International Journal of Intercultural Relations
26 (2002) 391–408
Testing the cultural identity model of the cultural
transition cycle: sojourners return home
Nan M. Sussman*
Department of Psychology, The College of Staten Island, The City University of New York, Staten Island,
NY, 10314 USA
Abstract
A new theoretical model, which explores the relationship between cultural identity and
repatriation experience, was tested among 113 American teachers who sojourned to Japan.
Results indicated, unexpectedly, that overseas adaptation and repatriation experiences are not
directly associated. Rather, home culture identity strength inversely predicted repatriation
distress with repatriates experiencing high distress reporting weak cultural identity.
Preliminary findings also indicated that repatriation experience is related to shifts in cultural
identity. As predicted by the Cultural Identity Model, ratings of increased estrangement from
American culture (subtractive) or feeling ‘‘more’’ Japanese (additive) following a sojourn are
correlated with the high repatriation distress. Further, the more the global identity shift, the
higher the life satisfaction. An innovative methodology was utilized in this study through the
use of internet for participant recruitment and data collection. r 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd.
All rights reserved.
Keywords: Cultural adjustment; Cultural transition; Reentry; Repatriation; Sojourn; Cultural identity;
Internet research
1. Introduction
The nature of the sojourner is one of a cycle: moving to a new country and moving
home; the process of adjustment and the outcome of adaptation; culture shock and
reverse shock. Yet, research inadequately addresses the complexity of the relationship between points or arcs in the transition cycle. Among those studies that
investigated cultural transitions, the focus is generally on one aspect of the cycle,
*Tel.: +1-718-982-3763; fax: +1-718-982-3794.
E-mail address: [email protected] (N.M. Sussman).
0147-1767/02/$ - see front matter r 2002 Elsevier Science Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII: S 0 1 4 7 - 1 7 6 7 ( 0 2 ) 0 0 0 1 3 - 5
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N.M. Sussman / International Journal of Intercultural Relations 26 (2002) 391–408
either individual cultural adjustment to the host country or less frequently, on the
return to the home country.
Scores of studies have explored the predictors of cultural adjustment or
adaptation. Variables found to influence adjustment include individual differences
in personality (Ditchburn, 1996; Harrison, Chadwick, & Scales, 1996), nature of the
sojourn (purpose, length of sojourn), organizational characteristics (Mendenhall,
Dunbar, & Oddou, 1987), familial and social networks (Adelman, 1988), interactions
with home and host co-nationals (Stone Feinstein & Ward, 1990), and cultural
factors (e.g. cultural distance between home and host countries, Searle & Ward,
1990).
A key variable in predicting cultural adjustment has been the degree to which an
individual identifies with the home country and the host country; simply put a
sojourner’s cultural identity. Most findings, however, relate cultural identity to longterm immigrant adjustment (Berry, 1997; Boekestijn, 1989; Moyerman & Forman,
1992) and not to sojourner experience, which may account for the discrepant results
summarized below. As sojourners recognize the temporary nature of their cultural
experience, one might reasonably argue that their motivations and expectations
regarding cultural adjustment and adaptation differ substantially from those of
immigrants.
Phinney (1991), for example, found that among immigrants, strong identification
with both the home and host countries was related to self-esteem and positive mental
health.
However, Ward and her colleagues have examined home and host identification
among several sojourn groups (New Zealand civil servants on overseas assignments
and Filipina domestics in Singapore) and found that strong identification with home
culture is associated with psychological well-being overseas but host country
identification is unrelated to adjustment (Ward, Chang, & Lopez-Nerney, 1999;
Ward & Kennedy, 1994). More recent data confirmed these results among a
multinational sojourner sample living in Nepal; weak home culture identification
was a significant predictor of mood disturbance (Ward & Rana-Deuba, 2000).
Following the temporal sequence of the cultural transitions, Kim’s theoretical
writings (2001, 1996, 1995) have explored the relationship between cross-cultural
adaptation and the subsequent development of a new and broader cultural identity.
She places her model within the ‘‘stress-adaptation-growth’’ paradigm and posits
that the evolving cultural identity of sojourners has both negative and positive
consequences.
The endpoint of the cultural transition cycle for the sojourner is the return
to the home country. Considerably fewer studies have investigated the predictors
of the repatriation experience. The unexpected nature of repatriation difficulties
(Adler, 1981; Sussman, 1986) appears to exacerbate reentry outcomes and such
variables as lack of psychological preparedness among US business repatriates
(Sussman, 2001a), unexpected difficulties experienced by returning New Zealand
high school students (Rogers & Ward, 1993), and undeveloped home country
support network for repatriated US college students (Martin, 1984) predict a
negative experience.
N.M. Sussman / International Journal of Intercultural Relations 26 (2002) 391–408
393
Variables associated with repatriation distress include length of time abroad
among Turkish migrant workers (Sahin, 1990), marital status and education level
among missionaries (Moore, Jones, & Austin, 1987), differences between home and
host cultures for US study-abroad students (Raschio, 1988), personality traits (such
as neuroticism, Furukawa, 1997), decrease in social status among Finnish corporate
repatriates (Gregersen & Stroh, 1997) and trauma exposure among international
relief workers (Eriksson, 1997). Two articles, each based on illustrative anecdotes,
suggest that identity changes may be related to return home experiences (Isogai,
Hayashi, & Uno, 1999; Werkman, 1982). Empirical research in which the complex
relationship between cultural identity and repatriation is examined is lacking in the
literature.
Most studies indicate that repatriation outcomes are negative although the
findings are equivocal. Several investigators report positive reentry experiences such
as more appreciation of the host culture (Grove & Hansel, 1983), improved
relationships with parents (Martin, 1986), positive changes in values orientation
(Uehara, 1989), and more awareness and acceptance of cultural differences (Wilson,
1986).
A shortcoming of nearly all the sojourner research is the piecemeal examination of
the transition cycle phenomenon. Few studies investigate the whole cycle or the
relationship among segments in the cycle. Among the small number of such
investigations, a primary assumption is that the expatriate experience is related in
some fashion to the repatriate outcomes. Stringham (1993), for example, suggested
that sojourn outcome was related to repatriation experience. Yet, there is
disagreement as to the direction of the relationship and the empirical findings are
inconsistent.
One view predicts a direct, positive association between overseas adjustment and
repatriation experience; the more successful the adaptation to the host country, the
more successful the repatriation. A skills/learning model forms the basis of this
prediction such that the more successful the overseas adaptation, the more skillful
one becomes in cultural adaptation and consequently, the better able are sojourners
to cope with repatriation challenges. Cui and Awa (1992), for example, found that
sojourners with previous overseas experience adapt better to subsequent overseas
assignments due to experience in coping with differences.
A more prevalent view predicts an inverse relationship between overseas
adaptation and repatriation such that the more successful the adaptation to a host
country, the more distressing and difficult is the return to the home country (Brein
& David, 1971; Brislin, 1981; Brislin & VanBuren, 1974). Rohrlich and Martin
(1991), for example, indicated that the more frequently US students engaged in
communication with host nationals, a behavioral measure of cultural adaptation, the
less likely they were to be satisfied with their life upon return home. Similarly, Kim
(2001) reports an inverse correlation between community activities with host
nationals during a sojourn and reentry satisfaction. A vague notion of self-change
frames this general approach but the model remains skeletal.
Sussman (2000) has recently proposed a broader and more integrated theory of the
transition cycle using a social psychological framework, specifically focusing on
N.M. Sussman / International Journal of Intercultural Relations 26 (2002) 391–408
394
SALIENCE
ADJUSTMENT PROCESS
and Self-Variables
ADAPTATION
C.I. Centrality-Low
Cultural FlexibilityModerate
Cultural
Identity
Cultural
Identity
Cultural discrepancies
recognized
SELF-CONCEPT
DISTURBANCES
Stability of
self -esteemLow
High
Clarity of
Self-conceptLow
C.I. Centrality-Moderate
Cultural Flexibility-High
Cultural Identity Response
Repatriation
Commences
Repatriation Affect
SUBTRACTIVE
ADDITIVE
NEGATIVE-Stress, uncomfortable
interpersonal relations
Fig. 1. Subtractive and additive identity shifts.
self-concept and cultural identity. Previously contradictory outcomes of repatriation
research, in particular the findings of both positive and negative repatriation affect,
are more parsimoniously explained with this new paradigm. A brief summary of the
model follows (see Fig. 1 for an example of one type of post-sojourn cultural
identity).
The Cultural Identity Model (CIM) proposes several tenets: (1) cultural identity is
a critical but latent aspect of self-concept; (2) salience of cultural identity is, to a large
part, a consequence of the commencement of a cultural transition; (3) cultural
identity is dynamic and can shift as a consequence of the overseas transition and selfconcept disturbances; and (4) shifts in cultural identity serve as a mediator between
cultural adaptation and the repatriation experience. The model also is placed within
a contextual framework, suggesting that this paradigm is most applicable to
sojourners from cultures in which individualism is high and cultural identity is low in
centrality and salience. The cultural identity model posits four types of postadaptation identity: affirmative, subtractive, additive, and global, each with a
resulting repatriation outcome.
For those with an affirmative identity, the sojourn affirms their home country
identity. They would evaluate themselves as having a strong common bond with
compatriots, positive feelings toward their home country identity, and perceive
compatriots as viewing them as typical of other members of the culture. During the
overseas cultural transition, a strong home identity would enhance psychological
well being as was demonstrated by Ward and Kennedy (1994). However, the CIM
predicts that affirmative identifiers would have low adaptation to the host country
N.M. Sussman / International Journal of Intercultural Relations 26 (2002) 391–408
395
and the return home would be seen positively. They are the ‘‘grateful repatriates’’;
repatriation distress would be low.
The CIM predicts that both subtractive and additive identifiers would experience
high adaptation to the host country and high repatriation distress upon return to the
home country, but for different reasons. Subtractive identifiers would experience
repatriation distress as a result of feelings of alienation or estrangement from their
home country; they feel ‘‘less’’ in common with their compatriots, less positive about
their home country, and believe that compatriots perceive them as less typical of the
home culture. Ergo, repatriation is experienced negatively. Additive identifiers are
also predicted to experience high repatriation distress, not as a result of identity loss,
but as a consequence of embracing many aspects of the host culture—values,
customs, social rituals, emotion and thought. The additive shift is an identity gain.
Cultural identities have been enhanced, yet changed sufficiently such that these
sojourners experience repatriation also as a negative outcome.
Global identifiers are often sojourners who have had multiple international
experiences. For them, moving in and out of cultures only embellishes the sense of
belonging to a global community. Adaptations to the host country, for this category
of sojourner, are often instrumental and repatriation predicted to be a moderate or
positive experience.
The study described in this paper is a first step in testing the CIM of cultural
transitions by investigating two elements of the model: (1) the relationship between
overseas adaptation and repatriation and (2) the role of cultural identity strength in
relation to the repatriation experience. This was accomplished by assessing the
cultural transition experiences among a group of repatriated sojourners, namely
American teachers who sojourned to Japan to teach English. Retrospectively,
dimensions of overseas cultural adaptation, transitional changes, and repatriation
preparedness were measured as well as current assessments of cultural identity
strength and repatriation distress.
Extant research suggests Hypothesis 1: There is an association between overseas
adaptation and the repatriation experience. However, the direction of the relationship is unclear. The CIM suggests that the direction of the relationship is a
consequence of the cultural identity strength on the part of the sojourn. Thus, the
model predicts the following general relationship between cultural identity strength
and repatriation distress.
Hypothesis 2 predicts that, among repatriates, the weaker the home country
identity, the more the repatriation distress. Therefore, the more repatriates feel
negatively toward their home country, the more estranged they feel from
compatriots, the less central their home country identity is to their self-concept,
and the less they believe that compatriots perceive them as similar, the more the
repatriation distress. Conversely, a strong home culture identity would be associated
with low repatriation distress.
A novel methodology was utilized in this study. Investigations of cultural
transitions are challenged by the difficulty of locating and recruiting research
participants. Once participants are located, traditional use of paper questionnaires
administered in person or by mail often results in low response rates. The internet
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with its global communication potential provides an excellent method for locating,
recruiting and administering research assessments as well as immeasurably broadening the research sample. This study utilized traditional and electronic methods to
collect data.
2. Method
2.1. Participants
Participants in this study were 113 American (n ¼ 62 women and n ¼ 51 men)
‘‘alumni’’ of the Japanese English teachers’ (JET) program sponsored by the
Japanese government. No measures of ethnicity/race were taken but the vast
majority of the participants in the JET program at the time of the data collection
were White. As recent college graduates, these young adults were selected to teach
English in various locations throughout Japan. Participants ranged in age from 23 to
43 years of age with a mean age of 28 years. The teaching program involved a
minimum stay of 1 year although many participants chose to extend their contracts.
Thus, the average Japan sojourn was 27 months with a range of 6–72 months. Nearly
all the participants in this sample departed from the northeast region of the US and
returned to that region. At the time of the participation in the study, this sample was
back in the US, an average of 30 months with a range of 1–144 months.
2.2. Procedure
Twenty-five participants attended a seminar on the process of repatriating to US
culture, organized by the JET Alumni Association of New York. Prior to the
beginning of the seminar, all participants completed a 10-page self-report
questionnaire composed of several scales.
Additional participants were sought through the non-traditional means of the
internet. Data was collected online by posting the questionnaire on a website. After
pilot-testing the online questionnaire for ease of use, it was put on a university server.
JET ‘‘alumni’’ were apprised, via an email distribution list maintained by the JET
Alumni Association, of the opportunity to participate on the online version of the
study and were given the URL (or web address) of the site. Two hundred and fortyeight JETS were contacted in this manner and 88 participants completed the online
version for a 35% response rate. No participants reported difficulty completing the
online version.
As this data collection method is unusual, care was taken that the two samples, inperson and online, were comparable. It is possible, for example, that those
participants who chose to attend a reentry workshop could be differentially effected
by the repatriation process. Similarly, participants who chose to respond to a survey
online could be different than a sample who completed the questionnaire in-person.
Detailed discussion of the technique used and analyses can be seen elsewhere
(Sussman, 2001b).
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397
2.3. Materials
The 10-page paper version of the questionnaire consisted of seven scales plus several
demographic items (including age, gender, length of sojourn in Japan, length of time
since return to the US, and indication of other sojourn experiences). The online
version also consisted of seven scales, five of which were identical to the paper version.
The scales common to both groups were cultural adaptation, cultural identity
strength, transition change, repatriation preparedness, and repatriation distress.
Cultural adaptation. Cultural adaptation (CA) was assessed through an authordesigned multidimensional scale composed of three sub-scales. Participants were
asked to retrospectively assess three types of adaptation to living in Japan:
behavioral (CA/B), cognitive (CA/C), and affective (CA/A). The behavioral subscale (CA/B), composed of 14 items, assessed the degree to which the sojourner
interacted with Japanese people and social rituals. It included such statements as
‘‘I used Japanese language in my daily interactions’’ or ‘‘When at home, I cooked
Japanese food’’ or ‘‘When I wasn’t working, I spent time with Japanese friends’’.
Participants evaluated each statement on a 7-point scale as to the extent that they
engaged in each behavior, with ratings ranging from 1 (not at all) to 7 (to a great
extent).
The cognitive adaptation scale (CA/C), composed of eight items, rated
participants’ level of knowledge of Japanese history, geography, customs, religion,
arts, values, educational and political systems on a 7-point scale, ranging from 1 (not
at all knowledgeable) to 7 (extremely knowledgeable). The affective scale (CA/A), composed of seven items, rated the extent to which participants felt a sense of belonging,
satisfaction, relaxation, and confidence in living and working in Japan. Ratings
ranged from 1 (not at all) to 7 (to a great extent). A composite score for each subscale was calculated such that the higher the score, the better adapted was the sojourner.
Cultural identity strength. Cultural identity (CI) was measured by three modified
sub-scales of the ethnic identity scale developed by Cameron and Lalonde and their
associates (Boatswain & Lalonde, 2000; Cameron & Lalonde, 2001; Cameron, Sato,
Lay, & Lalonde, 1997). Identity Centrality (CI/C), a 10-item sub-scale, measured the
centrality and importance of being an American. Affect (CI/A), a seven-item subscale, measured positive regard toward being an American. Ingroup-ties (CI/I), a 12item sub-scale, measured similarity and bond with other Americans. On a 7-point
scale, participants indicated the extent to which they strongly agreed (7) to strongly
disagreed (1) with each statement. After keying negatively worded statements, a
composite score was calculated for each sub-scale such that the higher the number,
the more central and positive participants felt about their American identity, and the
more similar participants felt in comparison to other Americans. A fourth authordesigned 4-item sub-scale (CI/PT) measured repatriates’ perceptions of how typically
American their compatriots perceived them to be or, more succinctly, perceptions of
American identity typicality.
Scores on each of the four CI sub-scales measured American Identity strength.
The higher the score, the stronger the repatriate identified with a respondent-defined
American identity; the lower the score, the weaker the American cultural identity.
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N.M. Sussman / International Journal of Intercultural Relations 26 (2002) 391–408
Cultural identity change. While the Cultural Identity scales provided a
comprehensive glimpse of the strength of a repatriate’s American identity, it was a
static picture. The CIM proposes, however, that cultural identity would change as a
consequence of the sojourn experience, and this identity change would in turn affect
the repatriation response. Three single items tapped, in a preliminary way, the
construct of cultural identity change. A subtractive cultural identity change was
measured by the item ‘‘In some ways I feel ‘‘less’’ American than I did before my
international assignment’’. This item is referred to as American identity estrangement. An additive identity change was measured by the item ‘‘I feel more Japanese
since my assignment’’. An intercultural identity was measured by the item ‘‘I feel that
I am a more global or international person now’’.
Transition change. A four-item scale (TCS) assessed the overall cultural change felt
by the sojourners, rated on a 7-point scale of agreement. Items included such
statements as ‘‘I felt as though I changed as a result of living and working overseas.’’
and ‘‘I have tried to incorporate some international customs and ways of thinking
into my work environment.’’ Scores were reversed such that the higher the score, the
more the change.
Repatriation preparedness. The Repatriation Preparedness Scale (RPS) is a reliable
10-item scale which assesses the sojourners’ psychological preparation to return
home. Each statement (i.e. ‘‘I spent a considerable amount of time thinking about
returning to work in the US’’) was evaluated on a 7-point scale from 1 (strongly
disagree) to 7 (strongly agree). A composite score was calculated with the lower the
score the lesser the amount of preparation. Earlier research indicated that
preparedness is associated with repatriation distress such that the less the
psychological preparedness for returning home, the more difficult the repatriation
distress (Sussman, 2001a).
Repatriation distress. Re-adjustment discomfort felt by sojourners after they
returned to their home country was reliably assessed via the psychological
Repatriation Distress Scale (RDIS) (Sussman, 2001a). Four items measured this
construct and included such statements as ‘‘I have trouble concentrating at work’’ or
‘‘I am more anxious and irritable since I returned home.’’ All items were evaluated
on a 7-point scale from 1 (strongly disagree) to 7 (strongly agree) such that the higher
the score, the more difficult the repatriation.
Additional measures. Two scales were unique to the online sample: Satisfaction
with Life Scale (SWLS) (Pavot & Diener, 1993) and Purpose in Life Test (PIL)
(Crumbaugh & Maholick, 1964). The SWLS is designed to measure general cognitive
judgements about life satisfaction; for example, ‘‘The conditions of my life are
excellent’’. Participants indicate the extent to which they strongly disagree (1) to
strongly agree (7) with five statements. Scores are summed such that the higher the
score, the more satisfied with life. A modified and shortened version of the PLT
consisting of 7-items was also used. Crumbaugh and Maholick (1964) designed this
scale to measure meaning, defined as having goals and direction in life, and has more
recently been considered as an element of psychological well-being (Ryff, 1989). On a
7-point scale, participants indicated meaningless or lack of purpose they found their
lives, higher scores indicating less meaning in life or an ‘‘existential vacuum’’ in the
N.M. Sussman / International Journal of Intercultural Relations 26 (2002) 391–408
399
individual’s life. Both the Satisfaction with Life Scale and the Purpose in Life Test
provide secondary measures of repatriation affect and concurrent validity for the
RDIS.
One scale, unique to the in-person sample, measured the extent to which
repatriates embraced, on a 7-point scale, American and Japanese values. For each
repatriate, a summed score was derived for both American and Japanese values.
In summary, all participants completed five scales: Cultural Adaptation, Cultural
Identity, Transition Change, Repatriation Preparedness, and Repatriation Distress.
In addition, all participants completed three single items measuring cultural identity
change. Online participants completed two additional scales: Satisfaction with Life
and Purpose in Life. In-person participants completed a values scales.
3. Results
Data collected through in-person and online questionnaires were compared.
No significant differences were found between the two samples on any of the
major measures (see Table 1). The two samples were combined for subsequent
analyses.
Preliminary analyses consisted of testing the internal reliability of the scales using
Cronbach’s alpha. All scales or sub-scales were reliable at alphas between 0.67 and
0.92 (see Table 2 for reliability levels and descriptive statistics for each scale).
Additionally, the three cultural adaptation sub-scales were highly correlated with
each other (CA/B and CA/C, r ¼ 0:52; po0:0001; CA/B and CA/A, r ¼ 0:49;
po0:0001; CA/C and CA/A, r ¼ 0:27; p ¼ 0:004). A summed adaptation score
comprised of the three scales was used for subsequent analyses.
Table 1
Means and statistical differences for online vs. in-person groups for cultural transition scales
Scales
Adaptation scales:
Behavioral
Cognitive
Affective
Repatriation Distress
(RDIS)
Preparedness (RPS)
Cultural identity sub-scales:
CI/A
CI/C
CI/I
CI/PT
Online (N ¼ 88)
In-person (N ¼ 25)
Difference
Mean
Mean
SD
T
P
SD
63.29
36.51
33.77
14.23
9.99
6.52
9.16
6.52
66.29
36.21
32.11
14.58
11.02
7.98
7.12
6.32
0.98
0.15
0.77
0.24
0.334
0.885
0.445
0.809
47.28
9.34
46.78
8.54
0.24
0.811
37.55
39.32
51.13
14.72
6.92
12.49
14.50
5.45
38.60
44.60
52.00
14.57
6.95
11.92
15.54
4.42
0.67
1.93
0.24
0.14
0.507
0.060
0.806
0.891
400
N.M. Sussman / International Journal of Intercultural Relations 26 (2002) 391–408
Table 2
Descriptive statistics for predictor and outcome variables
Scale
Alpha
Mean
SD
Range
Behavioral adaptation (CA/B)
Cognitive adaptation (CA/C)
Affective adaptation (CA/A)
Repatriation Distress (RDIS)
Repatriation Preparedness Scale (RPS)
Cultural identity affect (CI/A)
Cultural identity centrality (CI/C)
Cultural identity ingroup-ties (CI/I)
Cultural identity perceived typicality (CI/PT)
Satisfaction with Life (SWLS)
Purpose in Life Test (PIL)
Transition change scale (TCS)
0.69
0.78
0.75
0.78
0.73
0.79
0.87
0.92
0.67
0.88
0.79
0.88
64.35
37.13
33.51
17.09
37.06
37.78
40.49
51.29
14.68
23.07
25.56
10.74
10.30
6.60
7.63
6.58
7.59
6.90
12.51
14.68
5.24
7.10
9.87
6.76
14–98
9–63
7–49
4–28
10–70
7–49
10–70
12–84
4–28
5–35
7–49
4–28
The psychometric properties of the RDIS scale were further tested among the
online sample. Concurrent validity for the RDIS scale was confirmed through
significant correlations with two scales; a significant negative correlation between the
SWLS and RDIS (r ¼ 0:54; po0:0001), such that the greater the repatriation
distress, the less the satisfaction with life; and a significant correlation between PIL
test and RDIS (r ¼ 0:52; po0:0001) indicating that the greater the repatriation
distress, the more meaningless was life.
Correlational analyses were conducted to test the study’s hypotheses and
preliminary elements of the CIM model (Table 3). Contrary to Hypothesis 1, there
was no significant direct relationship between adaptation level and repatriation
distress. They appear to be related in a less direct manner, however. Affective
adaptation (CA/A) was significantly negatively correlated with preparedness
(r ¼ 0:25; p ¼ 0:009) in that the more sojourners became emotionally attached to
Japan and felt a sense of belonging, the less prepared they were to return to the US.
Affective adaptation was also significantly related to centrality of American identity
(r ¼ 0:19; po0:05) such that the less central or important one’s American identity,
the more sojourners effectively adapted to Japan or felt a sense of belonging to
Japan. Replicating a finding from an earlier study (Sussman, 2001a), preparedness
was significantly associated to repatriation distress (r ¼ 0:20; p ¼ 0:03) in that the
less prepared the sojourner was to return home, the higher the repatriation distress.
Hypothesis 2 examined the relationship between measures of cultural identity
strength (CI/C, CI/A, CI/I, CI/PT) and repatriation distress (RDIS). It was
hypothesized that cultural identity strength would be inversely correlated with
distress. This was confirmed by three significant negative correlations: CI/A and
RDIS (r ¼ 0:38; po0:0001), CI/I and RDIS (r ¼ 0:30; p ¼ 0:001), and CI/PT and
RDIS (r ¼ 0:28; p ¼ 0:003). Participants who indicated a weak American identity
(negative affect regarding their American identity, felt estranged from other
N.M. Sussman / International Journal of Intercultural Relations 26 (2002) 391–408
401
Table 3
Hypotheses-testing correlations
Repatriation distress and host culture adaptation
RDIS & CA (combined scales)
CA/A & Prep
CA/A & CI/C
Repatriation distress and cultural identity strength
RDIS & CI/A
RDIS & CI/I
RDIS & CI/PT
SWLS & CI/A
SWLS & CI/I
SWLS & CI/C
Identity shift
RDIS & AmIdent Estrangementa (subtractive)
RDIS & JapanIdentb (additive)
AmIdent Estrangementa & JapanIdentb
JapanIdentb & Changed Scale
JapanIdentb & More Globalc
SWLS & More Globalc (global)
AmIdent Estrangementa & More Globalc
JapanIdentb & More Globalc
r
p
0.05
0.25
0.19
Ns
0.009
0.05
0.38
0.30
0.28
0.21
0.36
0.26
0.000
0.001
0.003
0.05
0.001
0.01
0.37
0.29
0.43
0.35
0.30
0.23
0.26
0.30
0.000
0.002
0.000
0.000
0.001
0.03
0.007
0.001
a
Response to question ‘‘In some ways, I feel ‘‘less’’ American than I did before my international
assignment,’’ such that a high score signifies feeling estranged from American identity.
b
Response to question ‘‘I feel ‘‘more’’ Japanese since my assignment,’’ such that a high score signifies
that the participant feels more Japanese identification.
c
Response to question ‘‘I feel that I am a more global or international person now,’’ such that a high
score signifies that the participant feels a more global identity.
Americans or perceived others’ as thinking of them as an atypical American)
experienced high repatriation distress. Further analysis of the online participants
illustrated statistically significant relationships between the Satisfaction with Life
Scale (SWLS) and Cultural Identity strength: the less the life satisfaction, the less
central the American identity (CI/C, r ¼ 0:264; p ¼ 0:013), the fewer the bonds with
other Americans (CI/I, r ¼ 0:355; p ¼ 0:001), and the lower the affect regarding
being American (CI/A, r ¼ 0:210; p ¼ 0:049).
Cultural identity change was measured in a preliminary way by three single items
attempting to tap the CIM constructs of subtractive, additive and global identity and
their associations with repatriation distress. The CIM predicts that participants who
feel ‘‘less’’ American following their sojourn (subtractive identity) would experience
high repatriation stress. This association was confirmed such that the more estranged
from one’s American identity, the higher the repatriation distress (r ¼ 0:37;
po0:0001).
Participants were confirmed to have a relationship between the item ‘‘I feel more
‘Japanese’ since my assignment (additive identity)’’ and RDIS such that the stronger
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N.M. Sussman / International Journal of Intercultural Relations 26 (2002) 391–408
the bond with Japanese culture, the more the repatriation distress (r ¼ 0:291;
p ¼ 0:002). Moreover, among those sojourners included in the ‘‘in-person’’ sample,
the more that Japanese values were considered personal characteristics, the more the
repatriation distress (r ¼ 0:42; p ¼ 0:05). In addition, the ‘‘more’’ Japanese the
sojourners felt, the less American (r ¼ 0:425; po0:0001), the more changed (r ¼ 0:35;
po0:0001), and the more global (r ¼ 0:30; p ¼ 0:001).
The CIM predicts that global identity is associated with moderate to positive
repatriation experience. On the single item measuring a shift to global identity
following the sojourner, no significant correlation with RDIS was found; however,
among the online sample, the stronger the global identity, the more satisfied were
repatriates with their lives (SWLS) (r ¼ 0:23; p ¼ 0:02). This might be attributed to a
more complex identity, as the global identity was associated with American identity
estrangement (r ¼ 0:26; p ¼ 0:007) and ‘‘more’’ Japanese (r ¼ 0:30; p ¼ 0:001).
Given the number of variables correlated with repatriation distress, a standard
multiple regression analysis sought to ascertain which variables were significant
predictors of repatriation distress as well as the variance accounted for by those
variables. The regression was performed using SPSS REGRESSION between
repatriation distress as the dependent variables and CI/A, CI/I, CI/C, CI/PT, and the
three single items assessing cultural identity change (American cultural estrangement, Japanese bonding, and internationality) as the independent variables. Due to
the inter-correlations, albeit moderate level, between several of the Cultural Identity
Strength sub-scales, the regression analysis was tested for multicollinearity. As per
accepted collinearity criteria (no condition index above 30 and root numbers having
no more than one variance proportion above 0.5), the test resolved doubt about
possible multicollinearity and all four sub-scales were entered into the regression
independently. Table 4 displays the variables, standardized regression coefficients
(b), R2 ; and adjusted R2 : R for the regression was significantly different than zero,
F (7,100)=5.77, po0:0001:
Table 4
Multiple regression analysis of factors affecting repatriation distress
Factor
Cultural identity
More Japanese
Less American
More global
Cultural identity
Cultural identity
Cultural identity
affect (CI/A)
centrality (CI/C)
ingroup-ties (CI/I)
perceived typicality (CI/PT)
Beta
p-value
0.306
0.260
0.243
0.206
0.028
0.015
0.017
0.007
0.009
0.02
0.03
ns
ns
ns
R2 ¼ 0:29
R2 ¼ 0:24
R ¼ 0:54a
Adjusted
a
F (7,103)=5.77, po0:0001:
N.M. Sussman / International Journal of Intercultural Relations 26 (2002) 391–408
403
Four of the seven independent variables contributed significantly to predicting
repatriation distress; Cultural Identity affect, American cultural estrangement,
Japanese bonding, and internationality. Specifically, negative feelings about being
American, feeling ‘‘less American’’, feeling ‘‘more Japanese’’ and less global
predicted repatriation distress. Combined, all seven independent variables accounted
for 29% (adjusted to 24%) of the variance in the outcome measure.
Although the bivariate correlations between RDIS and CI/I and between RDIS
and CI/PT were significantly different from zero, the relationships seem to be
redundant to the relationship between RDIS and CI/A.
4. Discussion
Several clear findings have emerged from this study which investigated the cultural
transition cycle and cultural identity among an American sojourner sample,
homogeneous in age, purpose, length, and site of sojourn.
First, contrary to previous findings in the cultural transition literature, there is no
simple relationship between cultural adaptation and cultural repatriation; not a
positive relationship, in which a deep and meaningful adaptation to a host country is
associated with a positive return to one’s home country; nor an inverse relationship,
in which a meaningful and successful adaptation to a host country is associated with
a distressing and painful repatriation experience. While researchers have disagreed
about the direction of the relationship, most assumed that these two mirror-image
experiences within the cultural transition cycle were related.
One possible explanation for the lack of relatedness may be the methods employed
in this study. Sojourners were asked to retrospectively recall their adaptation
experiences in Japan. While some repatriates had recently returned to the US, others
had repatriated more than 5 years prior to participation in the study. Sojourners’
recall of their adaptation to Japan and repatriation experience may have been
inaccurate, either overestimated or underestimated. Note that the literature does not
specify the length of repatriation effects although anecdotal evidence indicates great
individual variability. A longitudinal study of the cultural transition cycle, with
adaptation and repatriation measures taken in the appropriate temporal sequences
would remedy this data collection limitation. The author is currently conducting
such a longitudinal study among a sample of American student-sojourners.
Another explanation for the lack of relatedness between host culture adaptation
and repatriation experience may be that the association is more complex and may be
mediated by other variables. The Cultural Identity Model of cultural transitions
suggests one mediating factor, the self-concept variable of cultural identity.
A second major finding of this study is the significant relationship between cultural
identity strength and repatriation distress. American sojourners who experience high
distress during their repatriation to the US feel the most estranged from the
American identity, that is, they possess a weak cultural identity. Conversely,
sojourners who embrace a strong American cultural identity experience lower
repatriation stress. The direction of the relationship between cultural identity
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N.M. Sussman / International Journal of Intercultural Relations 26 (2002) 391–408
strength and distress is similar to that found by Ward and her colleagues (1994, 1999,
2000) for overseas adaptation (strong home culture identification associated with
psychological well-being and weak home culture identification predictive of mood
disturbance) and by Luo (1996) who found that cultural identity maintenance among
Chinese sojourners to the US resulted in better psychological adjustment status. This
finding has not been previously demonstrated among a repatriation sample.
It is important to note that this current study neither measures nor categorizes
sojourners into identity types. Nevertheless, the significant identity strength–
repatriation distress relationship found here begins to hint at the identity types
proposed in the CIM model. For example, affirmative identities (centrality and
positive feelings toward home cultural identity and sense of similarity to compatriots) are predicted to experience low repatriation distress. Sojourners whose
home cultural identity is affirmed and maintained throughout the cultural transition
process are expected to experience less repatriation distress upon their return home
and more satisfaction with their lives. This prediction is supported by both anecdotal
evidence and an earlier study which investigated home and host influences
(McClintock & Davis, 1958).
Recall that the Cultural Identity Scale provides a static picture of identity captured
at a moment in time following the return of the sojourner to the US. The three single
items were designed as preliminary measures of cultural identity shift and, while
admittedly low in reliability, also confirmed the relationships predicted by the CIM
model: high repatriation distress associated with both increased estrangement from
American cultural identity (subtractive) and increased embracing of Japanese values
(additive); life satisfaction related to intercultural identity (global).
Repatriation distress may be exacerbated for sojourners who experience a cultural
identity change by the fact that not only had their home cultural identity been altered
but by the psychological effort to overcome the pressure to ‘‘maintain and rehearse
their national and cultural identity’’ (Bochner, McLeod, & Lin, 1977, p. 279) while
overseas. Further, the psychological unpreparedness of sojourners for repatriation
distress exacerbates its affective response.
Sojourners who indicated a change toward a more global identify following their
sojourn also experienced high satisfaction with their lives. Leembruggen-Kallberg
(1997) indicated similar findings among multiple-cultured women whose global
identity resulted in development of greater human understanding, openness to others
and cultural differences, and an ability to synthesize multiple cultural experiences.
This study highlights the validity of the internet as a means for participant
recruitment and data collection. Traditional and online samples did not differ in
their responses on any major measures. It might be argued that the sample of
internet surfers who have experienced an intense cultural transition experience might
be high; after all, why would they be browsing cultural transition websites. However,
a similar argument might be made for any sojourner who volunteers to participate in
a traditionally recruited cultural transition study. Empirically, it appears that these
two groups differ little. One additional benefit of online methods is that internet
participant recruitment allows for a larger and potentially more heterogeneous
sample.
N.M. Sussman / International Journal of Intercultural Relations 26 (2002) 391–408
405
Initial support for the cultural identity theory proposed by Sussman (2000a) is
provided by this investigation. However, as with all new models, the findings from
this study need to be replicated and refined. Several additional factors require
consideration in the exploration of cultural identity and cultural transitions and they
add a cautionary note to the interpretation of these results. First, the temporal aspect
of cultural identity strength requires longitudinal measurement to better ascertain
both the effects of changes in identity strength and the causal relationship between it
and the repatriation experience. It could be argued, for example, that sojourners who
feel significant repatriation distress attribute the distress to the home culture,
denigrate their home culture, and therefore experience a weakened identity rather
than the reverse causal chain proposed by the model. Further, it is unclear from the
current measurements the extent to which cultural identity has shifted or been
transformed as a consequence of the sojourn or whether sojourners possessed a
subtractive or global identity prior to the sojourn. Is cultural identity strength and
type a response to the transition experience or unrelated to it? Longitudinal research
would clarify the temporal and causal chain.
Relatedly, a fuller test of the CIM requires the development of psychometrically
sound scales, which measure and categorize sojourners into cultural identity types.
The three single-item measures utilized in this study are insufficient. However, design
of categorical measures to assess each identity type separately are notoriously
difficult due to the potentially ipsitive nature of the scales. These and other
psychometric problems are reflected in the continuous debate (Rudmin &
Ahmadzadeh, 2001; Ward & Rana-Deuba, 1999) surrounding the measurement of
the acculturation types (Berry, 1997). In addition, factor analyses are necessary to
quantitatively confirm the conceptualization of four distinct cultural identity
dimensions. The somewhat idiosyncratic cultural transition experiences of many
sojourners add to the challenges in capturing the data quantitatively. Qualitative
tools such as interviews, diaries, or autobiographical literature would augment the
measurement of the theoretical constructs.
Third, the model needs to be tested with additional populations and more
culturally diverse samples. It is likely, for example, that cultural dimensions of
individualism/collectivism or cultural ‘‘tightness’’ and ‘‘looseness’’ (Triandis, 1989)
influence a sojourner’s response to repatriation. It is yet to be determined if the
relationship between cultural identity and repatriation response is affected by such
contextual variables as cultural background of the sojourner. Further, host culture
context may influence repatriation indirectly, through its expectations and influence
on initial cultural adaptation. Therefore, both home and host cultures and their
effects on repatriation need further investigation.
In summary, this investigation concludes that the variation in the repatriation
experience can be explained not as a simple relationship with the degree of cultural
adaptation to the host country but rather as a more complex consequence of the
strength of one’s cultural identity following a sojourn. There are also tentative
indications that changes in cultural identity differentially affect the repatriation
experience. Negative home culture identity affect, subtractive and additive identity
changes, and the absence of a global identity predict repatriation distress.
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N.M. Sussman / International Journal of Intercultural Relations 26 (2002) 391–408
Acknowledgements
The author gratefully acknowledges the assistance of the following individuals and
organizations in the research process: Jeff Ewing, Jennifer Hill, Ben Louie, Dianne
Tyson, the Japanese Consulate in New York, the JET Alumni Association in New
York, and the comments of the manuscript reviewers. This research was supported
in part, by a grant from The City University of New York PSC-CUNY Research
Award Program.
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