The
Professor Derek K Hitchins
First, what is a system?
•  A system is a complex, organized whole of
material, or immaterial, things
•  An open system exchanges energy, information
and substance with other such systems, and
adapts to the exchange.
•  So, open systems experience a continual flux of
energy, information and substance…
•  Open systems exist in networks and in
hierarchies of systems within systems within
systems…
Aspects of any system
•  Systems may be perceived as:
– Being – having existence and form
– Doing – acting, executing, performing an
act…
– Behaving – responding, perhaps thoughtfully,
to stimulus
•  All systems have being – existence
•  Some systems also ‘do,’perform
functions
•  Some systems also exhibit behaviour…
GRM Applicability
•  Some systems are passive, e.g. a stellar cloud, and cannot be
thought of reasonably as having a Mission, or of exhibiting
Behaviour. Delete irrelevant aspects of the GRM
•  Some systems are purposeful, e.g. human, fighter aircraft,
command & control. Use full model
•  Some systems are "purposive", i.e. may have purpose ascribed
to them by an onlooker, e.g. the heart, mission computer, heatseeking missile. Use full model or function and form models
only, according to need
•  Some things are not systems: car without driver? NOT a system!
–  Manmade artefact
–  Car with Driver? IS a system!
System
Thinking
Stimulus
Doing
Function
Management
•!Mission
•!Viability
•!Resources
Behaviour
Management
•!Cognition
• Belief System
•!Selection
•!Intent
Form
Management
•!Structure
•!Potential
•!Influence
Generic Reference Model
Being
Level 0
Internal vs External
•  Systems exhibit emergent properties, properties of the
whole which cannot be ascribed exclusively to any
one of the parts
•  Designers and implementers work from "inside" the
system, putting parts together to create requisite
emergent properties, diminish unwanted properties of
the whole when performing in its operational
environment
•  The Generic Reference Model identifies those features
which must exist within any system for it to be a
system
•  The GRM is used either
–  as a check list or kernel to check design completeness or
–  to grow a system design around
Generic Reference
(Function)Model
The Management Set
The Generic Reference Model—Function
"The Management Set"
Information
Objectives Strategy & Plans Execution Cooperation Mission
Viability
Acquisition
Storage
Distribution
Resources
Conversion Disposal
Synergy Maintenance Evolution Survival Homeostasis Mission Management
•  Essentially, Mission
Management can do
no more than:—
Operational
environment
Co-operate
with others
(if necessary)
Collect
information
Set/reset
objectives
Strategize
& plan
Execute
plan
•  N.B. work is done in processing
information into a plan—energy
required to drive loop
•  Internal push/pull force
maintains loop dynamics
•  collect information from
the operational
environment,
•  set/reset objectives based in
part on that information,
•  strategize and plan how to
achieve those objectives,
•  execute the resultant plan
and
•  co-operate with others in
the operational environment
if need be.
Resource Management
•  Essentially, all that
Convert
Resource Management
and
utilize
Store
resources
does is:—
resources
•  Acquire resources from
Discard
Acquire
some external
excess
resources
/waste
environment
•  store them
Resource
environment
•  distribute them
internally
•  N.B. Resource management absorbs
•  convert them to the
resources
locally-required form
•  Storage essential to meet continual
•  utilize the converted
internal demand
resource
•  Internal push/pull force maintains
•  discard excess or waste
loop dynamics
Distribute
resources
Viability Management
•  Generally capable of
Evolution
living —in this context, able
to exist devoid of mission or
purpose, c.f. neonate
Maintenance
•  Internal parts are
Homeostasis
synergistic
•  Internal environment is
Synergy
regulated (homeostasis)
•  Able to evolve and adapt
to changing environment
•  Elements of Viability not mutually
independent, e.g. survival essential for •  Able to detect, locate and
evolution, evolution improves
replace faulty parts
survivability
•  Able to Survive attack
•  Synergy—co-operation between the parts from outside
Survival
to achieve some desired external effect
•  Survivability:
S-MESH
–  Avoidance of detection; self defence; damage tolerance; self repair; reconfiguration
•  Maintenance
–  Detection, location, repair/excision/replacement/reconfiguration, waste disposal
•  Evolution
–  Adaptation of performance/behaviour to longer term changes in environment
•  Synergy
–  Cooperation, coordination, complementation, concinnity, control – of and between
the subsystems/parts, creating emergence
•  Homeostasis
–  Dynamic equilibrium between the interacting subsystems, maintaining a relatively
stable internal environment
–  Le Chatelier’s Principle: “when a system is in equilibrium, and a change is
experienced, then – insofar as it is able – the system will adjust itself so as to oppose
the change, and in so doing will move to a new point of equilibrium.”
–  Regulation…
Dynamic GR(Function)M
Operational
environment
Information
Co-operation
Threat
Change
Objectives
Survival
Strategy
& Plans
Evolution
Execution
Maintenance
Homeostasis
Distribution
Synergy
Conversion
Storage
Threat
Disposal
Acquisition
Resource
environment
•  3 elements seen in
respective environments
•  Viability provides platform
for Mission Management
•  Resources provide energy
& materials for Viability
and (internal) operations
•  Threats to Mission
Management, Resource
Management
•  Change challenges
Homeostasis (resist) and
Evolution (adapt)
•  Open System Flux of
energy, information and
substance “managed” in
Mission and Resource
Management
Generic Reference
(Form) Model
The Generic Reference Model—Form
Boundary Subsystems Connections Relationships
Structure
Influence
Cohesion
Dispersion
Environment
Potential
Power
Capacity
Redundancy
Generic Reference
(Behaviour) Model
GRM—Behaviour Management
Evolution
Tacit
knowledge
Activation
Nature
Constraint
Stimulus
Cognition
Nurture
World
models
Selection
Excitation
Belief
System
Experience
Motivation
• Achievement!
•  Conformance!
Environment
•  Instinct!
•  Collective !
Unconscious!
•  Archetypes!
•  Libido!
•  Aggression!
•  Energy!
•  Emotion!
•  Character!
Response
Intent
•  Beliefs!
•  Rôles!
•  Stereotypes!
•  Categories!
•  Values!
•  Ethics!
•  Morals!
•  Ideologies!
•  Training!
The Generic Reference Model—Behaviour
Tacit knowledge
World model
Cognition
Beliefs
Values
Ethics Morals
Belief
System
Selection
Nature
Experience
Constraint
Excitation
Motivation
Activation
Mission and Behaviour Models—Interactions"
Strategize
and plan
Set/reset
objectives
Execute
plan
Evolution
Tacit
knowledge
Activation
Co-operate
with others
Nature
Collect
information
Constraint
Sensation
Cognition
Selection
Belief
System
Nurture
World
models
Stimulation
Drive
•"Beliefs"
•"Values"
•"Ethics"
•"Morals"
Experience
Motivation
Belief is the end, not the beginning, of understanding
after Johann
Environment
Wolfgang von Goethe
Using the GRM—
Checklists
Using the GR (Function) Model
  The
simplest way to employ the Function Model is to
use it as a checklist, item-by-item.
  The designer considers an element in the list, identifies
the corresponding feature(s) in the SOI* and enters the
data alongside
 
 
 
 
process requires the designer to map from each element of the function
model on to the specific SOI and back again
not always immediately evident—requires practice and thought, since no
two SOI are alike
experience shows designers initially find difficulty in identifying elements
of Viability—and that sometimes these are absent anyway (e.g. Evolution)
Missing or inadequate elements are evident from the completed list…
  Table
shows checklist
*SOI – System of Interest
A GR (Function) Model Table for
Generating Functional Components
Internal Architecture Generation Table
Mission Management
Management of…
GRM
SOI
…informat ion
…objectives
…strategy
& Plans
…execut ion
…co operation
Viability Management
Management of…
GRM
SOI
…synergy
…survival
…evolution
…homeo stasis
…mainten ance
Resource Management
Management of…
GRM
SOI
…acquisit
ion
…storage
…distribu
t ion
…conver sion
…disposal
•  E.g. A low-level bomber crew may gain information from maps, ground-mapping / terrain following radar,
VOR/TACAN, and by looking at terrain and for signs of enemy action… whence SOI Information.
•  Using that
information
the crew
changecolumns
direction, altitude,
avoid detection,components
evade threat, or change
Identify
and
fill may
shaded
withetc.,
thetofunctional
SOI Objectives, requiring fresh Strategies & Plans (plus cockpit facilities?). And so on. Continues throughout
Mission…
of your system of interest to ensure a complete, effective design
•  In principle, the same conceptual activities apply to someone out shopping, or predators stalking prey…
Using the GR (Form) Model
  Essentially
the same process as the Function Model
  There is a strong relationship between Viability
Management and Form Management
 Survival and Maintenance may both be based on
reconfiguration, using redundancy
  Designers may find difficulty in several areas:—
 Boundary is often very uncertain. As a generality, it is
unhelpful to identify it with some convenient physical
boundary.
 Cohesive and Dispersive Influences can be both
physical (generally obvious) and social or
transcendental
 the latter make some designers uncomfortable,
except for psychologist, social anthropologists, etc.
Viability and the Form Model
—System Integrity and Emergence"
Emergent
property
changes
Coherent
parts
intra-actions
External
systems
interactions
External
Threat/
opportunity
Homeostasis
Maintenence
Synergy
Internal
Evolution
Survival/
success
Internal Form Table
Internal Form
Structure
Identify/prescribe/ describe
GRM
Boundary
Sub systems
Connect ions
Relation ships
SOI
Influence
Identify/prescribe/ describe
GRM
Cohesion
Dispers ion
Environ ment
SOI
Potential
Identify/prescribe/ describe
GRM
Power
Capacity
Redund ancy
Identify and fill shaded columns with the components
of your system of interest which define its form, to ensure a complete, effective design
SOI
Using the GR(Behaviour)M
  Behaviour
is the softest Level 1 model
 stuff of psychology and social anthropology
  Much of model based on premises:—
 Still an emerging science
 major outstanding differences between Freudian and
Jungian schools
 views of stereotypes, morals and ethics
 understanding of cognition, etc.
  Nonetheless based on an amalgam of widely accepted
concepts and views
  Importantly, even if the Behaviour Model is imperfect, it
nonetheless informs the designer and directs them to a
proper area of concern
GR (Behaviour) Model Table
Generic Reference (Behaviour) Model
Cognition
GRM
Belief S ystem
S OI
GRM
Behaviour S election
S OI
GRM
Excitation
S OI
GRM
Tacit Knowledge
(Low level
knowledge of
operational,
resource and C2
environments and
entities)
Values, ideals:—
• moral and ethical
drivers
• doctrine
• effects on
M otivation
Nature:—
World M odels
Categorization:-
Activation:—
2D & 3D
(cognitive models
of environment
and entities
within it)
•
Experience:—
• accumulation,
employment
• effects on
Selection
• effects on
Belief
System
Stimulus
Interpretation
M odels:—
—social
—behavioural
—process
—cognitive
• effects on World
M odels
Constraints:—
Constraints:—
•
•
rôles &
relationships
stereotypes (own
and opponents)
ideologies
•
instinctive
Selection
•
Personality
in Selection
M otivation:—
• achievement
• conformance
• effects on
Excitation
• effects on
Selection
•
energy of
Activation
•
perceptions
•
perceptions
•
effects on
Selection
•
effects on
Excitation
S OI
Virtual Machine Viewpoint
Process
Human
Technology
Physical Environment
Virtual Machine Interaction
Endeavour
Process
Human
Process
Logical
connections
Technology
Human
Technology
Physical connection
Conflict/competition
Process
Human
Technology
Process
Process
Process
Human
Human
Human
Technology
Technology
Technology
DecisionEffectiveness
•  Differential Model—start equal
•  Change any element—observe advantage =
measure effectiveness
GRM in Layered Virtual Machine Format
Resource
Resource
management
management
Mission
Mission
Management
Management
Collect
information
Set/reset
objectives
Strategize
& Plan
Execute
Acquire
Behaviour
Mangement
Distribute
Behaviour
Behaviour
Discard
excess/
waste
Viability
Viability
Management
Management
Survival
Store
Convert
Co-operate
with others
Behavioural
Influence
Form
Form
Stimulus
Cognition
Behaviour
selection
Nurture
Belief
System
Stimulation
Synergy
Homeostasis
Structure
Influence
Nature
Evolution
Potential
Maintenance
One Level of Layered GRM Elaboration
Resource
Resource
management
management
Acquire
Strategize & Plan
Viability
Viability
Management
Management
N
Recognition-primed decisions
Generate options
in sequence
Simulate
mentally
Y
Mission
Mission
Management
Management
Collect
information
Set/reset
objectives
Decision
mode
Execute
Generate
all options
Naive decisions
Review all
constraints
Co-operate
with others
Select
preferred
option
Store
Synergy
Behaviour
Mangement
Distribute
Survival
Stimulus
Cognition
Behaviour
selection
Interpretation
Stimulation
Behaviour
Behaviour
Stimulus
Nature
Motivation
Stimulus
Homeostasis
Stimulus
Behavioural
Influence
World
models
Doctrine
Tacit
knowledge
Ethics &
morals
Convert
Belief
system
Training
Constraint
Experience
Evolution
Discard
excess/
waste
Systems
Systems
Systems
Structure
Influence
Potential
Form
Form
Environment
Maintenance
Example Mapping on to C3I
Decision Making
Resource
Resource
management
management
Viability
Viability
Management
Management
N
Generate options
in sequence
Identify
threats &
opportunities
Assess
Situation
Acquire
Simulate
mentally
Recognition-primed decisions
Decision
mode
Y
Survival
Initiate
action
Monitor
Naive decisions
Store
Generate
all options
Mission
Mission
Management
Management
Select
preferred
option
Synergy
Behaviour
Mangement
Distribute
Review all
constraints
Interpretation
Stimulus
Cognition
Behaviour
selection
Stimulation
Behaviour
Behaviour
Stimulus
Behavioural
Influence
Stimulus
World
models
Convert
Tacit
knowledge
Nature
Motivation
Stimulus
Homeostasis
Doctrine
Ethics &
morals
Belief
system
Training
Constraint
Experience
Evolution
Discard
excess/
waste
Situation
display
Form
Form
Radar
Resource
Environment
}
Other “players”
Neutrals
Hostiles
Navigation
Communications
Operational
Environment
Going
Terrain
Resources
display
Battle
damage
display
Weapons
management
Internal
systems
sensors
Weapons
Control
Weapons
Weapons
Weapons
Maintenance
Generic
Decision
- making
Reference
Model
Situation
issue
Essence of
situation /
problem
World
models
Training
Chaotic idea
Chaotic(?)
idea
generator
generator
Simulation
/ synthesis
test(s)
Solution
space
Pattern-matching
filter
Tacit
knowledge
Action
Experiential
factors
Prior situation-decision outcomes
hit
hit
Decision
"Logical analysis"
process
Beliefs
Doctrinal
factors
Generic Decision-making Reference Model
  Both
Klein s Recognition-Primed Decision-making and the
Naive Model can be mapped on to the Reference Model
  reflects
continuing naturalistic decision-making during structured
decision-making processes, and vice-versa
  implies that options are generated chaotically*, even in the naive
decision-making mode
  Additionally,
GDRM includes Beliefs and Doctrine
  Klein
s Model implies World Models, Tacit Knowledge and
Experiential factors, but not Beliefs (inc. ideologies, ethics, morals,
etc.)
  Naive model is non-committal
  GDRM
therefore more encompassing and richer than either
contributory model
* Chaotic is not random. Chaotic idea generation indicates that one idea may relate to another, the first triggering the second. Random idea
generation would suggest no relationship between successive ideas.
Generic Decision Model
  Possible
to consider whole IDA group as having left-brain/
right brain characteristics
  Satisficing fast, seemingly less assured, but…
  …expert decision-makers make series of fast, successive
satisficing decisions to home-in on final solution
  Naive decision-makers seem to take everything into account
—but how would they know?
  Team interactions encourage consensus (dyadic reciprocity*).
  takes
time to achieve,
  may be short of best match available from individuals in group
where their contribution is negotiated-out
  tendency to cling to consensus even in face of emerging evidence
 decision-makers’ bias
* Schaffer, H.R., 1978, The Development of Interpersonal Behaviour, Introducing Social Psychology, Pelican Books
 conservative
Generic Decision Model
 
 
 
 
 
Some leaders make good decisions in absence of any information /
intelligence. Model indicates basis:—
Start from Essence of situation ; use satisficing route; construct mental
storyline/simulation, presuming enemy situation, likely behaviour based on
experience…
Resulting decision less likely to be predictable, speed and surprise may
force opponent on to back foot
Calls into question value/effectiveness of comprehensive information
gathering/compression paradigm which is:—
  v. expensive and time consuming
  vulnerable to IW
  slow substitute for imagination?
Fear of risk may well increase risk, esp. under high tempo
Solution space:—
In the beginner s mind there are many possibilities,
but in the expert s mind there are few . Shunru Suzuki
The Avionics Exercise"
  1.
Using the Generic Reference (Function) Model as
a basis, identify and justify the functions to be
performed by a modern military aircraft avionics
system under each of the three headings, each with
its 5 sub-headings:—
 
 
 
  2.
• Mission Management
• Viability Management
• Resource Management
Ignoring step 1, identify the emergent properties of
a modern military aircraft avionics system, justifying
why they are emergent properties.
  3. Show how the functions under 1. contribute to the
emergent properties under 2—or not!