A reconstruction of Middle Preclassic
Mava subsistence economv at
Cahal Pech, Belize
J
J
TERRYG. POWIS,NORBERT
STANCHLY,
CHRISTINED. WHITE,
PAULE HEALY,JAIME J. AWE& FREDLONGSTAFFE*
The recovery of animal and plant remains from the site of Cahal Pech provides data on
early diet and subsistence practices in the Belize Valley region of the Maya lowlands.
Analysis of the material remains suggests that the Middle Preclassic Maya were
practising a mixed subsistence economy relying on agricultural foodstuffs, local
terrestrial game species, freshwater fish and shellfish and marine reef fishes. Isotopic
analysis of human bone is used to aid in the reconstruction of actual food consumption.
Key-words: Belize, Maya, Middle Preclassic, subsistence, isotopic analysis
Introduction
Recent research has revealed that many of the
traditional cultural hallmarks of Classic Maya
civilization (AD 250-900) seem to have had their
origins in the preceding Preclassic or Formative period (2000 BC-AD 250). In particular, there
are strong indications that the Maya made the
transition from a relatively egalitarian to ranked
and stratified society during this early period
of cultural development (Adams & Culbert 1977;
Awe 1992;Hammond 1992; Healy & Awe 1995b).
It is now generally accepted that it was during
the latter half of the Middle Preclassic (Mamom
phase 650-300 BC) that several of the diagnostic traits of complex culture were established
(Hammond 1986: 403; Sharer 1992: 131).
An integral component in studies of increasing cultural complexity is the subsistence
economy which supported that development.
At present, knowledge of late Middle Formative resource utilization and the extent of organized subsistence economies across the Maya
lowlands remains limited. With the notable
exceptions of Cuello (Miksicek 1991; Wing &
Scudder 1991),Cerros (Carr 1986; Cliff & Crane
1989) and Colha (Carr 1985; Shaw 1991), few
sites have yielded substantial subsistence data
dating to this period.
In the upper Belize River Valley region, located in west-central Belize (FIGURE
I),investigations into Preclassic subsistence economies
have only recently begun. Settlement and
midden densities collected from the region
suggest that an extensive swidden agricultural
system (slash-and-burn) was being practiced
in restricted areas during the Middle Formative period (Fedick 1989: 240). Relatively little research has focused on the actual cultigens
exploited by the Formative inhabitants of the
Belize Valley, and there remain significant questions about the degree of importance of maize
(versus other plant and animal foodstuffs) in
the diet at this early date (Healy & Awe 199513:
7). The non-plant component of the Preclassic
diet also needs to be more completely researched.
* Powis, Department of Anthropology, University of Texas, Austin TX 78712, USA. [email protected]
Stanchly, Institute of Archaeology, IJniversity College London, 31-34 Gordon Square, London WC1H OPY, England.
norbert.stanchly8utoronto.ca White, Department of Anthropology, University of Western Ontario, London ONT N6A
5C2, Canada. white28julian.uwo.ca Healy, Office of Research & Graduate Studies, Trent University, Peterborough
ONT K9J 7B8, Canada. phealy8trentu.ca Awe, Department of Sociology & Anthropology, University of New
Hampshire, Durham NH 03824, USA. [email protected] Longstaffe, Department of Earth Sciences, University
of Western Ontario, London ONT N6A 5B7, Canada. [email protected]
Received 5 May 1998, revised 30 September 1998, accepted 1 3 October 1998, revised 4 January 1999.
ANTIQUITY
73 (1999): 364-76
A RECONSTRUCTION OF MIDDLE PRECLASSIC MAYA SUBSISTENCE ECONOMY AT CAHAL PECH, BELIZE
365
FIGURE1.Map of the
Maya area indicating
Preclassic period sites
mentioned in the text.
This study represents an attempt to provide
more substantive data regarding animals and
plants used by the Middle Formative Maya of
the Belize Valley. Combining the animal and
plant remains with analysed isotopic data from
Middle Preclassic contexts at Cahal Pech provides an invaluable opportunity to reconstruct
and illuminate patterns of procurement, con-
sumption, trade and social and ritual use of
specific types of foods. The recovery of these
remains helps to address not only questions
about intra- and inter-site resource utilization
within the valley itself, but also adds to the
understanding of subsistence strategies throughout the Maya lowlands for this early time period.
POWIS, STANCHLY, WHITE, HEALY, AWE & LONGSTAFFE
366
Ch"lt"",
Cabal Pech
Rectified lrome~ricPlan Showing
Tolok
Cahal Pech Site Core
and Immediate Periphery
Cay0 District, Belize
I988 - 1994
Legend
&I'
Nax Che
R.rerro,r
Q
Mound
$
Reservoir
i.'
Sacbe
I
I
I
FIGURE2. Archaeological m a p of Cahal Pech showing peripheral settlement groups mentioned in the
text.
Archaeological investigations at the site of
Cahal Pech have focused considerable attention on Formative period occupation levels (Awe
1992; Healy & Awe 1995b; 1996; see also Ball
& Taschek 1991). One of the long-term objectives of this research was reconstructing subsistence practices throughout the Formative
period. The exploitation of animal and plant
resources by the Preclassic Maya was of specific concern to the present study. Excavations
in the Cahal Pech site core and its peripheral
settlement clusters (Cas Pek, Tolok and Zotz
groups) have yielded over 20,000 faunal remains,
constituting one of the largest assemblages yet
recovered from a lowland Maya site (Stanchly
1995: 125). Several recognized Mesoamerican
cultigens and economically valuable tree species have been identified in the Cahal Pech
archaeobotanicalcollection (Wiesen& Lentz 1997).
Carbonized remains from the site core have also
yielded some of the earliest securely dated maize
cupules and textile-impressed plaster fragments,
probably produced from cotton, in the Maya lowlands (Lawlor et al. 1995: 157-62).
Background
The medium-sized Maya site of Cahal Pech is
situated on an imposing acropolis which overlooks the Belize River (FIGURE
2). The site core
consists of 34 structures arranged around seven
plazas. Investigations in Plaza B of the site core
have documented evidence that suggests the
site was initially settled by the end of the Early
Preclassic (1200-900 BC) period (Awe 1992: 113).
Occupation in the site's periphery began during the late Middle Preclassic (650-300 BC) with
a number of small, dispersed communities being established on hilltops within a 2-km radius of the site core. Some of the best evidence
of animal and plant remains from these early
contexts at Cahal Pech comes from the peripheral settlement cluster known as the Tolok group
A RECONSTRUCTION OF MIDDLE PRECLASSIC MAYA SUBSISTENCE ECONOMY AT CAHAL PECH, BELIZE
367
FIGURE
3. Isometric
m a p of the Tolok
Group, Cahal Pech,
Belize.
(FIGURE
3). The Tolok group is a large settlement group located approximately 500 m to
the southeast of the site core. It consists of 16
mounds which are situated on top of a long,
asymmetrically shaped ridge (Powis 1996: 34).
Investigations into the Formative occupation
levels at Tolok have revealed an abundance of
faunal and floral material, especially from a deeply
buried midden deposit inside Structure 1.
Structure 1 Investigations at Tolok
Excavations at the interior base of Structure 1
revealed the presence of an undisturbed midden
deposit. The midden was found inside an abandoned lateral-shaped chultun (Chultun D), a
subterranean chamber cut into bedrock and used
by the Maya for storage and/or water collection (Powis 1996: 39). Middle Preclassic de-
posits such as this have also been found at the
site of Cuello (Hammond et al. 1995: 124-5).
The overall dimensions of Chultun D were
approximately 3.1 m long x 2.5 m wide x 1.1 m
deep. The Structure 1midden was partly filled
in with a 60-cm layer of charcoal-rich rubbish
that included over 2000 large and unabraded
sherds of vessels belonging to the Chunhinta,
Jocote, Joventud, Savana and Sayab groups (see
Gifford 1976). On the basis of associated ceramics from other valley sites, the midden deposit has been firmly dated to the latter half of
the late Middle Formative period (450-300 BC).
One charcoal sample was collected from the
midden, and sample produced a radiocarbon
date of (Beta-77199) 2220+150 BP, which has a
one-sigma calibrated age range of 390-150 cal
BC (Healy & Awe 1995c: 199-200).
368
POWIS, STANCHLY, WHITE, HEALY, AWE & LONGSTAFFE
scientific name
common name
invertebrates
Pelecypoda
Nephronaias sp.
Gastropoda
Pomacea flagellata
Pachychilus glaphyrus
Pachychilus indiorum
Strombidae
Prunum sp.
Oliva sp.
Scaphopoda
Dentaliuin sp.
Brachyura
bivalves
freshwater pearly oyster
univalves
apple snail (freshwater)
jute snail (freshwater)
jute snail (freshwater)
conchs (marine)
marginellas (marine)
olive shells (marine)
tusk shells
dentalium [marine)
true crabs
vertebrates
Osteichthyes
Scaridae
Sparisoma sp.
Lachnolaimus sp.
Epinephalus sp.
Lutjanidae
Siluriformes
Reptilia
Chelonia
Iguanidae
Aves
Meleagridae
Crux rubra
Mammalia
Didelphis marsupialis
Dasypus novemcinctus
Sylvilagus sp.
Rodentia
Agouti paca
Canis familiaris
Odocoileus virginianus
Mazama americana
bony fish
parrotfish (marine)
parrotfish (marine)
hogfish (marine)
grouper (marine)
snapper (marine)
catfish (freshwater)
reptiles
turtles (freshwater)
iguanas
birds
turkeys
great currasow
mammals
common opossum
nine-banded armadillo
forest rabbit
rodents
paca
domestic dog
white-tailed deer
red brocket deer
Although only a small proportion of the assemblage has been identified, preliminary analysis of the material indicates that the Middle
Formative Maya of the Tolok group exploited
various niches within their local environment
and enjoyed access to non-local animal resources, including reef fishes and shellfish
species. The exploitation of a wide variety of
resources is a familiar occurrence in Formative Maya faunal assemblages and is a reflection of the inhabitants’ familiarity with the
diversity present in tropical ecosystems (Carr
1985; Hamblin 1984; Pohl 1985a; Shaw 1991;
Stanchly 1995; Wing & Scudder 1991).
Terrestrial animals
Local terrestrial species are represented by both
white-tailed deer ( Odocoileus virginianus) and
the smaller red brocket deer ( M a z a m a
arnericana), agouti (Agouti paca), armadillo
(Dasypusnovemcinctus), rabbit (Sylvilagussp.),
domestic dog (Canisfamiliaris), opossum (Didelphis marsupialis), and small rodents (Family Rodentia) (TABLE2). With the possible
exception of the rodents, all of the above species would have been consumed by the Maya.
Avian species identified include turkey (Family Meleagrididae) and currasow (Crux rubra).
The majority of the reptile remains belong to
an as yet unidentified species of turtle, while
some lizards (cf. iguana) are present.
Marine fish and shellfish
Fish remains include both local freshwater fish
such as catfish (Family Siluriformes) and several marine reef fishes including parrotfish (Family
Scaridae), hogfish (Family Labridae), grouper
TABLE1. List of identified taxa recovered from the
(Family Serrenidae), and snapper (Family
Structure 1 midden deposit at the Tolok group,
Lutjanidae). The presence of marine fish-skull
Cahal Pech, Belize.
elements, some of which exhibited evidence
of heat alteration, suggests that they were imFaunal remains
A total of 5674 bone and shell remains were re- ported whole, processed and consumed on site.
covered from the midden deposit, representing This also suggests that many of the postcranial
local terrestrial, freshwater, avian and domestic elements present could represent marine spespecies, as well as marine species (TABLE1). cies as well. However, the majority of these are
Mammal, fish, bird, reptile, univalve and bivalve considered to be non-diagnostic elements (e.g.
vertebrae, spines) and therefore identification
species have been identified (TABLES
2 & 3). To
date, 2871 (or 50.6% of the total assemblage)have to the species level will not be possible. The
been identified to the level of zoological order or presence of marine fishes can only be attriblower taxon. All of the invertebrate remains have uted to trade or direct exploitation of the Carbeen identified to order or lower taxon while only ibbean coastal environment by the Cahal Pech
Maya, as the site lies some 110 km from the
74 bones (or 2.3% of the vertebrate sample) remains have been identified below the class level. Caribbean coast.
A RECONSTRUCTION OF MIDDLE PRECLASSIC MAYA SUBSISTENCE ECONOMY AT CAHAL PECH, BELIZE
Marine shell remains identified include
queen conch (Strombus gigas), tusk shells
(Dentalia sp.), olive shells (Oliva sp.) and
marginella shells (Prunumsp.). Two crab claws
(Brachyura)were also noted (TABLE
3 ) . All parts
of the conch shell were found in the midden
assemblage. The recovery of lip, shoulder, spine
and columella fragments indicates that some
specimens were imported whole. This marine
shell species may have been consumed andlor
used by the Maya in the manufacture of shell
ornaments. The presence of Middle Preclassic
shell ornament production has been identified
in the Cas Pek group at Cahal Pech (Lee & Awe
1995) as well as at Pacbitun, located approximately 1 2 km south of Cahal Pech (Hohmann
& Powis 1996).
Fresh water shellfish
Freshwater snails and clams account for half
(49.3%) of the faunal assemblage and include
at least two species of the jute snail ( P glaphyrus
and P indiorrrm), the apple snail (Pomacea
flagellata) and local river clam (Nephronaias
sp.) (see TABLE3 ) . The recovery of these broken, discarded shellfish remains in the midden
may indicate that they were an important food
source for the site’s inhabitants during the
Formative period. Indeed, excavations at
Pacbitun have showed high concentrations of
both freshwater snails and clams. Investigations
in Plaza B of the site core have resulted in the
recovery of more than 230,000 freshwater
mollusca dating to the Middle Formative period (Hohmann & Powis 1996: 121). Large quantities of freshwater shell species, particularly
Nephronaias sp., have also been recovered from
Preclassic contexts at the sites of Blackman Eddy
(n = 21,000) (Garber et al. 1997: 15) and Barton
Ramie (n = 765) (Willey et al. 1965: 504-7). It
has been suggested by researchers that these
freshwater shellfish served a dual role in Formative Maya society as both a dietary supplement
and ritual item (Healy et al. 1990: 180; MoholyNagy 1978; Pohl1985b: 109; Powis 1997).
Archaeobotanical remains
Five soil samples (8-10 litres each] were collected from the Structure 1midden. These samples were subjected to water flotation analysis.
The carbonized plant remains recovered (total
weight = 6.0 g) were delivered to the archaeobotany lab at the New York Botanical Garden
369
taxon
NISP
Osteichthyes
Sparisoma sp.
Lachnolaimus sp.
Epinephalus sp.
Lutjanidae
Siluriformes
unidentified fish
Reptilia
Chelonia
Iguanidae
Sauria
unidentified reptile
Aves
Meleagridae
Crax rubra
unidentified bird
Mammalia
Odocoileus Virginianus
Mazama americana
Agouti paca
Didelphis marsupialis
Didelphidae
Dasypus novemcinctus
Rodentia
Canis familiaris
Sylvilagus sp.
unidentified mammal
class unknown
2072
16
1
1
1
3
2050
19
3
2
1
13
37
1
1
35
423
15
1
6
8
1
3
5
3
2
379
326
13
9
1
1
1
1
36.5
3
1
1
1
0.3
2
1
1
0.7
13
2
1
2
2
1
1
2
1
1
7.5
-
5.7
totals
2877
62
50.7
MNI
YO
-
-
-
-
TABLE2. List of vertebrate frequencies identified
in the Structure 1 midden at the Tolok group.
taxon
NISP
Pelecypoda
Nephronaias sp.
Gastropoda
Pachychilus glaphyrus
Pomacea flagellata
Pachychil us in diorum
Pachychilus sp.
Strombidae
Scaphopoda
Dentalium sp.
Prunum sp.
Oliva sp.
Brachyura
2143
2143
631
300
159
117
29
22
19
19
3
1
4
923
923
570
298
120
114
29
5
37.8
-
0.3
3
1
2
0.1
totals
2797
1495
49.3
MNI
OO
/
11.1
TABLE3. List of invertebrate frequencies identified
in the Structure 1 midden at Tolok.
370
POWIS, STANCHLY, WHITE, HEALY, AWE & LONGSTAFFE
sample no.
taxonlpart
weight (8)
CP-9450-004
Pinus sp. charcoal
hardwood charcoal
spermatophyte tissue
unknown rind
CP-9450.007
Astronium sp. charcoal
Cucurbita sp. rind
Pinus sp. charcoal
cf. Psidium guajava rind
hardwood charcoal
unknown bark
.23
.14
.21
.02
.44
1.15
.65
.08
i.01
<.01
CP-9450-006
Aspidosperma sp. charcoal .16
cf. Nectrandra sp. charcoal .01
Pinus sp. charcoal
2.31
Zea m a y s kernels
.05
hardwood charcoal
.26
CP-9450-009
Pinus sp. charcoal
hardwood charcoal
total
.30
.06
6.00
TABLE4. List of palaeobotanical remains
identified in the Structure 1 m i d d e n at Tolok.
for analysis. The identification of charred seeds,
fruit rinds, corn-cob fragments, wood charcoal
fragments and other non-woody plant parts
suggests that the late Middle Formative residents of Cahal Pech, including the Tolok group,
were agriculturalists who cultivated and harvested a number of local plant communities
for both fuel and construction purposes (Wiesen
& Lentz 1997). The diversity of cultigens and
timber products represented in the Cahal Pech
assemblage is reflected, with few exceptions,
in the Structure 1 midden at the Tolok group
(TABLE
4).
Economic species
Two traditionally recognized Mesoamerican
cultigens, maize (Zea m a y s ) a n d squash
(Cucurbita sp.), were identified in the Tolok
midden. Despite their low occurrence, particularly maize ( ~ 0 . 0g),
1 they have been recovered
from other Middle Preclassic contexts in the
group. The early presence of these remains at
Tolok and elsewhere in the Cahal Pech area is
not surprising as they are known to have been
important staples of the Maya diet during the
Classic and Postclassic periods. Another Maya
staple, the common bean (Phaseolus sp.), was
not recovered from the Tolok midden. However, it has been found in Structure B-4 S-Sub,
an early Late Formative structure (300-100 BC)
located in the site core of Cahal Pech (Wiesen
& Lentz 1997: 13).
Other edible or otherwise utilized domestic
and wild species of plant remains recovered
from the Tolok midden include wild fig (Ficus
sp.) charcoal fragments, a guava fruit cast (cf.
Psidium guajava), and a number of identifiable
wood charcoals such as pine (Pinus sp.), glassy
wood (Astronium graveolens), malady (Aspidosperma sp.) and aguacatillo (Nectandra sp.)
(see TABLE
4). Pine charcoal represents the most
frequently identified species of the entire carbonized plant remains collection. This pattern
is repeated at other Maya sites such as Cuello
(Miksicek 1991: 75-6) and Yarumela (Lentz et
al. 1997: 70), suggesting a widely distributed
reliance on pine. Other macro-remains possibly used as timber sources were the three large
deciduous forest species called glassy wood,
aguacatillo and malady. Importantly, the only
other previous recording of the use of malady
in the Maya area was at the site of CerBn, El
Salvador, where it was determined to have been
part of a collapsed roof structure (Wiesen& Lentz
1997: 11; Lentz 1996: 257).
Missing species
Although a variety of carbonized plant remains
have been identified in the Tolok midden, there
is an absence of certain plant species (e.g.rambn,
coyol palm, cotton) and root crops (e.g. manioc,
malanga) that have been recovered from other
Maya sites (see Hather & Hammond 1994;
Webster et al. 1997: 58). This absence may be
the result of various taphonomic processes and/
or recovery techniques. Missing species such
as ram6n (Brosimum alicastzum), coyol palm
(Acrocomia aculeata) and cotton (Gossypium
sp.) have been identified elsewhere in Middle
Formative occupation levels at Cahal Pech
(Lawlor e t a ] . 1995: 157; Wiesen & Lentz 1997:
14-16).
Isotopic evidence from human bone
Animals and plants recovered from archaeological sites denote possible ancient menus, but
by themselves they cannot be used to reconstruct actual food consumption. It is important
to know which available resources were selected
for consumption by the Formative Maya and
A RECONSTRUCTION OF MIDDLE PRECLASSIC MAYA SUBSISTENCE ECONOMY AT CAHAL PECH, BELIZE
371
H Tolok (B.C.)
,.
I
terrestrial herbivore meat
c4
reef
mollusc
and
shellfish
meat
23 N2-fixing plants
I
-30
-25
-20
-15
6 l 3 C (%o, VPDB)
Cue110
reef
fish
meat
CAM
C3 plants
Tolok (A.D.)
A
Lamanai
0 Altar
0 Seibal
0
A
0
-io
-5
FIGURE
4. Isotopic
composition of
potentially important
Maya foods showing
data from selected
Formative period
Lowland Maya sites.
[Carbon values
include 5%o
fractionation factor
specific to bone
collagen.) Ranges for
food categories were
constructed from
data of Wright 11994)
and Tykot et al.
( 1 966).
which were consumed consistently enough, and
in quantities large enough, to have been nutritionally significant. Isotopic analysis of human
bone provides a direct means of bridging the
distance from menu to meal.
The isotopic composition of foods expected
to be of greatest importance at Tolok, and to
4. Most
the Maya in general, is shown in FIGURE
of the cultigens and wild plants in the Maya
area use a C3 photosynthetic pathway and have
6I3Cvalues close to -27%0. Significantly, maize
uses a C4 pathway and has a 613Cvalue closer
to -9.5% (Schwarcz et al. 1985). The only other
C4 plants possibly available to the Maya which
might confound the maize signature would be
amaranth (amaranths spp.), epazote (Chenopod i u m ambrosoides) and the CAM plants; nopal
cactus (Opuntia),and pinuela (Bromeliakaratas)
(Wright & White 1996). None of these, however, are expected to have been consumed in
any significant quantity by the Maya. Archaeological plants will have 613C values which are
1.5%0higher than the modern plants on which
these averages are based, because photosynthetic
carbon is derived completely from atmospheric
CO,, and fossil fuel burning has produced a
decrease in the 6% of atmospheric carbon
(Marino & McElroy 1991).
The plant values at the base of the food chain
are passed on with a systematic fractionation
of about 5%0 to their consumers. Thus, the 613C
of human bone collagen will also include the
6I3Cof consumed animals. Collagen is thought
to represent the total protein component of the
diet (i.e. plant plus animal protein) (Ambrose
& Norr 1993). Most terrestrial animals in the
Maya area consume C3 plants, but deer, peccary and dog, may have consumed significant
quantities of maize from raiding plots, scavenging or purposeful feeding. There is intersite
variability in the degree to which these animals consumed maize (Reed 1994; Tykot et al.
1996; van der Merwe et al. 1994; White &
Schwarcz 1989; White et al. 1993; White et al.
1997). Marine fish and marine molluscs also
have signatures that are more C4-like than their
freshwater counterparts. Stable nitrogen isotope
ratios can be used to distinguish the consumption of marine fish from C4 plants, and freshwater fish from C3 plants (e.g. root crops).
POWIS, STANCHLY, WHITE, HEALY, AWE & LONGSTAFFE
372
burial
no.
Protoclassic period
mean
SD
age
7
8
9"
10
*
%
615N
C/N
yield
%
8.4
7.7
8.1
0.5
3.6
3.3
3.4
0.2
1.6
5.1
3.4
2.5
-
Yo
[AD 200-300)
4-5
17-26
?
f
Late Middle Preclassic period (650-300
Tolok Group
mean
SD
6I3C
sex
<6
17-26
?
f
-13.0
-11.3
-12.1
1.2
BC)
-14.5
-13.8
8.4
3.9
3.3
1.2
3.6
-12.8
1.3
8.2
0.4
3.4
0.2
3.4
1.8
excluded from analysis, suspected diagenesis
However, shellfish consumption is more difficult to identify specifically. Freshwater shellfish fall within the range of C3 plants, and reef
shellfish overlap considerably with C4 plants.
This problem is further complicated by the fact
that the marine food web for 3elize and the
Caribbean has markedly different isotopic values from marine webs in other parts of the world
(Keegan & DeNiro 1988; Tykot et al. 1996; van
der Merwe et al. 1994).
With the exception of nitrogen-fixing plants
such as beans, plant types are not distinguishable by their nitrogen isotope ratios. Nitrogen
isotopes are, however, useful in determining
food-chain levels of resources because lSN is
fractionated at each trophic level. Particular to
the Maya area, freshwater fish are the most
enriched in I5N, followed in order by marine
fish and terrestrial animals.
TABLE5. Sample
description, isotopic
and C/N results for
the four intrusive
burials recovered
from inside round
Structure 14 at the
Tolok group.
low (mean = 2.88%+1.8). Although there is no
statistically significant correlation between yield
and either 613Cvalues or P 5 N values, the sample size is small. C/N ratios falling within the
range of 2.9 to 3.7 (DeNiro 1985) generally indicate preservation of the primary values. The
mean for Tolok C/N ratios (3.510.3) is within
that range, but the low yield, high C/N ratio
and high 613C value for Burial 9 suggest that
this individual may have been diagenetically
altered and it is, therefore, excluded from the
analysis.
Results
The mean 6I3C value for the Tolok group is 12.8 +1.3o/oO,which is very close to the general
Preclassic values at the Belizean sites of Lamanai
(-12.7%0)and Cuello (-13.0%0)(Tykot et al. 1996;
van der Merwe et al. 1994; White & Schwarcz
1989).Preclassic samples from Seibal (-9.6%0)
and Altar de Sacrificios (-10.4%0)(Wright 1994)
Sample and method
Stable carbon and nitrogen isotope ratios of bone have higher values suggesting significantly
collagen were analysed for four individuals (Buri- greater maize consumption at other contempoals 7-10) recovered from the Tolok group (TABLE raneous sites (TABLE6 & FIGURE4). The 613C
5). The burials were intrusive into Structure 14, results therefore seem to support archaeologia late Middle Preclassic round building which is cal evidence modelling a broad subsistence base
contemporaneous in date with the Structure 1 where maize is an important component of the
midden (Powis 1996:54-7,77-84). 'Collagen' was diet, but does not dominate it. Within the Tolok
extracted from crushed bone using an adaptation sample, maize consumption in the earlier time
of the Longin (1971)procedure to maximize yield period (late Middle Formative period) appears
(White et al. 1993).Reproductability on the mass to be markedly lower (-134%0)than in the later
spectrometer is generally better than
for (Protoclassic period) time period (-12.1%").This
might denote an increase of maize production
duplicate samples.
Sample integrity was assessed using 'colla- after 400 BC and a corresponding shift to a more
gen' yields and C/N ratios (see TABLE5). Due limited subsistence base (White et al. 1996: 8to poor preservation, collagen yield is expectedly 9). Notably, however, these temporal patterns
A RECONSTRUCTION OF MIDDLE PRECLASSIC MAYA SUBSISTENCE ECONOMY AT CAHAL PECH, BELIZE
N
YO
Preclassic period
Cahal Pech*
Lamanai
Seibal
Altar d e Sacrificios
Cuello
7
2
7
8
26
-12.1
-12-7
-9.6
-10.4
-13.0
Late Classic period
Cahal Pech (Zotz)
Lamanai
Pacbitun
Altar d e Sacrificios
Dos Pilas
Seibal
3
3
3
7
14
11
-10.6
-14.2
-8.5
-8.3
-9.0
-9.4
*
N
8'N
SD
references
9.1
10.2
9.7
8.4
8.9
1.1
1.0
0.6
1.1
6
2
7
8
21
0.8
0.7
0.6
White et al. 1996
White & Schwarcz 1989
Wright 1994
Wright 1994
van de Merwe et al. 1996
0.6
1.1
1.3
1.0
1.0
1.4
3
2
3
5
15
11
10.1
10.3
9.3
8.2
9.8
9.9
1.1
0.1
0.6
0.6
0.9
0.9
White et al. 1996
White & Schwarcz 1989
White et al. 1993
Wright 1994
Wright 1994
Wright 1994
SD
a
1
3
c
%
373
1.6
-
-
mean values for Cahal Pech include burials from Cas Pek, Tolok and Zotz peripheral groups
TABLE6. Temporal and geographical comparison of Cahal Pech with other Maya Preclassic samples.
14 I
0
12-
CAS PEK - Trans
A CAS PEK - LPre
10-
2n
Q
E
z
v,
3
8-
6-
9
4-
shellfish
meat
2-
C3 N2-fixing plants
-35
-30
-25
I
I
-20
-15
6 l 3 C (%o, VPDB)
should be further tested with more samples dating to this time period.
Previous isotopic analysis on the Cahal Pech
skeletal assemblage has also documented spatial differences in maize consumption (White
et al. 1996). The peripheral Tolok settlement
group appears to be consuming less maize than
-10
-5
FIGURE
5.
Comparative isotopic
data from peripheral
settlement groups at
Cahal Pech, Belize.
the more central and higher status Cas Pek and
Zotz groups, which have 613Cvalues of -10.6
f1.0%, and -106 k0.6%0respectively (FIGURE
5) (White et af. 1996: 6-9). As craft specialists,
the Cas Pek residents may have experienced
higher status. If so, the dietary distinction might
indicate that maize was socially valued dur-
3 74
POWIS, STANCHLY, WHITE, HEALY, AWE & LONGSTAFFE
ing the Formative period. The 615Nvalues (mean
= 9.5%0)of the Cas Pek group suggest the consumption of reef fishes here was even greater
than at the Tolok group (White et d. 1996).
The combined FI5N and 613C values in the
Tolok sample indicate that meat consumption
was a mixture of terrestrial herbivores, reef fish
and possibly some freshwater fish. The isotopic
data seem to support a model derived from the
faunal analysis of a mixed subsistence base in
which terrestrial herbivores and reef fish are
important; however, they do not indicate that
either freshwater shellfish or fish were consistently consumed in quantities large enough to
register an isotopic distinction in bone. Compared
to other Preclassic samples, protein resources
consumed by the Tolok group were similar to those
at Cuello (8.9 kO.6%0)(van der Merwe et al. 1994)
and Altar de Sacrificios(8.4k0.7%0)(Wright1994),
but more freshwater fish were consumed at
Lamanai (10.2%,) (White & Schwarcz 1989) and
Seibal (9.7 kO.8%) (Wright 1994). Domesticated
dog remains have also been found in greater quantities at other Preclassic sites. For example, dog
remains at Tolok constituted less than 1%of the
total Preclassic faunal assemblage compared to
7% at Cuello (Wing & Scudder 1991: 88-95) and
34% at Dzibilchaltun (Wing 1975: 381). Isotopically,it is difficult to determine whether dogs,
specifically, were consumed. It is possible to talk
about the general source of protein (from &5N)
which may have included dogs, but there is no
way of knowing whether it did or not. And if
dogs were consumed and they were fed maize,
they could also be contributing to the maize consumption indicated by the 613Cvalues.
Although the sample in this study is small
(3burials), when compared with other sites these
data increase knowledge about geographical
similarity and variability in diet. In general,
the isotopic values support faunal, botanical
and archaeological evidence of a broad subsistence base which includes maize and significant quantities of long-distance reef resources
provided on a regular, long-term basis (White
et ~ l1996:
.
10).The temporal difference in P C
within the Tolok group suggests a possible subsistence shift during the Formative period. In
addition, the comparison of the Tolok group
diet with that of other settlement groups from
the Middle to the Late Formative period may
indicate differentiation by social status within
the Cahal Pech community.
Conclusion
The information gleaned from the Structure 1
midden in the Tolok group provides significant
new data on Middle Formative Maya diet and
subsistence practices. Preliminary results of the
analysis of the animal and plant remains mirror a fairly common pattern seen in Maya
archaeofaunas and archaeobotanical remains;
that is, the utilization of a wide variety of resources reflective of the diversity seen in tropical
ecosystems.
This analysis of animal and plant remains from
Cahal Pech has documented that the Middle
Formative Maya were agriculturalists whose diet
consisted, in part, of such cultivated plants as
maize, beans and squash. The products of the
coyol palm, as well as the ram6n and fig trees,
also contributed to Formative Maya food preparations. Their diet was further supplemented by
amixture of terrestrialherbivores (e.g.deer, agouti),
marine reef fish (e.g.parrotfish, grouper)and small
quantities of freshwater fish (e.g. catfish) and
shellfish (e.g. river snail and clam).
The identification of marine fishes and other
marine resources in Preclassic Maya faunal
assemblages is not in itself rare ( C a n 1985; Shaw
1991; Wing & Scudder 1991); however, most
of these assemblages have been recovered from
sites on or near the Caribbean coast where procurement of marine resources would have been
more easily facilitated. The presence of Caribbean reef fishes found so far inland at this early
date suggests that the Maya were able to preserve these fishes so that they would not spoil
during the IlO-km trek up river. We suggest
that the Preclassic Maya may have been salting or smoking marine fishes for inland transport. Salt-making communities dating to the
Late to Terminal Classic have been identified
along the Caribbean coast of Belize (MacKinnon
& Kepecs 1989; McKillop 1995: 225). The presence of marine fishes at several inland sites
found in Formative contexts may indicate that
salt-making technology was known by the
Preclassic Maya. Although no evidence for
Preclassic salt-making communities have been
found along the Belizean coast, this may be
because such communities may now be inundated by rising sea levels (Dunn & Mazzullo
1993:123). An alternative method of inland
transport may have been by keeping live fish
in canoes partly filled with saltwater from the
sea (Norman Hammond pers. comm.).
A RECONSTRUCTION OF MIDDLE PRECLASSIC MAYA SUBSISTENCE ECONOMY AT CAHAL PECH, BELIZE
375
Regardless of the method of transport, the
presence of marine fishes at Tolok has far-reaching implications for an understanding of not
only Formative period subsistence patterns, but
also of trade networks and coastal exploitation
by the Maya. Moreover, pertinent information
regarding ancient Maya technology, that is
marine fish procurement and processing techniques (e.g. salt drying or smoking), will also
be gained from analysis of the presence of reef
fishes in the Cahal Pech assemblage. What is
not clear from the analysis of the midden material is the exact nature of access to marine
resources by the Preclassic Tolok inhabitants.
However, it is certain that these inhabitants had
sustained access to coastal resources during both
the Middle and Late Formative periods by direct exploitation or through trading networks.
Further analysis and interpretation of this
material will allow archaeologists to attain a better understanding of the role both fauna and flora
Acknowledgements. Investigations at Cahal Pech were licensed by the government of Belize through the Department of Archaeology. Funding for research was provided
by the Social Sciences and Humanities Research Council
(SSHRC) of Canada. Particular thanks are extended to Bobbi
Hohmann and Sam Wilson for editorial suggestions a n d to
Andrew Allan for producing the computer graphics. Identification of the faunal assemblage has been made with t h e
aid of the skeletal reference collections housed i n the Department of Paleobiology, Royal Ontario Museum. We thank
Kevin Seymour for allowing u s access to this collection.
David Cruz, Carolyn Doherty a n d Karen Kisiel are also
thanked for their assistance with t h e zooarchaeological
analysis. Kim Law is thanked for processing and collection of the isotopic data. We want to express our special
appreciation to David Lentz and Anne Wiesen of the New
York Botanical Garden for their analysis of t h e
palaeobotanical samples.
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