,
Exhbit No. 6 - tabled 24 February 2015 - Inquiry into AG Rpt No. 5 of 2013
Background briefings on emerging issues for
fire manage r s from AFAC and Bushfi re CRC.
bushfi re CRC afac O
FIREFIGHTER HEALTH AND SAFETY
SUMMARY
Each )'Car, thousands uf Australasian c.u·ccr and vo lunteer firefighters baule bushfires
in bot h rural and rural-urban interlace areas. In doing so, tl1 ey race num erous hazards ,
including hea t (from th e fi re, weather, rn1d their own phys ical exer tion), smoke, dust,
noi se and chemical age nts. Furthermore, bushfire-s uppressi on duties i.nvolvc long
workin g hours with pe riod s of hi gh-inten sity phys ica l labour. The combination of such
stressors places considerable ph ys iological, psychological a nd emotional strain on a
fi refighter, which m ay result in fatigue, impaired judgement , un safe behaviour, accidents,
injuries, and, in ve ry rare cases, death.
The hea lth and safet y uf firdi ghtcrs is centra l lo sa!eg uarding the public from th e annual
deva stat ion caused by bushfire. Austral ian firefighter health and safet y l1 ;is not , h oweve r,
been th orough ly researched. 111is cloctun cn t reviews findi ngs of Bush fi re CRC resea rch
on firefigh ter hea lth and safety r isks, and explores how poss ible in ter vention s, such as
fitness for du ty recommendatio ns and hydration strategies, cou ld mi tiga te fi relighte r
health risks.
ABOUT T HI S FIRE N OTE
Thi s document p rovides a cur ren t overview of the key fin d in gs lo dale fro m th e Bushfire
CRC Firefigh ter Hea lth and Safety research projec t.
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AUTHORS: Dr Brad Aisbell (right), Lecturer, School of Exe rcise and
Nutrition Sciences, Deakin Universil)'; Brianna Larsen , School of
Ex~rci se and Nutriti on Sciences, Deakin Universil)'; Davi d Nicho ls,
Ma nage r, Research and Develo pm ent, Co untr y Fire Au thority.
CONTEXT
The health and safety of firefighters
is essential in preparing for, and the
suppression of, bushfire which threatens the
landscape on an annual basis. The Bushfire
CRC research explained here examines the
major health and safety risks which threaten
today's firefighting community, and explores
potential interventions that may help negate
such risks,
BACKGROUND
Volunteer and career firefighters from
Australasia's fire and land management
agencies conduct a wide variety of duties
in preparation for, and the suppression
of, bushfires. Recent statistics indicate
that approximately 220,000 people act as
volunteer members of Australia's rural
fire agencies (REFERENCE i). As these
men and women provide the backbone
of the nation's defence against bushfire,
dedicated research devised to preserve
firefighters' health and safety is vital for the
sustainability of this service.
I FIRE NOTE
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BUSHFIRE CRC RESEARCH
The Bushfire CRC has been researching
Australian firefighter health and safely
throughout the last seven years in a
cooperative effort between fire agencies
and research providers. Volunteer and paid
staff, primarily from fire-tanker based rural
fire agencies, participated in the research.
The most prominent findings in regards
to firefighter health and safety risks are
presented in this document, as well as possible
interventions which could reduce the impact
of such risks.
Major Health and Safety Risks
In a review of five-to-10 year injury statistics
from three fire agencies in south-easlern
Australia, the leading causes of on-duty
firefighter injuries were determined to be:
• Musculoskeletal strains and sprains ( 1141 per cent) (8).
• Smoke exposure (2-8 per cent) (8).
• Heat stress (2-6 per cent) (8).
Overseas injury rates for least-fit firefighters
have been shown to be 6.3 per cent higher
than for their most-fit counterparts (9) . Low
levels of cardiovascular fitness have also
been associated with increased injury risk
during manual handling tasks (for example,
manoeuvring charged hoses or using
handtools such as a rake hoe or axe) (10).
Also, increases in cardiovascular fitness and/or
muscular strength have been shown to directly
decrease the likelihood of injury in firefighters
over a five-year period (11). As such,
firefighter fitness is likely to be an extremely
important element in promoting successful
bushfire preparation and suppression.
Firefighter Fitness Levels
Considering the impact that fitness levels
could have on the firefighter population and
subsequenl bushfire management, the fitness
levels of Australasian firefighters are not well
documented. The small amounl of research
into this area suggests that the fitness of the
firefighter p0pulation is no better than that of
the gen~ral population for the corresponding
sex and age group (12) :
• Cardiovascular fitness levels of paid
personnel are found to be no different
from the 'average' fitness of the
Australian population for that age
range (12).
• Sixty-six per cent of the firefighters
tested have two or more risk factors for
cardiovascular disease (13).
• At least 50 per cent of male
firefighters and 33 per cent of female
firefighters over 40 years of age have
an absolute coronary heart disease
risk greater than 'low risk' for their
age group and sex (13).
"
These statistics suggest problem areas,
particularly given that rural firefighters must
perform intense physical work bouts when
fighting bushfires (8). Cardiovascular events such
as chest pain, heart attack and stroke are often
associated with physical over-exettion (10).
To delermine Lhe required fitness
levels of rural firefighters, the level of
cardiovascular fitness associated with their
bushfire suppression duties needs to be
determined. Fire agencies that can identify
the cardiovascular fitness demands of key
fireground tasks are able to recommend the
fitness levels their firefighters should aspire
to in order to complete their duties safely and
productively. The American College of Sports
Medicine (ACSM) states that cardiovascular
fitness is determined by the frequency,
intensity, duration and type (or mode) of
activity performed (14). The Bushfire CRC
research team sought to quantify the ACSM
cardiovascular fitness factors with the aim
of providing recommendations for the
level of cardiovascular fitness necessary for
firefighting duties.
Key Fire Suppression Activities
Thirty-si.x volunteer firefighters (with an
average of21 years of experience) were
surveyed in order to identify the type of
tasks performed during bushfire suppression
(15). The most physically demanding tasks
identified by the volunteer firefighters
included:
• Advancing and repositioning 38mm
charged hoses ( 15).
• Using hand tools (such as rake hoe
or axe) to create firebreaks or during
blacking out activities (15) .
Frequent, important and physically
demanding tasks are often termed 'critical'
to job performance (16). The critical tasks
highlighted during the survey process were
characterised by carry, drag and dig actions
( 15 ). Respondents believed that the critical
tasks challenged firefighters' endurance and
strength-endurance capacities (15) .
Fire Suppression Task Intensity
Bushfire CRC research has shown that
bushfire suppression duties comprise
intermittent periods of intense work separated.
by longer periods oflower level labour and/
or rest (17). The research has also shown that
the work-rate for 'critical' fireground tasks (as
identified in 'Key Fire Suppression Activities')
reaches between 70 per cent to 95 per cent
of firefighters' maximal age-predicted heart
rate. This is classified as 'hard' to 'very hard'
work by ACSM (14, i5, 17). Across a shift of
10 hours, firefighters' heart rates were found
to reach 54 per cent (plus-or-minus five per
cent) of their age-predicted maximum and
peak at 92 per cent (plus-or-minus nine per
cent) (17).
Duration oflntense Work
Research investigating the durations spent
at different work intensities is still in the
preliminary stages. Analysis of the existing
data suggests that 'hard' work efforts (with
heart rates between 70 per cent and 90 per
cent of maximal age-predicted heart rate)
during bushfire suppression are sustained
for between 20 to 180 seconds at a time, and
occur approximately every 13 minutes across
a day-long shift (18). During emergency
bushfires, firefighters' heart rates have been
shown to be above 70 per cent of their
maximum for 15 per cent of their shift (or for
nine minutes every hour) (18).
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FIRE NOTE I
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END USER STATEMENT
"As a result of th e research Lhal ha>
bee n co ndu c ted lo dale through th e
Bu,h lirc CRC ', Jin: agencies are creating
a so und scie nli!ic foundation fo r Ll;c
de\'elopm enl orfuture slrat egie> to
minimise: the im pac t or fitn css- rcl.itcd
hazards facing ou r firelight ers on th e
fire ground.
Fire-Suppression Activities, Intensities and
Durations - Key Findings
• The most 'critical' (that is, most
frequent, important and physically
demanding) tasks performed when
fighting bushfire include advancing,
lateral and full repositioning of a
charged 38mm hose, together with
using a manual tool during blacking out
activities.
• These tasks are characterised by carry,
drag, and dig actions and challenge
firefighters' endurance and strengthendurance capabilities.
• Bushfire suppression duties are
characterised by intermittent (from 20
to 180 seconds) period of intense work
(greater than 70 per cent of maximal
heart rate) periods separated by longer
periods (65-80 per cent of a shift) of
lower level labour and/or rest.
Current Fitness Testing Methods
At present, most volunteer firefighters do not
undertake fit-for-duty testing before they are
deployed to the fireground (1). One exception
is the Australian Capital Territory Rural Fire
Service (ACT RFS), which has implemented
two tests:
1. The Pack Hike Test (PHT) used to
screen personnel prior to interstate
deployments.
2. The Field Walk Test (FWT) used to
screen personnel for their suitability to
fight fires within the ACT.
Research was undertaken comparing the
finishing times for the PHT and FWT tests
in comparison with the completion times
of key fire suppression duties to establish
whether these tests accurately represented
firefighters' work-rates during critical bushfire
fighting tasks (19). Firefighter finishing times
on the PHT and FWT were shown to be
moderately (though statistically significantly)
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"\11.'e have known [o r many yea rs th at
we needed lo und ers tand more about
th e impact or the ph ysical wo rk, heal,
hydra ti on, fatigue mid fitness on our
peop le. Already age ncies are using
th e outcomes of the resea rch to start
educating our peop le and impl ementing
wellness strat egies lo help them manage
their own fitness and well being:'
correlated with the finishing time for the
critical tasks ( 19). Generally, however, the
two tests overestimate the work intensity of
routine tanker-based bushfire fighting tasks
(19). The overestimation of work intensity
findings, coupled with the differences between
the core movements and actions of the FWT
and PHT (prolonged load carriage) compared
with the movements and actions for tankerbased bushfire suppression (carry, drag, dig,
rake ( 15)), suggest that the two tests may not
adequately reflect the inherent challenges
of fighting bushfires from fire tankers (19).
Tanker-based agencies could consider
devising and trialling fit for duty tests that are
more representative of actual work demands
than the PHT and the FWT.
- Robyn Pearce, Director Human
Services, Tasmania Fire Service
dehydrated state and remain dehydrated
throughout the day despite being aware of
the physical tasks and duties that they will
be required to perform (24). Dehydration
can increase heart rate during physical
work, which may increase firefighters'
risk of cardiovascular strain during or
after their shift (24). Such dehydrationmediated cardiovascular strain may be
particularly hazardous for older, less-fit
firefighters .
Hydration Strategies
Heat Stress and Hydration
Heat stress has been shown to be one of the
lop three leading causes of injury during fire
suppression (8). Bushfircs most often occur
in hot, dry weather and produce extreme
radiant heat. Heat stress caused by the weather
conditions and the fire is exacerbated by a
firefighter's own exertion (20) and personal
protective clothing (21). The combined heat
load faced by rural firefighters increases their
risk of developing heat exhaustion, which may
render firefighters incapable of continuing
their work (22). Heat exhaustion can be
prevented or lessened by:
• Increasing cardiovascular fitness.
• Losing excess body fat.
• Acclimatising to work in warm to hot
weather before the fire season (8).
Factors that may increase the risk of
developing heat exhaustion during physical
work include:
• Sunburn.
• Alcohol consumption.
• Recent illness.
• Dehydration (23).
Bushfire CRC research has shown that
firefighters often arrive at a shift in a
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Based on sporting hydration guidelines
(25), researchers have studied the impact
on firefighter work and physiology of
consuming 500 ml of water before bushfire
fighting (26). It was found that additional
fluids provided no additional benefit
to the firefighters (26). Generally when
fighting bushfires in mild weather (average
temperature: 21°C), firefighters naturally
consumed enough food and drink to
complete their shift in a well-hydrated state
(26). This finding suggests that fire agency
food and fluid provisions are adequate for
emergency firefighting operations in mild
weather conditions. However, the impact
of hydration prior to shift in emergency
bushfire conditions could have vastly
different results in hotter environmental
temperatures and therefore requires
further research.
Researchers have observed that urine and
blood tests of hydration levels of firefighters
often yield conflicting results (24, 26). Fire
agencies should only cautiously rely solely on
urine tests when determining hydration levels.
More detail on research into hydration during
bushfire suppression has been published in
the related Fire Note number 81.
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FIRE NOTE
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1. McLen nan, J. (2004). Proli lcs of
Auslr;ilia's vo lu nt eer lire11ghlcrs.
Bundoora, \' iclori a, Bu shfi re CRC
Lat rob e Uni versity: 24 p.
12.Gore CJ & Ed ward s DA. 1992.
.Australi a n Fitn ess No rm s: A ma nual
(01· li tn css cissess o rs . t .hd clre n's Health
L~
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), N ichols D, Se rgeant M, A isbetl B
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in Victori an Vo lu ntee r Fireli ghters.
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3. TFS (Tasma nia n Fire Service) , Annu al
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4. C FS (Cou ntr y Fire Ser vice, So uth
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14.ACSivl's Guidelines for exercise tes ting
and pres crip tion (2 010 ). Ame rican
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Victoria.
6. ABS (2004). Bushfires. Year Book
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Bureau of Sta tisti cs: 7 p.
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200 3. Country Fire Authority.
8. Aisbelt , B., Phillips, M., Sa rgea nt, M.,
G ilb ert , B. and Nichols, D. (2007).
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l 0. C rai g BN , C ongleton )J, Ke rk CJ, Lawl er
JM , McSweeney KP ( 1998). Correlation
of injur y o.cc ur re nce data with
es tim a ted m ax im al aerobi c cap acit y and
body co mpo sition in a h igh -Crcqu e nc)'
111 a nu al materi als h andli ng task. Arn
Ind H)'g Ass oc ); 59(1 ):25-33 .
l I Rodr iguez, J.L . and· Eldr id ge, J.A.
(2003 ). 'Jhe fun cLion uf aerobi c
capacil)' and st rength in predi cling lhe
pro babil ity o r inju r y in fi re fig h lcrs.
21. Taylo r, N., Ch allenges lo Te mp eratu re
Regul a ti on W he n Wo rking in Ho t
Environm ents lnduslrial Health, 200 6.
44: p. 33 1-344
22.Budd, G. , ). Brot he rhood , A. Hen drie, S.
Jeffrey, F. Beasle y, B. Cos lin, VI~ Zh ien ,
!Vl. Bake r, N. Chene y and M. Dawson
( 1997) . "Proj ect Aquariu s l 2. Effects
of style, fabri c, and flam c-rctm·danl
lrealm enl on the effecti ven ess and
acceptabiUl y of wild lan d firefi ghters'
cloth ing:' 201 -206.
23 .Armstron g LE, Casa DJ, Mill ard -S tafford
M, Mo ran DS, Pyne SW, Roberts WO .
(2007) America n College of Sp o rls
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R, & Ais bett B (2008). D ehydra tion in
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bu shfire suppression. lnl ern alion al
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Conventi on Ce nlre, Septemb er 1st-3 rd .
l 7. Aisbelt B, Phillips M, Rain es J, & Nichols
D (2 007). Vlork p attern s of ta nker-based
bushfire suppression by Australi an
volun teer fi refigh ters in sou th-cast
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25.Sawka MN , Burke LIVI, Eichn e r ER,
Maughan RJ, Mon Lain SJ, Stach en feld
N S. (200 7). A me ri ca n Co llege of Sport s
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for Australian li relighlers: Pass rates
a nd co rrela tes of pe rform ance. App lied
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26. Raines ], Petersen A, Nichols D, Sno w
R, & Aisbclt I\ (20tl9) l' n:-;,hifl clrink i11 g
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19. Lo rd C, Ne tt o K, Pe terse n A, N icho ls
Fire Note is published jointly by the
Bushfire Cooperative Research Centre
(Bushfire CRC) and the Australasian Fire
Australasian Fire and Emergency Service
Bushfire Cooperative Research Centre
and Emergency Service Authorities Council
(AFAC). This Fire Note is prepared from
Level 5/340 Albert Street
Authorities Council
Eas t Melbourne VIC 3002
Level 5/340 Alb ert Stree t
Telepho ne: 03 94 i 2 9600
East Melbourne VIC 3002
www.bu shfirecrc.com
Teleph on e: 03 9418 2388
www. afa c.com .au
available research at the time of publication
to encourage discussion and debate. The
contents of the Fire Note do not necessarily
represent the views, policies, practices or
positions of any of the individual agencies
or organisations who a.re stakeholders of the
Bushfire CRC.
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20. Rub)', B. C., el al. , Tola] energy
expenditure durin g arduou s wi ldfi re
suppress ion . Med Sci Sport s Exerc,
200 2. 34(6) : p. 1048-5 4.
16. Taylor, N .A.S. and Gro eller, H. (200 3) .
Work-based physio logica l assessm e nt
of physicall )r-dem andin g lrades: a
method ologica l ove r view. Jo urnal
of Physiological A nth ropolog)' a nd
Applied Hum an Scien ce 22(2) : 73-8 1.
9. Cady, L.D., Bi sh o t1~ D.P., O'Connell,
E.R., 'n1omas, P. C. and Allan ).1:-l.
( l 979). Slrenglh and fi tness and
subsequ en t back injuri es in firefi ghters.
Jo urn al of Occ u pa tion al !Vled icine
2 l (4): 269 -272.
-
D, D rai n), Ph illi ps l'v1 a nd Aisb ell B
(2010). Va Udali ng fi Lfo r duly Lesls
for Australian yolun lccr fire fi gh te rs
' upprcs;, ing hush fires. Exe rcise and
Spo 1·Ls Science Aus trali a Con ference,
Gold Coasl, Australi a, April 9- 1 l lh.
Med icin e an d Science in Sp o rls and
Exer cise 35 (5): SupIJlem ent l , S209.
REFEERENCES
Bushfire C RC is a nalional research centre in the
Coopera tiYe Research Ce ntre (CRC) program , fo rmed
A FAC i5 the pea k rep resentative body lor lire,
in parlnership wi th lire and l.uid manJgeme nt age ncies
emerge ncr services am! land ma nagemen t age ncies
in 2003 tn unde rtake end-user focused research.
in Lhe Aust ralas ia region. ll was es tablished in I 993
Bush lire CRC Limited,-\ BN: 7 1 l03 943 755
an d has 35 full and 10 affil iate member o rgan i,• Iions.
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