet and fuel flow control to
permit adjustment of fuel-air ratio
Ignition
Electronically triggered condenser discharge
through coil to spark plug
Ignition timing
Constant 13° before TDC
Multiple fuel tank system with selector valving.
Intake air system with controlled temperature.
33
3.1.2.5.3 Instrumentation:
Critical Instrumentation:
Knock Measurement System
Detonation pickup (sensor), a detonation meter to
condition the knock signal, and a knockmeter
Detonation Pickup
Model D1 (109927) having a
pressure sensitive
diaphragm, magnetostrictive core rod, and coil.
Detonation Meter
Signal Cables
Non-Critical Instrumentation:
Temperature Measurement
Temperature Controller.
-
Cylinder Jacket Coolant Thermometer.
Engine Crankcase Lubricating Oil Temperature
Indicator.
Pressure Measurement
-
Crankcase Internal Pressure Gage
(pressure/vacuum gage).
Exhaust Back Pressure Gage.(2)
34
Figure 3.5: Cooperative Fuels Research (CFR) Engine
1.1.2.5 Bomb Calorimeter
Record calorimeter complied with PARR 1266 (ASTM D240) standards, France (See
Figure 3.6).
3.1.2.7 Distillation device
The device is measuring distillation in manual method (ASTM D 86) (See Figure 3.7)
35
Figure 3.6: Recording Bomb Calorimeter
Figure 3.7: Distillation device
36
3.1.3 Engine Test:
Generator Honda EMS 3000
Honda EMS 3000 electric generating set consisted of single cylinder gasoline
engine and a 3.0 kW (2.8 kW for 50 Hz) alternating current generator Figure (3.8)
Table 3.1: Generator Specifications:
Generator model
Honda EMS 3000
type
4- stroke
Stroke
95 mm
Bore
76 mm
Displacement
272 cc
Voltage (AC)
220 V
Frequency
50 Hz
Rated output
2.5 kVA
Max output
2.8 kVA
Phase
1
Digital Tachometer:
A digital model SYSTEMS tachometer indicated directly the engine speed in
revaluation per minute (See Figure 3.9). It had operating range (60- 100, 000) with
accuracy ±(0.05% 1 digit).
37
Variable electrical loader (damming load):
A dead load (15A- 220/110V) was used as an external load for generator. The
load was varied and adjusted by means of a turning wheel connected to the loader (See
figure 3.10)
Ammeter:
(0-15A) was connected in series generator to reads current output from generator.
(See figure 3.11)
Voltmeter:
High impedance OTC digital Voltmeter model MY-67 MASTECH, AC/DC Voltohm measurements. It was connected across the variable loader to measure voltage drop.
(See figure 3.12)
Electric Balance:
Electric balance used to measure weight for range between (0-3) kg as shown in
(See figure 3.13)
38
Figure 3.8: Honda EMS 3000
Figure 3.9: Tachometer
39
Figure 3.10: Variable electrical loader
Figure 3.11: Ammeter
40
Figure 3.12: Voltmeter
Figure 3.13 Electric Balance (3 kg capacity)
41
3.2 Methods
3.2.1 Blends preparation:
90%, 85%, 80% and 75% (vol. basis) gasoline were mixed with 10, 15, 20 and
25% Ethanol respectively; all blends visually appeared to be homogenous mixture with
no distinct phase separation.
3.2.2Fuel abbreviation
For simplicity fuel abbreviation system were presented as shown in Table 3.1
Table 3.1: Tested Fuels Samples Abbreviation
No
Fuel
Symbol
1
100%gasoline (reference fuel)
gasoline
2
90%gasoline +10% ethanol (98.3% Conc. )
E10
3
85%gasoline +15% ethanol (98.3% Conc. )
E15
4
80%gasoline +20% ethanol (98.3% Conc. )
E20
5
75%gasoline +25% ethanol (98.3% Conc. )
E25
3.2.3 Fuel properties determination:
Properties of tested fuels were determined in accordance with ASTM and DIN
procedures for petroleum products.
42
3.2.3.1 Density measurement:
The density of each tested sample was measured by hydrometer (ASTM D287); the
simplest formula for density is mathematically expressed as:
𝐃𝐞𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐲 𝐨𝐟 𝐛𝐥𝐞𝐧𝐝 @ 𝟑𝟎⁰𝐂
S.G = 𝐃𝐞𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐲 𝐨𝐟 𝐰𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐫 @ 𝟑𝟎⁰𝐂
……… (3.1)
API = (141.5/S.G) − 131.5
...……. (3.2)
Where: S.G = Specific gravity.
API = American Petroleum Institute.
3.2.3.2 Viscosity determination:
Viscometer were used for determining viscosity of the fuel (ASTM D445), the
simplest formula for Kinematic viscosity is mathematically expressed as:
V=
𝑉₁ + 𝑉₂
...……. (3.3)
2
…….. (3.3a)
V₁ = t₁*C₁
C1= 0.004142
……… (3.3b)
V₂ = t₂*C₂
C2=0.003114
43
Where: V=Viscosity mm2/sec @ 20C.
t1, t2: time in second.
3.2.3.3 Gross Heating Value measurement:
PARR 1266 and (ASTM D240) standards were use for measuring heat of
combustion. A bomb calorimeter (Record) was used for this test. The calorific value of
the sample was determined by equating the heat generated to heat transfer to calorimeter.
3.2.3.4 Measuring Octane rating:
The test procedure for determining octane rating by CFR engine was as follows:
Preparing Reference Fuel No. 1:
Prepare a fresh batch of a PRF (primary reference fuels, for knock testing,
isooctane,n-heptane, volumetrically proportioned mixtures of isooctane with n-heptane,
or blends of tetraethyl lead in isooctane that define the octane number scale.) blend that
has an O.N. estimated to be close to that of the sample fuel, then introduce Reference
Fuel No. 1 to the engine Position the fuel-selector valve to operate the engine on
Reference Fuel No. 1 and perform the step-wise adjustments required for determining the
fuel level for maximum K.I and Record the equilibrium knockmeter reading for
Reference Fuel No. 1.
44
Preparing Reference Fuel No. 2:
Select another PRF blend that can be expected to result in a knockmeter reading
that causes the readings for the two reference fuels to bracket that of the sample fuel, the
maximum permissible difference between the two reference fuels is dependent on the
O.N. of the sample fuel, Prepare a fresh batch of the second PRF blend. Introduce
Reference Fuel No. 2 to the engine, and repeat the same steps of reference fuel NO.1.
Checking Guide Table Compliance:
Check that the cylinder height, compensated for barometric pressure, used for the
rating is within the prescribed limits of the applicable guide table value of cylinder height
for the sample fuel O.N. At all O.N. levels, the digital counter reading shall be within
20 of the guide table value. The dial indicator reading shall be within
0.014 in. of the
guide table value.
Starting the engine:
The fuel sample was poured into one of the blow carburetor. The selector value
was turned to fill up the blow, after the fuel system was purged; the key switch and starter
were turned and pressed, respectively.
Fuel sample octane number:
The octane rating of the tested sample at octane rate was obtained by interpolation
from a guide curve. A guide curve for this purpose was prepared by blends of n-heptane
and isooctane the air rate values for these blends were determined. Entering these values
45
into a coordinate system, a curve showing the dependence of air rate upon octane number
was obtained.
Calculation of O.N.:
O.N.S = O.N.LRF +
K.I.LRF – K.I.S
𝐾.𝐼.𝐿𝑅𝐹−𝐾.𝐼.𝐻𝑅𝐹
(O.N.HRF – O.NLRF)
…………. (3.4)
Where:
O.N.S = octane number of the sample fuel.
O.N.LRF = octane number of the low PRF.
O.N.HRF = octane number of the high PRF.
K.I.S = knock intensity (knockmeter reading) of the sample fuel.
K.I.LRF = knock intensity of the low PRF.
K.I.HRF = knock intensity of the high PRF.
3.2.4 Performance Tests
3.2.4.1 Test procedure:
The experiments were carried out using Kenana Ethanol/Gasoline blends. Honda
EMS3000 single cylinder, spark ignition gasoline engine (Honda Co. Ltd. Japan) with
specifications as shown in Table (3.1). Experimental apparatus included four major
systems, i.e., the engine system, power measurement system, engine speed system
measurement and fuel consumption measurement.
46
Extensive testing starting with warming by pure gasoline for 15 min at no load
before tests on the selected fuels blends was conducted. This typical engine was
commonly used in agricultural operations such as lift irrigation, milling, chaff cutting,
and threshing, and is used as the prime mover in electric generators, The performance
tests of the engine on ethanol/gasoline fuel were conducted at no-load, 25%, 50%, 75%
and 100% load as per Indian Standard IS:10000 (Part VIII):1980. The engine speed was
set at constant 2200 rpm at no-load condition without modification on all fuel blends
tests. Then engine was then gradually loaded to determine the power developed at
different loads and the corresponding fuel consumption. After engine had reached steady
state, engine speed; current load and voltage drop were recorded from tachometer,
ammeter and voltmeter, respectively. Fuel consumption was measured on weight with
electric balance and stop watch.
The total time of experiment was about 2 hour for up-loading (increase the load
from 0-100%).The data were recorded every 5. After each stabilization period the load
was varied to get other sets of readings.
47
(2)
V
(1)
AC generator
1.
3.
(3)
A
AC generator
AC Ammeter (0-15A)
2.
4.
(4)Variable
load
Voltmeter (0-300V)
Variable load (15 A 220/110 V)
Figure (3.14): Layout electric circuit diagram
Figure 3.15: Engine performance Test setup
48
3.2.4.2 Power calculation:
P=
V*I
………………. (3.5)
Where power P is in watts, voltage V is in volts and current I is in amperes
3.2.4.3 Torque calculation:
Engine torque was determined by the following equation:
P= 2 π N T/60
……………………….(3.6.a)
T = 60 P/2 π N
……………………..(3.6.b)
Where N is speed in RPM and T is engine torque in N.m.
3.2.4.4 Brake Thermal Efficiency Determination
The brake thermal efficiency of the selected tested fuels was determined by the
following formula:
B.T .E 
Pin 
Pout
........................(3.7.a)
Pin
q f   f  hg
3600
................(3.7.b)
Where B.T.E = Brake thermal efficiency
P1 = Power output.
q f = Fuel consumption (L/hr)
 f = Fuel density (kg/L)
hg = Gross (Higher) heating value of fuel.
49
CHAPTER IV
RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
The results of fuel properties determination and engine performance are presented
and discussed below:
4.1 Fuel Properties
4.1.1 Density and API gravity
Table 4.1 shows average values of density and API gravity for blends at
temperature of 15oC. From the result in appears that the blend densities where found to
vary from 0.7400 kg/L for gasoline to 0.7571 kg/L for E25. It was 0.05 % lighter than
gasoline for E10 but 1.26 %, 1.87% and 2.25% heavier than gasoline fuel for E15, E20
and E25, respectively. Figure 4.1 shows the plot of densities and ethanol percentage in
the blends. Blends densities increase linearly as the ethanol percentage increased and is
expressed in the following formula:
Y=0.0008X+0.7373
with
R2=0.8476
(4.1)
The API gravity of blends varied between 57.510 to 55.21 degrees. The gasoline
fuel API gravity was lighter being 59.53 degrees. Figure 4.2 shows the plot of API
gravity and ethanol percentage in the blend. The blends API gravity decreased linearly as
ethanol percentage increased and is expressed in the following formula:
Y= -0.167X+59.314
with
R2=0.9604
50
(4.2)
In general the densities and API gravity are within the range that can be handled by
internal combustion engine.
Table (4.1): MEAN DENSITY AND API GRAVITY OF TESTED BLENDS:
Fuel blend
Gasoline
Density, kg/L
0.7400
API gravity degree
59.530
E10
0.7396
57.10
E15
0.7495
57.09
E20
0.7541
55.95
E25
0.7571
55.21
DENSITY
0.76
DENSITY Kg/L
0.755
0.75
0.745
DENSITY
Линейная (DENSITY)
0.74
0.735
0%
10%
20%
30%
ETHANOL%
Figure 4.1: Blends densities versus Ethanol percentage.
51
API , deg
API
60
59.5
59
58.5
58
57.5
57
56.5
56
55.5
55
54.5
API
Линейная (API)
0%
10%
20%
30%
ETHANOL%
Figure 4.2: Blends API gravity versus Ethanol percentage
4.1.2 Flash and Fire point
Table 4.2 shows values of flash and fire points for blends. From the results, it
appears that the blends flash point for E20 and E25 were 29.2 and 30 C, respectively.
The fire points were found to be 29, 29.1, 30 and 32 C for E10, E15, E20 and E25,
respectively. However, E10, E15 and gasoline started to fire without determining its flash
point. The flash point varies with fuel volatility but is not related to engine performance.
Rather, the flash point relates to safety precautions that must be taken when handling a
fuel. Blends flash and fire points according to their values above far the standards values
for the handling and storage of gasoline fuels which having flash point below the freezing
point of water.
52
Table 4.2: FLASH POINT AND FIRE POINT OF TESTED BLENDS:
Fuel blend
Gasoline
Flash Point C
_
Fire Point C
25.0
E10
_
29.0
E15
_
29.1
E20
29.2
30.0
E25
30.0
32.0
4.1.3 Heat of Combustion
Table 4.3 shows values of gross heat content for the fuels tested. The gross heat
content for blends decrease by 0.127%, 0.4%, 0.53% and 0.61% compared to gasoline
fuel (47.09 MJ/kg) for E10, E15, E20 and E25, respectively. Figure 4.3 shows the plot of
blends heat values and ethanol percentage. Blends heat value decreased linearly as the
percentage of ethanol increased and is expressed in the following formula:
Y= 0.0125X + 47.108
with
R2=0.9465
(4.3)
The decreased of heat values present in the blends were due to ethanol that having
lower heat value of 29.70 MJ/kg.
53
Table 4.3: MEANS GROSS HEAT CONTENT OF TESTED BLENDS:
Fuel blend
Gasoline
Heat value, MJ/kg
47.09
E10
47.03
E15
46.90
E20
46.84
E25
46.80
HEAT VALUE
47.15
HEAT VALUE Kj/Kg
47.1
47.05
47
46.95
HEAT VALUE
46.9
46.85
Линейная (HEAT
VALUE)
46.8
46.75
0%
10%
20%
30%
ETHANOL%
Figure 4.3: Blends heat values versus Ethanol percentage
4.1.4 Cloud Point
Table 4.4 shows values of the cloud points for the blends. From the results, it appears
that the ethanol /gasoline blends cloud point for gasoline is -22 C and above 8 C for
E10, E15, E20 and E25, respectively. The cloud point typically occurs between 5°C and
8°C above the pour point. Cloud and pour points become important for heavier fuels in
54
the higher boiling ranges. Thus, although the pour-ability of gasoline is not a problem,
but it was specified in the guideline of fuel properties standards .
Table 4.4: CLOUD POINT OF TESTED BLENDS:
Cloud point C
-22
Fuel blend
Gasoline
E10
>8
E15
>8
E20
>8
E25
>8
4.1.5 Kinematic Viscosity
The results in Table 4.5 illustrate the kinematic viscosity of blends at 30⁰ C. They
were found to be 10.4%, 15.3% , 23.3% and 30.9% more viscous than gasoline fuel
(0.4872mm2/s) for blends fuel E10% , E15% , E20% , E25% , respectively. Figure 4.4
shows the plot of blends kinematic viscosity and ethanol percentage. Blends kinematic
viscosity increased linearly as percentage of ethanol increase and is expressed in the
following formula:
Y = 0.006 X + 0.4814
with
R2=0.9868
(4.4)
Viscosity is a measure of the flow resistance of a liquid. Fuel viscosity is an
important consideration when fuels are carbureted or injected into combustion chambers
by means of fuel system. If viscosity is too low, the fuel will flow too easily and will not
maintain a lubricating film between moving and stationary parts in the carburetor or
pump. If viscosity is too high, may not be able to atomize the fuel into small enough
55
droplets to achieve good vaporization and combustion. In general the blends viscosities
were within acceptable range for spark ignition engine.
Table 4.5: KINEMATIC VISCOSITY OF TESTED BLENDS:
Kinematic Viscosity, mm2/s
0.4872
Fuel blend
Gasoline
E10
0.5383
E15
0.5619
E20
0.6007
E25
0.6380
KINEMATIC VISCOSTY mm²/s
KINEMATIC VISCOSITY
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
KINEMATIC VISCOSITY
0.3
0.2
Линейная (KINEMATIC
VISCOSITY )
0.1
0
0%
10%
20%
30%
ETHANOL %
Figure 4.4: Blends kinematic viscosity versus Ethanol percentage
56
4.1.6 Octane number
The results in Table 4.6 show the octane number They were found to be 4%,
5.4%, 8.08%, and 6.33% higher than gasoline fuel (93.2) for blends fuel for E10% ,
E15% , E20% , E25%, respectively. Figure 4.5 shows the plot of Octane Number and
ethanol percentage in the blend. Blends Octane Number increased linearly as percentage
of ethanol increased and is expressed in the following formula:
Y = 0.2927 X + 93.862
with
R2=0.9868
(4.5)
The octane rating is a measure of the knock resistance of gasoline. Yamin et al.
(2006) investigated the effect of ethanol addition to low Octane Number gasoline, in
terms of calorific value, Octane Number, compression ratio at knocking and engine
performance. They blended locally produced gasoline (Octane Number 87) with five
different percentages of ethanol, namely 5%, 10%, 15%, 20% and 25% on volume basis.
They found that the Octane Number of gasoline increases continuously and linearly with
ethanol percentages in gasoline. They reported that the ethanol was an effective
compound for increasing the value of the Octane Number of gasoline. Also, they found
that the engine performance improves as the percentage of ethanol increases in the blend
within the range studied.
Many additives have been developed to improve the performance of petroleum
fuels to increase knock resistance and raise the octane number. Fuel refiners were able to
use a wide variety of lower octane hydrocarbons in gasoline and then use TEL (tetraethyl
lead) and MTBE (methyl tertiary butyl ether) additives to boost octane ratings to
acceptable levels. More recently, the oxygenated and octane enhancing benefits of
57
ethanol have been highlighted as a potential substitute for Methyl Tertiary Butyl Ether
(MTBE), an oxygenated additive used to enhance octane and also reduce CO emissions.
However, TEL poisons the catalysts in catalytic emission control systems, and MTBE has
been shown to be highly toxic even in small quantities when it contaminates groundwater
Table 4.6: OCTANE NUMBER OF TESTED BLENDS:
Fuel blend
Gasoline
Octane number
93.2
E10
97.1
E15
98.6
E20
101.4
E25
99.5
58
OCTANE NUMBER
OCTANE NUMBER
102
101
100
99
98
97
96
95
94
93
92
OCTANE NUMBER
Линейная (OCTANE
NUMBER)
0%
10%
20%
30%
ETHANOL%
Figure 4.5: Blends Octane Number versus Ethanol percentage
4.1.7 Distillation:
The results in Figure 4.6 shows the distillation for gasoline and blends fuel E10%,
E15%, E20%, E25%. Three points were taken on the distillation curve to compare the
distillation between Gasoline and the blends. The points T10, T50, and T90 refer,
respectively, to the temperatures on the curve at which 10%, 50%, and 90% of the fuel
has been distilled. At T10 the gasoline temperature is 60oC when 10% was distilled, the
blends fuel E10%, E15%, E20% and E25% decrease by 13.3%, 12.8%, 12.1% and 12.5%
respectively form gasoline temperature. The blends decrease by 22.5%, 25.5%, 24.2%
and 22.4% respectively for T50 when gasoline temperature at 50% distilled is 950C, and
increase by 11.7%, 10.3%, 9.7% and 11.4% at T9o when gasoline temperature at 90%
distilled is 1450C.
59
Temperature°C
Distillation
200
180
160
140
120
100
80
60
40
20
0
GASOLINE
E10
E15
E20
E25
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
Distilled%
Figure 4.6: Distillation curves blends and gasoline
4. 2. Engine performance
Engine performance test results on Ethanol/Gasoline blends were presented on
Appendix C and D. For comparisons of engine performance, loading at no-load, 25% and
50% was consider low loads while loading at 75% and 100% was consider high loads.
4. 2.1 Power Output:
Fig 4.7 and Table C.1 (Appendix D) illustrate power output versus loads for
various Ethanol/Gasoline blends. The engine power output increase at low loads by
5.14%, and 6.67% for E10 and E20 respectively, and decrease by 4.36%,3.02% for E15
and E25, respectively comparing with gasoline while at high loads decrease by 10.39%,
13.61%, 10.15% and 16.84% for E10, E15, E20 and E25 respectively .
60
POWER (KW)
Power Vs Load
0.9
0.8
0.7
0.6
0.5
0.4
0.3
0.2
0.1
0
GASOLINE
E10
E15
E20
E25
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
120%
LOADS
Figure 4.7: Power output Vs. loads curves comparing various
Ethanol/Gasoline blends
4.2.2 Engine Torque
Fig 4.8 and Table C.2 (Appendix D) represent mean engine torque versus loads
curve comparing various Ethanol/Gasoline blends. The engine torque increased at low
loads by 3.01% and 6.8%, for E10 and E20 respectively and decreased by 3.69% and
6.29% for E15 and E25 comparing with gasoline while at high load increased by 6.6%
for E15 and decreased by 6.67%, 7.69% and 11.88% for E10, E20 and E25 respectively.
4.2.3 Fuel Consumption Rate (L/h):
Fig.4.9 and Table C.3 (Appendix D) represent mean engine fuel consumption
versus loads for various ethanol/gasoline blends. The fuel consumption rate decreased at
low loads by 10.52%, 22.05%, 17.29% and 10.16%
for E10, E15, E20 and E25
respectively, comparing with gasoline while at high loads decreased by 16.38%,
29.69%,16.3% and 8.43% for E10, E15, E20 and E25 respectively.
61
Torque Vs Load
4
Torque(N.m)
3.5
3
2.5
GASOLINE
2
E10
1.5
E15
1
E20
0.5
E25
0
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
120%
Load
Figure 4.8: torque Vs. loads curves comparing Ethanol/Gasoline blends
CONSUMPTION(L/h)
Consumption Vs Load
1.8
1.6
1.4
1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4
0.2
0
GASOLINE
E10
E15
E20
E25
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
120%
LOAD
Figure 4.9: Fuel consumption Vs. loads curves comparing Ethanol/Gasoline blends
62
4.2.4 Specific Fuel Consumption (L/KW.h):
Fig.4.10 and Table C.5 (Appendix D) represent mean engine brake specific fuel
consumption versus loads for various blends. The specific fuel consumption decreased at
low loads by 15.28%, 20.41%, 24.25% and 8.46% for E10, E15, E20 and E25,
respectively, comparing with gasoline while at high loads increased by 9.59% for E25
and decreased by 1%, 6.44%, 18.56%, and 6.96% for E10, E15 and E20 respectively.
4.2.5 Brake Thermal Efficiency
The mean brake thermal efficiency of blend is illustrated in Fig. 4.11 and Table
C.6 (Appendix D). The brake thermal efficiency increased at low loads by 14.93%,
18.53%, 21.55% and 6.54% for E10, E15, E20 and E25 respectively, compared with
gasoline, while at high load increased by 6.41%, 11.74% and 6% for E10, E15 and E20
and decreased by 10.69% for E25.
S.F.C Vs Load
3
S.F.C (L/KW.hr)
2.5
2
GASOLINE
1.5
E10
1
E15
0.5
E20
0
E25
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
120%
LOAD
Figure 4.10: Specific fuel consumption Vs. loads curves comparing ethanol-gasoline
blends
63
B.T.E Vs Load
8%
7%
B.T.E
6%
5%
GASOLINE
4%
E10
3%
E15
2%
E20
1%
E25
0%
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
120%
LOAD
Figure 4.11: Brake thermal efficiency Vs. loads curves comparing Ethanolgasoline blends
4.2.6 Speed
Fig.4.12 and Table C.4 (Appendix D) represent mean speed versus loads for
blends. Throughout the test, the engine speeds were found to be increased at low loads
by 4.24% for E10, comparing with gasoline and decreased by 2.5%,1.01% and 3.12% for
E15,E20 and E25 respectively while for at high loads decreased by 4.18%, 12.89%,
12.07%, and 5.73% for E10, E15, E20, and E25 respectively.
64
Speed Vs Load
3000
SPEED(rpm)
2500
2000
GASOLINE
1500
E10
1000
E15
500
E20
0
E25
0%
20%
40%
60%
80%
100%
120%
LOAD
Figure 4.12: speed vs. loads curves comparing gasoline with Ethanol
During engine testing, the ethanol produce by Kenana blended to gasoline up to
25% ethanol ratio without blends phase separation or engine practical operations
problems encountered. However, extra ethanol ratio engine will faced problem on
starting and operation. All the selected blends were successfully run on the constant
speed small spark ignition engine for 10 hours. The operation of the engine was found to
be satisfactory on the selected blends with no sign of engine trouble. The external visual
inspection on engine components after testing showed no coking and wears signs.
65
CHAPTER V
CONCLUSIONS
The following conclusions could be drawn from this study work:
1. Fuel properties of tested Ethanol/Gasoline blends such as density and
viscosity increased continuously and linearly with increasing percentage of
ethanol while API gravity and heat value decreased with decreasing
percentage of ethanol increase. Furthermore, cloud point, flash and fire
points were found to be higher than gasoline fuel.
2. The tested blends Octane rating based Research Octane Number (RON)
increased continuously and linearly with increasing percentage of ethanol.
3.
The tested blends developed higher power and fuel consumption rate with
increase brake thermal efficiency.
4. Ethanol fuels can be use as alternative fuel for gasoline engine up to 25%
blends without engine modification.
66
RECOMMENDATIONS
Based on the results obtained during this study work it can be suggested that:
1- Comprehensive and extensive testing on fuel properties, engine performance and
emissions of ethanol/gasoline blends on spark ignition engine should be tested for
long time.
2- Research and collaboration should be carried out in with sugar industry and GIAD
motors regarding using ethanol as alternative for spark ignition engines.
67
REFERENCES
1. A.R.Navarro, M. del C. Sepúlveda and M. C. Rubio.2000,Bio-concentration of
vinasse from the alcoholic fermentation of sugar cane molasses Paper No.
312764.
2. ASTM International, Standard Specification for Denatured Fuel Ethanol for
Blending with Gasoline for Use as Automotive Spark Ignition Engine Fuel1.
Designation: D 4806 – 01a.
3. Ethanol Production using a Soy Hydrolysate-Based Medium or a Yeast
Autolysate-Based Medium.2008, Ethanol Production
( http://www.freepatentsonline.com). 23 January, 2008
4. Jun Wang and Man-Qun Linba.2004, Influence of ethanol–gasoline blended fuel
on emission characteristics from a four-stroke motorcycle engine. bTianjin
Motorcycle Technical Center, Tianjin 300072, PR China.
5. Lynd, L.R., et al., Fuel ethanol from cellulosic biomass. Science, 1991. 251: p.
1318-1323
6. Mr.Victor MENDIS (Experimental Study on Ethanol and its Blends with
Gasoline as a Motor Fuel).
7. Suri Rajan and Fariborz F. Saniee.2001, Water—ethanol—gasoline blends as
spark ignition engine fuels. Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, IL 62901,
USA.
8. T. K. Bhattacharya, S. Chatterjee, T. N. Mishra.2001, Performance of a Constant
Speed CI Engine on Alcohol-Diesel Microemulsions.Published in Applied
Engineering in Agriculture Vol. 20(3): 253-257.
9. Tyson, K.S., Riley, C. J., and Humpreys, K.K. 1993. Fuel Cycle Evaluations of
Biomass-Ethanol and Reformulated Gasoline; Report No. NREL/TP-463-4950,
National Renewable Energy Laboratory: Golden, CO. Vol. 1.
68
APPENDIX A
69
APPENDIX A1
EXAMPLE OF CALCULATION FOR FUEL
API GRAVITY
Using equation (3.1) and equation (3.2)
For example E20 sample:
𝐃𝐞𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐲 𝐨𝐟 𝐛𝐥𝐞𝐧𝐝 @ 𝟑𝟎⁰𝐂
S.G = 𝐃𝐞𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐲 𝐨𝐟 𝐰𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐫 @ 𝟑𝟎⁰𝐂
Density of blend @ 300C = 0.7541
Density of water @ 300C = 0.999
S.G =
𝟎.𝟕𝟓𝟒𝟏
𝟎.𝟗𝟗𝟗
= 0.7548
API = (141.5/S.G) − 131.5
API = (141.5/0.7548) − 131.5 deg
Therefore, API gravity for E15 sample = 55.95
70
APPENDIX A2
EXAMPLE OF CALCULATION FOR FUEL
VISCOSITY
Using equation (3.3), (3.3a) and (3.3b)
For example E20 sample:
V1 = t1×C1
t1 = 145 sec
C1= constant = 0.004142
V1 = 145×0.004142 = 0.60059
V2 = t2×c2
t2 = 193 sec
C2 = constant= 0.003114
V2 = 193×0.003114 = 0.601002
VAV =
𝑉₁ + 𝑉₂
2
=
0.60059 + 0.601002
2
VAV = 0.6007 mm2/sec
71
APPENDEX A3
EXAMPLE OF CALCULATION FOR FUEL
OCTANE NUMBER
Using equation (3.4)
For example E15 sample:
O.N.S = O.N.LRF +
K.I.LRF – K.I.S
𝐾.𝐼.𝐿𝑅𝐹−𝐾.𝐼.𝐻𝑅𝐹
(O.N.HRF – O.NLRF)
O.N.LRF = 98
O.N.HRF = 99
K.I.LRF = 60
K.I.S = 51
K.I.HRF = 32
O.N.S = 98+ (
60 – 51
60−32
) × (99 – 98)
O.N.S = 98.6
72
APPENDIX A4
EXAMPLE OF CALCULATION FOR FUEL
BRAKE THERMAL EFFICIENCY
Using equation (3.7.a) and equation (3.7.b)
B.T .E 
Pin 
Pout
Pin
q    hg
3600
For example E20 sample (Appendix C, table C.6)
Data:
Pout  0.5375kW
q  0.7479L / hr
  0.7541kg / L
hg  46840kj / kg
Pin 
0.7479  0.7541 46840
 7.33kW
3600
B.T .E 
0.5375
 100  7.33%
7.33
Brake thermal efficiency of sample= 7.33%
73
APPENDIX B
DISTILLATION TABLES
74
Table 4.7.1: DISTLLATION OF TESTED GASOLINE SAMPLE:
Distillation
IBP
unit
c0
Result
48.0
10% recovered
c0
60.0
20% recovered
c0
65.0
30% recovered
c0
75.0
40% recovered
c0
84.0
50% recovered
c0
95.0
60% recovered
c0
106.0
70% recovered
c0
119.0
80% recovered
c0
132.0
90% recovered
c0
145.0
95% recovered
c0
159.0
Recovery
ml
98.0
Loss
ml
0.5
Residue
ml
1.5
75
Table 4.7.2: DISTLLATION OF TESTED ETHANOL 10% + GASOLINE 90%:
Distillation
IBP
unit
c0
Result
39.8
10% recovered
c0
52.6
20% recovered
c0
57.9
30% recovered
c0
62.1
40% recovered
c0
66.1
50% recovered
c0
73.6
60% recovered
c0
105.5
70% recovered
c0
123.4
80% recovered
c0
142.6
90% recovered
c0
164.3
95% recovered
c0
183.1
ml
97.7
Recovery
Loss
ml
1.3
Residue
ml
1.0
76
Table 4.7.3: DISTLLATION OF TESTED ETHANOL 15% + GASOLINE 85%:
Distillation
IBP
unit
c0
Result
39.3
10% recovered
c0
52.3
20% recovered
c0
58.1
30% recovered
c0
40% recovered
c0
50% recovered
c0
60% recovered
c0
79.5
70% recovered
c0
119.6
80% recovered
c0
140.7
90% recovered
c0
161.7
95% recovered
c0
180.3
Recovery
ml
97.7
Loss
ml
1.2
Residue
ml
1.1
62.9
66.7
70.7
77
Table 4.7.4: DISTLLATION OF TESTED ETHANOL 20% + GASOLINE 80%:
Distillation
IBP
unit
c0
Result
36.6
10% recovered
c0
52.7
20% recovered
c0
59.0
30% recovered
c0
63.8
40% recovered
c0
68.5
50% recovered
c0
72.0
60% recovered
c0
74.7
70% recovered
c0
107.1
80% recovered
c0
137.5
90% recovered
c0
160.6
95% recovered
c0
180.0
Recovery
ml
97.3
Loss
ml
1.5
Residue
ml
1.2
78
Table 4.7.5: DISTLLATION OF TESTED ETHANOL 25% + GASOLINE 75%:
Distillation
IBP
unit
c0
Result
41.0
10% recovered
c0
55.2
20% recovered
c0
62.0
30% recovered
c0
66.9
40% recovered
c0
50% recovered
c0
60% recovered
c0
70% recovered
c0
80% recovered
c0
137.5
90% recovered
c0
163.7
95% recovered
c0
184.9
Recovery
ml
96.7
Loss
ml
2.0
Residue
ml
1.3
70.6
73.5
75.7
79.0
79
APPENDIX C
GENERATOR TEST DATA
80
GENERATOR TEST DATA –100% GASOLINE
Table C.1
Loads
Speed
RPM
Time
Consum.
kg
Voltage
(V)
Current
(A)
No
Load
2842
5 min
0.0568
220
2.40
0.25
Load
2471
5 min
0.0805
210
3.25
0.5
Load
2327
5 min
0.0866
182
4.00
0.75
Load
2260
5 min
0.0975
155
5.20
Full
Load
2230
5 min
0.1000
130
6.00
GENERATOR TEST DATA –10 % ETHONOL & 90% GASOLIN
Table C.2
Loads
Speed
RPM
Time
Consum.
kg
Voltage
(V)
Current
(A)
No
Load
2765
5 min
0.0510
215
2.5
0.25
Load
2665
5 min
0.0725
210
3.5
0.5
Load
2393
5 min
0.0770
190
4.1
0.75
Load
2228
5 min
0.0800
150
5.0
Full
Load
2075
5 min
0.0855
120
5.6
81
GENERATOR TEST DATA –15 % ETHONOL & 85% GASOLINE
Table C.3
Loads
Speed
RPM
Time
Consum.
kg
Voltage
(V)
Current
(A)
No
Load
2701
5 min
0.044
200
2.4
0.25
Load
2514
5 min
0.0655
205
3.4
0.5
Load
2321
5 min
0.0680
170
4.2
0.75
Load
2143
5 min
0.0700
145
4.9
Full
Load
1770
5 min
0.0815
120
5.5
GENERATOR TEST DATA –20 % ETHONOL & 80% GASOLINE
Table C.4
Loads
Speed
RPM
Time
Consum.
kg
Voltage
(V)
Current
(A)
No
Load
2813
5 min
0.047
215
2.5
0.25
Load
2450
5 min
0.0685
200
3.8
0.5
Load
2355
5 min
0.0735
180
4.4
0.75
Load
2209
5 min
0.0810
145
5.0
Full
Load
2155
5 min
0.0875
125
5.6
82
GENERATOR TEST DATA –25% ETHONOL & 75% GASOLINE
Table C.5
Loads
Speed
RPM
Time
Consum.
kg
Voltage
(V)
Current
(A)
No
Load
2660
5 min
0.0550
215
2.5
0.25
Load
2493
5 min
0.0700
205
3.2
0.5
Load
2377
5 min
0.0795
185
3.8
0.75
Load
2178
5 min
0.0885
145
4.9
Full
Load
2055
5 min
0.0970
115
5.3
83
APPENDIX D
CALCULATED OF ENGINE PERFORMANCE
84
Table (C.1) CALCULATED POWER OUTPUT OF GASOLINE FUEL AND
ETHANOL (KW)
Gasoline
100 %
Blend .1
Ethanol 10%
Blend .2
Ethanol 15 %
Blend .3
Ethanol 20 %
Blend .4
Ethanol 25 %
No
Load
0.528
0.5375
0.48
0.5375
0.5375
0.25
Load
0.6825
0.735
0.697
0.760
0.656
0.5
Load
0.728
0.779
0.714
0.792
0.703
0.75
Load
0.806
0.750
0.7105
0.725
0.7105
0.78
0.672
0.66
0.7
0.6095
Loads
Full
Load
Table (C.2) CALCULATED ENGINE TORQUE OF GASOLINE FUEL AND
ETHANOL (N.m)
Loads
Gasoline
100%
Blend .1
Blend .2
Blend .3
Ethanol10% Ethanol15% Ethanol20%
Blend .4
Ethanol 25 %
No
Load
1.77
1.86
1.61
1.82
1.93
0.25
Load
2.64
2.63
2.65
2.96
2.51
0.5
Load
2.99
3.11
2.94
3.21
2.82
0.75
Load
3.41
3.21
3.17
3.13
3.12
3.34
3.09
3.56
3.10
2.83
Full
Load
85
Table (C.3) CALCULATED FUEL CONSUMPTION OF GASOLINE FUEL AND
ETHANOL (L/h)
Gasoline
100%
Blend .1
Ethanol10%
Blend .2
Ethanol15%
Blend .3
Ethanol20%
Blend .4
Ethanol25
%
No
Load
0.916
0.827
0.7045
0.7479
0.871
0.25
Load
1.31
1.168
1.048
1.09
1.109
0.5
Load
1.404
1.249
1.08
1.169
1.26
0.75
Load
1.581
1.297
1.12
1.288
1.402
Full
Load
1.62
1.38
1.13
1.392
1.53
Loads
Table (C.4) SPEED OF GASOLINE FUEL AND ETHANOL (rpm)
Loads
Gasoline
100%
Blend .1
Ethanol 10%
Blend .2
Ethanol 15 %
Blend .3
Ethanol 20 %
Blend .4
Ethanol25%
No
Load
2842
2765
2701
2813
2660
0.25
Load
2471
2665
2514
2450
2493
2327
2393
2321
2355
2377
2260
2228
2143
2209
2178
2230
2075
1770
2155
2055
0.5
Load
0.75
Load
Full
Load
86
Table (C.5) CALCULATED SPECIFIC FUEL CONSUMPTION OF GASOLINE
FUEL AND ETHANOL (L/KW.hr)
Gasoline
100%
Blend .1
Ethanol10%
Blend .2
Ethanol15%
Blend .3
Ethanol20%
Blend .4
Ethanol25
%
No
Load
1.73
1.538
1.467
1.391
1.62
0.25
Load
1.92
1.557
1.45
1.391
1.69
0.5
Load
1.928
1.603
1.512
1.434
1.792
0.75
Load
1.96
1.729
1.576
1.776
1.998
Full
Load
2.076
2.053
1.712
1.988
2.51
Loads
Table (C.6) CALCULATED BRAKE THERMAL EFFICIENCY OF GASOLINE
FUEL AND ETHANOL (L/KW.hr)
Gasoline
100%
Blend .1
Ethanol10%
Blend .2
Ethanol15%
Blend .3
Ethanol20%
Blend .4
Ethanol25
%
No
Load
6
6.72
6.98
7.33
6.26
0.25
Load
5.40
6.51
6.80
7.11
6.00
0.5
Load
5.35
6.45
6.77
6.90
5.66
0.75
Load
5.26
5.98
6.50
5.75
5.14
Full
Load
4.97
5.01
5.20
5.15
4.02
Loads
87