The Anarchists and Education in Spain, 1868-1909
Author(s): Carolyn P. Boyd
Source: The Journal of Modern History, Vol. 48, No. 4, On Demand Supplement (Dec., 1976),
pp. 125-170
Published by: The University of Chicago Press
Stable URL: http://www.jstor.org/stable/1877306 .
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in Spain,
and Education
The Anarchists
1868-1909*
Carolyn P. Boyd
of Texas at Austin
University
In order
have emphasized
historians
taken
that,
as a social
theory,
the more advanced
less
haps received
anarchism
is
needs
of Spanish
studied
undertaking
imperative.
that
that
2
workers.
of these
it
for
own theory
the success
of workers,
an
as it was theoretically
it was when the anarchists
and from the interests
integrity
model sug-
and at the same time,
was the education
effective
of Spanish
or perceived
to the real
Among the most critical,
compromised both their
What has per-
revolutionary
responded
activities
in
had become an anachronism
of Western Europe.1
in accounting
was as politically
Significantly,
from their
they
attention
nations
of anarchism,
the credibility
sustained
most
or cultural
political,
the structural,
in Spain long after
industrial
century,
the twentieth
into
and programs that
activities
the least
together,
well
among
commitment to anarchism
the enduring
the way in which the anarchists'
gested
thest
classes
working
the Spanish
factors
to explain
and their
strayed
fur-
of the wTorking class,
popularity
Spain.
125
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in
Theory and Education
Anarchist
In the first
sprang
from theoretical
of public
quality
were basic
changing
their
instance,
to the central
circumstances
of anarchist
existing
social
tional
most elementary
who could
generally
shared
pay for it
Like their
to reformulate
with
preoccupation
par excellence
varied
privilege.
remained
with
inversely
overthrow
conthe
of the
outraged
democratic
which promised
progress
of mankind.
For these
of Darwin,
popularizations
the key to happiness,
Spencer,
self-educated
and Lyell
in the libertarian
to dignity,
"Do you want to be happy?
one contributor
of education
in the nineteenth
venerated
cen-
education,
to accelerate
the forward
with
men, whose familiarity
generally
press,
had been acquired
science
to liberation--in
Do you want to be free?...
to the anarchist
a sentiment
principles,
reformers
the anarchists
education,
demand for educa-
The restriction
contemporaries,
scientific
men?" wrote
anarchists
the anarchist
and social
by political
especially
through
emerged out of
of a more immediate
level,
reform was a cry against
the doctrines
others
doctrinal
intensity
expectations
imperatives
order.
to those
tury.
theoretical
forced
instrument
1868 and 1909 its
strength
At its
that
or
of the availability
of anarchism;
Thus, while
as the revolutionary
between
independent
premises
on education
emphasis
Some of these
of revolution.
theory
stant,
necessities
instruction.
historical
education
the anarchists'
weekly
and reason
a word,
held
to revolution.
Do you want to be
La Solidaridad
126
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in
"Then perfect
1870.
your reason,
modern ideas,
ilizing
refine
in your brain
elevated
and civ-
have solved
ENLIGHTENYOURSELVES,and you will
the
problem...."3
for the working
instruction
sory State
bourgeois
the working
class
for "more perfect
less
ignorant
official
that
of an organization
natural
In addition,
if
given
themselves.
ists,
as it
as false
and invidious
an unjustified
always
were almost
intrusion
In this
respect,
who promoted whenever
struction.
The socialists
educational
system;
into
the anarchists
possible
planned
the anarchists
education
the lives
would cooperatively
represented
of individuals,
who,
educate
from the socialof free
to take over the State,
insisted
was an un-
and voluntarily
differed
the extension
products
and manual labor.
intellectual
compulsory
of the State
the means to do so,
The result
is wicked."5
for libertarians
intellectual
the historic
"fictional,
between
dichotomy
Furthermore,
docile.
fostering
elitist,
was irretrievably
to
Workers might be
in industry.4
but they were no less
as a result,
the birth
of the need
was only because
it
of labor"
instruments
education
inequalities
in Europe,
elsewhere
the State
had been extended
instruction
If public
compul-
since
thus delaying
to the workers,
values
mentality.
of a revolutionary
free,
But for anarchists,
class.
public
compulsory)
(and generally,
was a remedy worse than the disease,
education
would transmit
free
i.e.,
opportunity,
of educational
for the democratization
would have settled
reformers
Middle-class
public
including
on the destruction
127
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inits
of both.6
were also
Anarchists
that
without
constraints.
that men would act in their
to insure
sufficient
however,
contained
Like Marxism,
anarchism
This attitude,
faced.
But this
brothers...."7
to all
there
If this
bring
any closer
tific
the anarchists
truth
and its
The unresolved
society.
revolutionary
however,
or moral
and
by the example of
it
Spain,
did not
education
in a
revolutionary
for their
no conflict;
interpretation
of analysis
science
was "bourgeois
Fortunately
perceived
are twin
approach
a relativistic
the anomaly of tendential
themselves
contradiction,
the lead-
tool
as an objective
in nineteenth-century
to resolution
libertarian
theoretically
vigor,
education
State
confessional
the quint-
of knowledge
was reinforced
conclusion
or
to be scientifically,
Knowledge in a social
vacuum had no meaning for anarchists;
worker science."8
was never
that
and socialism
engendered
that
or otherwise.
scientific
truth,
view of "science"
the materialism
was at odds with
claimed
"Positivism
day,
of his
militant
ing anarchist
view:
instrumentalist
In the words of Anselmo Lorenzo,
act.
revolutionary
essential
free,
of a totally
a contradiction
making the dissemination
derived,
"objectively,"
interest,
end.
was the means to a revolutionary
education
squarely
This was a frankly
society.
cooperative
totally
enlightenment
own best
realization
the successful
made plausible
education
in a society
of individual
a degree
By providing
against
defense
good enough to live
man was not intrinsically
charges
was their
behaviorism
behaviorists;
were necessarily
they
reform because
to educational
committed
for them,
scien-
were the same thing.
would ultimately
undermine
128
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the
integrity
of the anarchists'
education
as collaborators
future
that
asserted
uneasy
remained
of those
potential
about the revolutionary
of their
to the neglect
press
at-
most anarchists
to the movement in the 1890s,
intellect
their
eloped
the anarchist
Although
instruction."9
intellectuals
tracted
and more
would have "fewer universities
society
and profitable
useful
the theorists
of education,
the importance
Even as they stressed
hands.
workers
mostly% self-educated
of anyone who did not work with his
suspicious
who were inveterately
was the endemic anti-
persisted
anarchists,
of the Spanish
intellectualism
Ferrer.
of Francisco
in the Modern School
the contradiction
One reason
libertarian
with
major experiment
first
who had dev-
body.
firm will and
clear intelligence,
Do you see that man of pure heart,
Do you see that other man, who
slender body? That man is educated.
writes as if his hand were driven by a powerful
reads like lightning,
he is a
Be careful:
is neat and elegant?
machine, whose handwriting
inconsequential.
to the sorrow of others,
man of cold heart, insensitive
a well-developed
and has, apparently,
things,
He is content with futile
That man is well instructed.lU
intelligence.
To resolve
intellectuals)
ledge
anarchist
the tension,
or skills
between
distinguished
the body, mind, and personality
reactionary;
man was potentially
man depended
The favorite
of education
Fourier
success
the ultimate
phrase
was "integrated
and transmitted
instruction--the
vacuum--and
in a social
(many of whom were middle-class
theorists
education--the
of know-
acquisition
development
of
in preparation
for life.
The instructed
on the virtue
and will
of the educated
of anarchist
of the anarchists
education,"
to the Spanish
society.
to describe
a term originated
working
classes
the ideal
by Charles
through
129
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form
the writings
of Pierre
Joseph
1
Margall.
reacted
Like Fourier
viscerally
industrial
factory
Proudhon and his
(and like
the anarchists
dislocation
in France.
Disturbed
worker from the
the worker in the total
product
of his
industrial
His goal was not so much the spiritual
as the elimination
distinctions
all
between
integrated
into
the social
More directly
Bakunin,
the founder
of integrated
Social
Democracy.1
the whole man.
must also
him to follow
as essential
the revolutionary
the individual
ones.
potential
He devoted
evidence
little
and
of every
other.
per-
on gratuitous
In a just
society,
independent,
and yet
anarchism
was Michail
who had incorporated
equaily
of Proudhon,
personality
of faith
the education
as well
of the child
anarchist
society,
knowledge.
of
as in some
education
and encourage
free
the first
men were
to identify
Yet in practice,
in the revolutionary
time to the elaboration
of
Alliance
argued that
Bakunin was also
of scientific
the concept
International
Bakunin advocated
in a truly
vocation;
Bakunin showed scant
education.
equally
who was temperamentally
the antithesis
as productive
based
the program of his
into
But Bakunin,
his
theory
of the individual
labor.
for Spanish
Like Proudhon,
liberate
"integrating"
in wisdom and skill
of modern anarchism,
ways philosophically
of the
fabric.12
influential
education
the nascent
Proudhon wanted to involve
labor,
differences
productive,
Pi y
Proudhon
by the alienation
manual and intellectual
men would be equally
him),
accompanied
liberation
of class
Francisco
after
that
process,
to make each worker the equal
sonality
interpretor,
to the social
revolution
practice
Spanish
of his
130
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impact of
theory,
and
even less
Like Bakunin,
were less
preoccupied
revolution
than with
years
with
tasks
was spent
the blueprint
tactical
education
International
at the general
April
1872,
tegrated
the delegates
education
was scientific
of his working-class
the natural
sciences
of the First
area chosen
by the student.
Thus,
in June
in Saragossa
speaking"
described
Theoretical
Soriano
professor
of the pro-
by Soriano
mastery
training
gave practical
131
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in
for in-
proposal
properly
by technical
At
thereafter.
held
and
1870,15
a mathematics
audience.
was to be followed
the proposal
Soriano,
considerately
the benefit
More energy
sections
detailed
part,
the most
of Bakunin's
a rather
education,
early
the rest
and accords
by Trinidad
the
than on refining
To be sure,
Region,
The "intellectual
after
day to fruition.
of the Spanish
approved
submitted
from Seville.16
posal
Congress
and 1880s
of society
of Barcelona
in manifestos
ritualistically
the Second Workers'
congress
to
security,
seemed imminent;
Spanish
the
themselves...."1
in the 1870s
along with
by the embryonic
ideology
was invoked
of the future.
was adopted
revolutionary
educate
differences
and doctrinal
for the society
for integrated
that
which brought
render
In the optimistic
the day of destruction
were those
debating
itself.
that
the people
give
configuration
the exact
the revolution
of the movement,
pressing
anarchists
most Spanish
repeatedly
conditions,
me, they will
Then believe
and leisure.
he stressed
and thereby
due to labor,
what is justly
comfort,
Instead
"Improve working
must come first.
revolution
labor
education.
to popular
for
of all
in one
expression
to two essential
points
the integration
of Bakunin's
of theory
attaching
longed
by right
sentiments
mentation
large
at Saragossa
the caveat
that
to society
after
were reinforced
of integrated
called
agreed
progress
education
producing
until
society
that
Jose
been a conspiracy
and more or less
proposal
that
the imple-
was reordered.
should
Most
that
is
be an effect
argued in 1882,
conflicts
with
rather
"All
and has not been realized
bloody
be-
on a scale
at least
"the instruction
Llunas
only
These libertarian
recognition
Cof the revolution3
As the moderate
violent
and
of new institutions
was impossible,
with Anselmo Lorenzo
has first
vocation
Soriano's
the revolution.17
by the hardheaded
for as a condition
than a cause." 18
approved
the elaboration
enough to make a difference,
anarchists
individual
and practice.
But the delegates
after
doctrine:
without
the legitilate
government." 19
It was not until
had provoked
an equal
the anarchists
Peter
number of harsh
Kropotkin,
movement itself,
By then,
the topic
of the great
Kropotkin
had devoted
and conspiracy
collapse
of the capitalist
and imprisonment,
theory
look
the third
agitation
however,
of revolution
in the
"more or less
retaliations
began to take a harder
of education.
bilities
a number of these
order.
After
Kropotkin
and to meditate
had been fully
that
possi-
explored
theorists.
?
to revolutionary
anticipating
the momentary
a decade
of repeated
began to develop
on the future
by
Like the
energies
his
1870s,
from the State
at the revolutionary
anarchist
conflicts
bloody"
failure
an evolutionary
organization
132
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of society.
Predictably,
ized,
Kropotkin's
yet
plausible
attempt
social
to describe
organization
a communistic,
led him directly
decentralto the problem
of education.
Kropotkin
progressed
was therefore
the spontaneous,
had been achieved,
inevitable,
uctive.
terrorism
that
the construction
as described
pointed
fascinated
that
of the free
pointless,
educational
proposed
with
of the individual
if
of energies
in the 1880s
by Proudhon and Bakunin,
and inviolability
the schools
agitation
had been
and to cultivate
superstition
morality
and
The revolutionary
man.
toward a more cooperative
anarchists
Kropotkin
survived
that
and tyranny.
to a redirection
of an alternative
The system
elopment
evolution
creatures
tendency
to eliminate
natural
making revolutionary
Everything
living
an instinctual
in men by superstition
of the school
in the child
this
in nature,
through mutual aid,
warped or buried
role
argued that
Once
society
was
not counterprodaway from the
and 1890s and toward
system.
resembled
special
integrated
emphasis
personality.
education
on the devThe task
of
was clear:
full of
... the formation of the moral being, the active individual,
of thought
initiative,
enterprising,
brave, free from the timidity
that characterizes
the educated man in our day--and at the same time,
and capable of
with communistic instincts,
egalitarian,
sociable,
and thus, disensing his unity with all men in the entire universe,
and authoritarian
vested of the religious,
strictly
individualistic,
in us.21
that the schools
preoccupations
today instill
In the
ignorant
1880s,
of Kropotkin's
however,
insistence
Spanish
anarchists
remained
generally
on a change in revolutionary
133
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tactics.22
Although
there
the desire
their
were isolated
for self-improvement
revolutionary
nature.
Their
marily
experiments
persisted,
hopes on direct
educational
to the extension
with
of basic
the anarchist
72 percent
thirty
this
measure,
sensitivity
years
later,
or 50 percent
Illiteracy
were not uniform
ranged
in the
ferences
latifundia
50 percent
nor write.
only
totaled
over ten years
of age.
in 1910,
Basque provinces
of Andalusia.
over 100,000
Italy
over
still
the country;
in the northern
in cities
In Western Europe,
The appalling
of public
schools,
education
which established
control
as illiterate;
of illiterates
throughout
In 1877,
they
to 72
But rural-urban
in 1910,
could
and Portugal
neither
shared
difnearly
read
such dismal
25
statistics.
public
people.
as might have been predicted;
of the population
pri-
reflected
instruction
was classified
provinces
were not as great
violent
were confined
of the Spanish
of the population
from a low of 38 percent
percent
on primary
the fraction
over 59 percent,
rates
pinned
in Spain
emphasis
population
in 1910,
period
and
literacy.
to the needs
of the Spanish
still
of a more or less
in this
Primary Education
In large
education23
most anarchists
action
activities
integrated
although
could
the blueprint
had existed
the principle
of--education.
rate
illiteracy
since
to a lack
traced
for a comprehensive
system
the Ley Moyano of September
of State
In practice,
be directly
responsibility
however,
the State
9,
1857,
for--and
thus,
preferred
the
134
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of
control
to the responsibility.
limited
financial
mary education
burden of higher
were entrusted
Free compulsory
nine;
given
of 2,000
the right
education
under the complete
from falling
State
schools
thirds
and the extremely
to an average
slowed
of this
government
country's
school.
26
the north,
tration
of municipal
high
schools,
number of public
where private
schools
schools
districts
only
partially
the areas
correlation
disappeared
compensated
towns)
twohad no
were in the rural
of highest
between
literacy
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of
and the
urban centers,
for the absence
135
in
concen-
solvency
in the largest
areas
illiteracy;
the greater
the fiscal
and ultimately,
of the
elementary
In 1909,
30,000
reflected
rate
literacy
Once the
resources
per year.
(about
the
century.
of public
many of these
Meseta,
The direct
the Basque provinces.
to keep
of the Church,
financial
limited
construction
Predictably,
a relatively
of the Law of
tenor
control
of 56 schools
school
of the South and the Central
respon-
financial
and the Church was
in the nineteenth
had been exhausted,
municipalities
for
school
the outcome was disastrous.
Whatever the intention,
enthusiasm
one pri-
to provide
Although
people.
age
until
The Ley Moyano was designed
and regalist.
avowed enemy of the liberal
initial
was required
the general
of moral supervision,
1857 was centralist
Spaniards
system was decentralized
for the educational
government.
with one additional
each for boys and girls,
each sex for each increment
sibility
to all
the
and pri-
secondary
and municipal
to provincial
each town of over 500 inhabitants
mary school
while
education,
was guaranteed
instruction
assumed only
government
The central
of public
Despite
institutions.
students
cause
many larger
free
for workers.28
classes
fied
teachers
take
the job,30
Set by the State
In practice,
to a modest maximum of 3,000.31
of local
bullying
schools
usually
ciphering,
80 percent
breach.
By 1900 there
munities
in Spain,33
ones.34
private
primary
instruction,32
an educational
quickly
stepped
and 910 feminine
and in many urban areas,
secondary
of reading,
The Church, which sponsored
level.
were 294 masculine
Prestigious
the public
law of 1857 thus created
at the elementary
of all
to the
on the latter.
emphasis
instruction
vacuum, especially
public
with
and religion,
conditions,
the
subjected
more than the rudiments
little
provided
The public
nearly
Under these
caciques.
in stages
to teach
in arrears,
were inevitably
and teachers
was disreputable,
housing
rising
the inducements
were usually
for salaries
attractive,
a year,
or
salaries
of the town,
of 125 pesetas
level
began at the sub-subsistence
were even less
to the size
according
few of talent
attracted
offered
and the salaries
of quali-
anyone who would
had to certify
municipalities
meant that
The lack
and overcrowded.29
equipped,
poorly
bad--dilapidated,
were notoriously
schools
the municipal
To compound the problem,
ability.
tuition-
including
schools,
private
subsidized
measure,
As a temporary
to pay fees.27
were required
municipalities
which was low in any case be-
attendance,
obligatory
was made to enforce
no attempt
reason,
For this
places.
number of school
a sufficient
there
of Spain were
in no part
variations,
regional
education
Catholic
teaching
schools
was provided
136
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into
the
com-
outnumbered
for the
Catholic
instruction
For the Liberals,
the issue
defended
transigently
and private.
As the impulse
government.
the defeat
Spain after
ness
and patriotism
The battle
Instruction.
Public
5
signed
responsibility
the financial
decree
another
schools.37
public
State
Federico
with
Urales,
Blanca,
a decree
right
Somewhat surprisingly,
the editor
the first
1901,
26,
the State's
the Catholic
of civic
of the first
relieving
conscious-
Liberal
of the influential
of
both private
between
the anarchists
must come first,"
anarchist
in the Ateneo of Madrid in 1904.38
year,
the following
in the struggle
"Liberty
Minister,
the municipalities
to inspect
accreditation,
right.
of
of
Ministry
salaries;36
for teachers'
and the Church over school
themselves
Revista
affirmed
to
obstacle
and the Church for the control
the creation
On October
the Count of Romanones,
and moral orientation
to the creation
the Liberals
with
began in 1900,
education
through
as a whole.
in the nation
between
swept
seemed the most serious
and more importantly,
modernization,
to constitutional
basic
the nation
the political
schools
by the Catholic
provided
the Catholic
political:
to "Europeanize"
of 1898,
both public
was not religious--most
to most of the freedoms
hostile
remained
clergy
the Church in-
in the schools,
were good Catholics--but
Liberals
orthodox
and by the
masses,
among the Spanish
growth of anticlericalism
children.
of European culture
Alarmed by the secularization
rapid
and their
for workers
instruction
free
provided
borhoods
in urban neigh-
schools
network of charity
an extensive
while
well-to-do,
Better
137
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journal,
and
the
allied
insisted
La
to undo the
work of the teacher
freedom to teach.
the inspection
schools,
decrees
Anarchist
by establishing
and hours,
incomes
to school,
shorter.
with
the apparent
labor,
for worker instruction
At these
centers,
indoctrination
well
indicates
the early
Moreover,
and needed--basic
wages were higher
a mockery.
education
and of other
could
children
might be overcome.
the religious
escape
and official
offered
But
centers
private
education,
of the charitable
and condescension
schools
would not send
deterrents
these
workers
as
institutions.
what they wanted
literacy.
nothing
about these
seem to have been primarily
urban workers'
apostles
that
It was
and the need to augment family
both Catholic
anarchist
We know almost
and 1880s
until
schools
and their
permeated
as the paternalism
themselves,
would make compulsory
workers
that
workers
fatigue,
of the anarchist
success
for workers.
that
reformers
then,
to the indiffer-
had responded
own schools
their
nor attend
Until
child
Education
the anarchists
a commonplace among educational
children
of Catholic
ones as well.
Like the Catholics,
their
Further-
the autonomy not only
threatened
Early
ence of the State
was pernicious,
was an enemy of the revolution.
victim
but of anarchist
in any way his
of the power of the State
Any extension
even when the intended
more,
in the home than to restrict
at night
centers
who brought
and rural
simple
makeshift
villages.
literature
schools,
which in the 1870s
classes
anarchist
The traveling
to avid potential
in
operating
readers
138
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met a
real
of these
ution
seemed imminent,
class--and
which the working
eventually,
as well
As long as the revolas a "nursery
by
than as the instrument
rather
locality
a plan
theory
was perceived
school
the anarchist
in a given
of revolutionaries"
39
constraints.
and organizational
as by financial
to implement
attempted
by revolutionary
was determined
education,
of integrated
which rarely
schools,
anarchist
scope
But the modest
of any kind.
to bureaucratization
aversion
tarian
periods
of the liber-
the result
partly
and repression;
activity
of underground
of frequent
the consequence
approach was partly
unsystematic
Their
revolution.
for the impending
support
recruiting
need while
be
society
as a whole--would
goals
was worker preference;
trans formed.40
Another
workers
ordinary
writing
reading,
implement
earliest
Antonio
as much enthusiasm
they
school
a program of integrated
education
stressed
41
application.
centers
or primarily
for workers
of the Spanish
known schools
Ignacio
Cervera,
working
of this
classes
for half
type was founded
of im-
"instruction
preferthem-
by workers
the
who retained
a century.
or
to
attempted
of this
lead
One of the
in Madrid in 1851 by
whose Escuela
a journalist
that
created
by the republicans,
might
bookkeeping
evidence
Extensive
be found in the successful
that
drawing,
anarchist
in
instruction
in skills
advancement--mechanical
for
as the theorists
practical
favored
and training
and arithmetic,
and general
ence could
limited
Even the occasional
dressmaking.
allegiance
Instead,
or economic
to social
selves
never mustered
education.
integrated
mediate
for these
reason
del Trabajador
139
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eventually
taught
1,500
Velada de Artistas,
students.42
working-class
Artesanos,
Jornaleros
y Labradores,
workers
in 1847,
when it
became known as the Fomento de las
cooperatives
in Barcelona
the Ateneo
de la Clase
of the century,
classes.43
primary
instruction,
in Spain,
bookkeeping,
dressmaking,
received
Catalonia,47
reformist
in their
of Barcelona
schools
politics,
in tacit
after
in its
on
patrons,
elsewhere
orientation.
in
pragmatic
in Barcelona,
with
1900.
orders,
Ateneos
the republican
and provincial
posed by private
which comfor
the anarchists
Like the
both of the failure
recognition
piano,
in the Casas del Pueblo
Lerroux
of the teaching
threat
proliferated
successfully)
workers
in
Dependent
and equally
for workers
from the municipal
stipends
that
those
of Alejandro
the turn
from middle-class
and pragmatic
(and for a while,
and of the potential
were less
like
center,
courses
and adults.44
S and on contributions
Republicans
and the charitable
tion
French,
were the schools
vigorously
the allegiance
often
drawing,
to both children
1860s,
attended
offered
more radical
of the Radical
and children
in Catalonia
was steadfastly
instruction,
and cultural
and expanded past
adults
by
workers'
centers
Obrero of Barcelona,
Only slightly
in the
In 1861,
school
which thrived
over a thousand
established
activities
Artes.
La
school,
nineteen
from the city
the Ateneo
peted
Obrera,
and gymnastics
subsidies
and cultural
founded a similar
when well
In 1904,
solfeggio,
their
added political
Another
Obreros
centers
governments
of official
in
educa-
whose views
schools
moderate.
Workers also
movement.
attended
Denied subsidies
the lay schools
because
of clerical
sponsored
by the free-thought
opposition,
140
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there
were
124 such schools
nonetheless
some of which had a reputation
sive
middle
class
The lay teachers
sidents,
ranging
nationalists
from Protestants,
conscience
and civic
tatious
homage to the liberal
usually
escaped
despite
the repressions
a violent
and the clerical
cess
of their
more, all
act
frequently
campaign unleashed
the anarchists
private
directed
against
for workers,
schools
contributed
to the extension
political
lexicon.
they
the anarch-
against
them by the Church
of worker preference.
of basic
For this
of the movement, when the revolution
these
schools
and centers
who thus happily
an institutional
combined the cause
reason,
still
orientation
the sucFurther-
a revolutionary
literacy,
decades
provided
that
recognized
first
their
lay schools
of the moderate
were suspicious
programs was an indication
in the anarchists'
educators,
and paid osten-
reason,
For this
emphasized
press.5
Although
of most other
State.51
moderate,
press
The anticlerical
of the lay master,
dis-
were stridently
and politically
conservative
tuition
and Catalan
republicans,
the schools
anarchist;50
to advertise.
they were careful
attended
and religious
political
moderate
in 1909,48
among the progres-
soundness
whose children
were primarily
but pedagogically
the patriotism
ists,
workers,
to an occasional
anticlerical,
a fact
for academic
and skilled
free.49
of Barcelona
in the province
during
the
seemed imminent,
framework for anarchist
of popular
need to earn a living.
141
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education
with
The Anarchist
The extension
audience
for the anarchist
instrument
Spanish
of education
anarchism
lific,
connection
in Madrid in 1870;
La Federacion.
techniques
was to prepare
cles
chist
54
newspaper,
through
Even during
set
were refined
of scientific
pages--reviews
associations
press,
the anarchists
La Solidaridad,
founded
of organizers
at-
the organ of the labor
the pattern
period
for those
against
The strictly
federa-
from 1874 to
sporadically.
that
followed,
grew more sophisticated
as evidenced
Conspicuously
and activities
moment,
managed to publish
of lectures,
and culture.
From the first
nucleus
consciousness
truth.
was pro-
press
readers
and the writing
imprecations
for
attracting
the clandestine
Their mission,
as an
of faith
The anarchist
the original
newspapers
to action,
on science
Even in their
a weekly
the revolutionary
on the inside
53
a wider
potential
was an article
the movement.
"prudently"
as the movement matured.
revelations
with
in Madrid and Barcelona
These early
exhortations
history.
in Barcelona,
to proselytize
although
its
to provide
whose revolutionary
and mobilization
published
1881 anarchists
was intended
and on the whole well-written,
the International
tempted
literacy
press,
throughout
irrepressible,
who had no other
tion,
of basic
Press
by their
of the masses
the established
educational
debates
absent
content,
by means of
order,
and
material
was
and meetings,
and arti-
were notices
of anar-
and commentary on contemporary
were resolutely
apolitical
organizational.
142
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politics.
and anti-
The anarchist
landless
day laborers
puted until
anarchist
well
ideas
then committed
anarchist
texts.
did raise
in the rural
were carried
articles
or "man of ideas,"
using
political
loyalty
of their
ardor.
But revolutionary
enthusiasm
the anarchists
and the draconian
after
1880s
effectively
After
two decades
Anarchists
tactics
the wave of terrorist
dampened revolutionary
of propaganda
than ever;
stronger
in Spain,
Kropotkin
take the long view and to reconsider
This strand
edited
No other
for the intellectual
the compliment
died
capitalist
against
in the
as well.
seemed
society
disappointingly
in England a decade
the role
as
out as quickly
there
expectations
with
earlier,
of integrated
fragile.
began to
education
in
of society.
the transformation
been completely
masses.
bombings in Barcelona
of the masses,
as
rudimentary
employed by the State
and agitation,
the constancy
like
and art,
who returned
in Andalusia
not read,
and journals
showed as much concern
countrymen,
undis-
to read from the local
down to the Spanish
and revolutionary
it was kindled,
learned
on science
articles
filtered
or religious,
and moral welfare
who could
newspapers
these
reigned
and proselytizers
to those
Many peasants
among
Through the press,
century.55
were read aloud
Through the simplified
group,
where anarchism
where the organizers
to memory.56
of modern culture
expectations
revolutionary
South,
*nto the twentieth
never went--the
ideas
press
of anarchist
neglected;
by Anselmo Lorenzo,
educational
the appearance
Rafael
theory
had,
of course,
in 1886 of the journal
Farga Pellicer,
never
Acracia,
and Fernando Tarrida
143
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del Mirmol,
potkin
reflected
an awareness
on the subject.
anarchists
published
journals
were Ciencia
Social,
Natura,
a similar
magazine
La Revista
teacher,
then as a publicist.
of other
anarchists
had been active
La Revista
of
Blanca,
"soci-
1895 to
in Barcelona
biweekly
which appeared
better
bi-
known as
movement first
as a lay
along with hundreds
of the terrorist
he returned
in Madrid with his
bombings
to Spain in 1898
compaftera
Soledad
Gustavo
Maftg) 57
The abandonment of direct
tively
trials,
journals
review
and exiled
in the aftermath
Blanca
of these
from October
in the anarchist
Montjuich
the revolution
Juan Montseny,
Imprisoned
in 1896,
of 1893 and the infamous
published
Spanish
and literary
regarded
in Barcelona
The editor,
Urales,
(Teresa
but highly
and especially,
Federico
that
and consolidate
published
from 1898 to 1906.
in the mid-90s
The most successful
a short-lived
of Kro-
theories
number of "sociological"
was to initiate
and letters"
from 1903 to 1905;
to publish
was only
and minds of men.
arts,
June 1896;
weekly
a large
whose mission
in the hearts
ology,
But it
of the contemporary
indirect
one of evolutionary
of the revolution
itself.
revolutionary
tactics
for
the rela-
change did not mean the abandonment
As one writer
put it
in 1904:
.there is no work more praiseworthy,
more correct,
more efficacious,
or more revolutionary
than to bring to the popular masses, to all individuals,
demonstrated
Science,
truth, love of natural law and enjoyment of nature,
since Nature is Science,
Science is Nature and it is
of Life.58
Truth, Beauty, Art and the sublimity
With the goal
and socially
of promoting
conscious
the evolution
individuals,
of a society
the sociological
of free,
reviews
144
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educated,
focused
on
as well
ressives
ried
young writers
L6pez Montenegro,
entific
the moral lesson
terms with
must and will
world,
biological
continue
conviction
the anarchist
clearly
that
society,
included
that
With a cavalier
of sciand
the physical
The poem illustrated
to evolve.60
science
that
and poetry
like
by
de fuego
combined a jumble
for metre and rhyme, L6pez Montenegro
disregard
and the French
"La Naturaleza."
entitled
Among the
workers.
was El bot6n
volume of essays
a 300-page
poem about evolution
a didactic
houses
favorite
Another
Faure.59
Sebastian
anarchist
The same publishing
County Volney,
read were works by Kropotkin,
most widely
and the
with Spanish
of books popular
cheap editions
printed
Jose
de Unamuno and Clarin.
Miguel
Manuel B. Cossio,
Rios,
Giner de los
by Francisco
articles
car-
Blanca
La Revista
theoreticians;
as from anarchist
prog-
from middle-class
contributions
they solicited
and wide readership,
of quality
In pursuit
ideology.
to anarchist
in addition
women's rights,
and
health,
criticism,
literary
science,
popular
reform,
educational
was on the side
of the rev-
olution.
Accompanying
a first
step,
the journals
to modern pedagogical
rational
eighteenth
like
a generous
labelled
century
and subsequently
Froebel,
either
"progressive"
developed
and Spencer.
The basic
been formulated
or,
space
more
premises
by Rousseau
by educational
By 1900,
As
education.
amount of editorial
education."
"rational
was the
tactics
demand for integrated
were not new, having
education
Pestalozzi,
devoted
theories,
countries,
in Catholic
usual
on evolutionary
new emphasis
the often-evoked
to implement
desire
this
of
in the
philosophers
the American John Dewey
145
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was the best
while
known and the most successful
a model of progressive
in Spain,
ci6n
Libre
de Ensefianza
these
reformers
who took the deepest
Urales,
Jose
cation
well
Prat,
Ricardo
education
provided
rational
for reform.
educators
religious.
individuals.
formal
education,
of the child.
humankind itself
the spirit
ponsible
inate
Imitation
perverted
had learned
with
part
mind, between
the reason
the artificial
for life,
for things,
walks,
but life
development
as
new skills
in
In a natural
deriving
knowledge
must be resof the
were an
and gymnastics
were not present
of
the staples
development
The intent
dualisms--between
or
of spontaneous,
The school
as was coeducation.
men and women--that
was not preparation
phylogeny."
and concrete.
nature
secular
to the complex,
and the intellectual
games,
of the program,
from the school
would learn
"Ontogeny repeats
instruction,
at least,
the natural
them, from the primitive
for both the physical
health
and memorization,
as
criticism
was the creation
the child
the practical
this
but in theory
or inhibited
edu-
approaches
by any institution,
education
to himself,
of the dictum,
from experience
integral
indoctrination
he would come to grasp
fashion,
child;
If left
countries,
education,
rederico
of anarchist
of existing
In Catholic
of rational
self-determining
classical
a critique
at clerical
abhorred
The goal
Lorenzo,
Guardia.
Rational
Tb.e work of
by the anarchists
press
and the high priest
Ferrer
in the Institu61
Rfos.
Mella,
Francisco
directed
Giner de los
in education--Anselmo
in Spain,
was principally
of the new methods,
existed
in the anarchist
interest
as a blueprint
education
of Francisco
was publicized
proponent
was to elim-
the body and the
in adult
itself.
146
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life.
School
Because
it
the anarchists
congenial.
italist
society,
however
"neutral"
not just
by patriotism;
its
and submission
and the clergy,
employer."62
by reverence
Secular
possible
to conceive
dom." 63
Rational
duty of destroying
Christian
With the aid of the school,
and finally
duty;
religion
the aristocrat,
and the
insufficient;
religion
and also
it
was
without
free-
was to assume the additional
in favor
of all
short,
of private
property,
the
of
forms of authority--and
morality."64
would triumph "first
the revolution
in society."
education,
the proprietor,
of a "scientific-physiological
the formation
of cap-
over Church-
to the king,
for anarchists
prejudices
all
State
by civic
was also
without
and the family--in
nation-State,
virtue
education
of "a people
edu-
of the French Third Republic,
for the bureaucrat,
education
Thus,
was no improvement
and obedience
private
ancient
to include
system.
In the lay schools
by the State;
education,
and the program of rational
educational
or "progressive,"
"God was replaced
individuals
demand for integrated
But they expanded the critique
education.
encouraging
to their
found both the critique
cation
supported
responded
among
65
The Modern School
By 1900,
complete
program of rational
toward national
reformers
were favorable
circumstances
regeneration
a new audience,
weakened revolutionary
education
after
while
enthusiasm
for the implementation
in an anarchist
the defeat
a decade
school.
The impulse
of 1898 had given
of terrorism
among anarchist
educational
and repression
militants.
147
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of a
At this
had
moment, Francisco
Ferrer
of the anarchist
Guardia wrote
Natura,
journal
school
in Barcelona
alism,
family...."
of his
A year
classes
girls
twelve
An anticlerical
and eighteen
coup of General
Villacampa
drifted
anarchism.
towards
impulses
tion
During these
of "propaganda
inherited
to establish
pedagogy
1,300,000
a school
that
from impoverished
workers
the Catalan
in Barcelona
trade
working
of anarchism.
94 elementary
children
Ferrer
had
revolutionary
educa-
and by the
education.
Paul
When in 1900
from an elderly
for Ferrer's
location
was the obvious
of unskilled
more deficient
francs
the abortive
spinster,
for
enthusiasms
and for the revolution.67
of moderate
urban stronghold
La Escuela
the libertarian
would combine his
1890 on, the failure
had radicalized
nation-
toward libertarian
by the deed,"
of rational
proponent
an estimated
Barcelona
20,000
diffuse
Orphanage at Cempuis, whose director,
Ferrer
provided
his
years,
the failure
he decided
since
in the 1890s
in Madrid in 1886,
followed
was an enthusiastic
of property,
8, 1901,
in Paris
in exile
both by the trend
Robin,
a rational
boys.
direction
famous Prevost
the editor
the Modern School--commenced
were given
that
rational
on September
simply,
republican
to establish
concept
false
later,
y Racional--or
to Josd Prat,
intention
to combat "religion,
Moderna, Cientifica
with
from Paris
tactics
and the immigration
rural
areas
of the East and South68
class
and had made Barcelona
Furthermore,
public
instruction
in Spain.69
and subsidized
out of an estimated
From
union
than elsewhere
schools
new school.
school-age
In 1902,
the
was even
the city
43 more, accommodating
population
148
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of 60,000.70
only
In contrast,
all
were 489 officially
there
by the religious
of them maintained
workers
could
schools,
choose
in order
non-anarchist
and anticlerical
nents
government
of his
respectability
of the prominent
Sunday lecture
series
left
buted articles
to Ferrer's
In fact,
chists
chists
portant,
offer
however,
and Federico
and onetime
despite
rational
sent
monthly
militant,
Urales
education,
origins
staff
in any case,
the real
source
and contride la Escuela
the Barcelona
anar-
The administrator,
did some
Anselmo Lorenzo
Other anar-
of the texts.
Most im-
in the school.
the Modern School
of many of
preparation
the perversion
was Ferrer
did not
and revolution.
in anarchism
and minimal
of the deception
his
among the
library
with
several
have ensured
The
to call
liked
the Boletin
the veteran
propaganda,
oppo-
7
became professors
would probably
the teaching
1901.
but indoctrination
the anarchist
who delivered
the Modern School.
wrote
official
in Barcelona.
Other sympathizers
worked closely
Ferrer
his
left
to the school
as much
the progressive
disarmed
as Ferrer
publication,
con-
anarchist
that
intellectuals
in October
his
he advertised
masses,"
books
lay teachers
Ferrer's
Although
Catalan
and operating
was a leading
translating,
charity
clerical
and to encourage
a tactic
friends.72
appeared
in organizing
Jose Prat,
program,
additional
Moderna, which first
Instead,
(or "iscientific
intelligentsia
denied
of the middle-class
and won him the support
Spanish
schools,
interference
as possible.71
aspects
them) won the school
State
nearly
of Barcelona
The children
consistently
Ferrer
to avoid
support
schools,
at all.
Once in Barcelona,
nections
private
orders.
overcrowded
between
or no school
registered
of the system
himself.
149
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His
of the principles
disregard
first
director
atheist
of the Modern School,
with
In 1903,
considerable
Jacquinet
in a pamphlet
publicized
of rational
previous
broke with
entitled
experience
ploy
of inquiry.
pedagogy
that
masked a much more cynical
In 1905,
Ferrer
per se in a letter
the school,
development
Leopoldina
privately
education.
rational
en la escuela.
commitment to spontaneous
relations
with
denounced
and subsequently
"El socialismo
a passionate
Jacquinet,
Clementine
Ferrer
soon drove away the
education
Ferrer's
'74
to a former mistress
well-
toward the spirit
attitude
his
work
a public
was essentially
admitted
his
lack
of interest
in
in
and collaborator
Bonnard:
For polemical
those who
purposes I can give you an argument against
manual
ask us for schools with great advantages--integrated
education,
We cannot do more now
labor, skills,
multiple
course offerings,
etc.
than make the children
about religious,
think about social
injustice,
lies,
etc.,
governmental,
patriotic,
judicial,
political,
or militaristic
in order to prepare minds ready to carry out a social
revolution.
We
good
are not interested
today in forming good workers, good employees,
down to the bottom....
shopkeepers:
we want to destroy present society
It does not matter that class hours, or the material
or the
taught,
school rules resemble those in other schools.
All that is secondary
for us; we have neither
the time nor the means to change everything.
ideas; later
Today we are content to introduce
minds to revolutionary
we shall see.75
Thus,
little
despite
Ferrer's
more than a well-financed
of revolutionaries"
movement; as a consequence,
revolutionary
anarchist
tactics
tradication
as well
collaborators
the contradictions
and organized
established
as a perversion
it
because
revolutionary
obscured
version
of the "nurseries
of current
of rational
of their
theory
of the
decades
in the early
a betrayal
represented
supported
in their
was further
by anarchists
it
was in effect
the Modern School
propaganda,
anarchist
education.
own blindness
of education.
by a flaw in the theory
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to
The con-
of rational
150
His
itself.
education
natural
While arguing
identified
schools
of the liberal
was no less
own school
to purchase
resources
methods were marred by a tendential
But many of the more innovative
tation.
Using newspaper
explored
for their
articles
of such aberrations
A field
trip
lecture
on the evils
young essayists
contest,
literary
religious
superstition
anarchist
militants.
before
tuition--15
that
pesetas
an audience
exploitation
capitalist
of proud parents
and
and even prouder
9
Given the markedly
it was ironic
denounced
by a
At the annual
by Anselmo Lorenzo.78
of capitalism
plumbed the
was followed
in Badalona
factory
were
and nationalism.
militarism,
as Christianity,
orien-
for example,
and history
distribution,
in 1904 to a chemical
subjects
math problems,
potential:
of economic
origins
academic
as sources,
revolutionary
principles
illustrated
aids.
and teaching
equipment
modern scientific
revolutionary
the working
a month.
class
orientation
was largely
When confronted
of the Modern School,
by the high
excluded
with
of
the financial
possessed
and Ferrer
experiment,76
the Church--scandalous
in the eyes
a novel--and
was still
Coeducation
education.
than official
was somewhat more progressive
the Modern School
Methodologically,
thought.
of free
and intolerant
doctrinaire
their
that
to perceive
they were unable
State,
"neutral"
of the so-called
orientation
the ideological
clearly
the anarchists
Although
of values.
to a system
a commitment by the school
implied
of definition
The very act
and "life."
of "natural"
definitions
value-free
of establishing
the impossibility
to recognize
failed
education
rational
for life,
in preparation
of the individual
development
the
encourage
should
the school
that
this
anomaly,
151
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Ferrer
pointed
out that
Republican
schools,
materials.
attended
workers
could
which he provided
More tenuously,
he argued
the Modern School
would later
own school
thus operating
In fact,
Ferrer's
probably
reflected
his
was something
own awareness
that
cheap books and pedagogical
that
the middle-class
teach
tionary
implications
that
most workers
to be lived
they wanted instruction
worker,
Obreros and Radical
with
to the children
school,
the average
the Ateneos
in other
his
for revolutionaries
school
wanted.
as one of Ferrer's
For them,
or invoked
the revolu-
in the press;
kind.
were of little
followers
left
did not provide
of the most practical
education
who
schools,
of the middle-class
in the street
of integrated
children
rational
as a kind of normal school
devotion
the kind of instruction
tion
attend
ir
The revoluto
interest
recognized
in 1911:
The man--young or old--who is poorly fed, who lives meanly and uncomfortably,
who works too much and is badly treated,
that man is
not interested
in great sociological
or philosophical
problems.
Ferrer left those men to the emancipating
activity
of radical
polof militant
itics,
of meetings,
revolutionism,
newspapers,
journals,
and lectures.81
As a result,
during
in Barcelona,
classes
the anarchists
sharply
the Casas del
Yet despite
considered
his
contested
in which Ferrer
found their
by the Radical
Pueblo welcomed the pupils
neglect
of the Barcelona
to be the champion of popular
For Ferrer's
riate.
the decade
Using funds
house and sent
program,
from his
out a call
existing
inheritance,
to aspiring
dominated
Republicans,
excluded
Ferrer
authors
whose schools
in
from the Modern Schoo
proletariat,
textbooks
educi
among the working
popularity
as well
anarchist
Ferrer
was genera
as of rational
educati
were obviously
inappro
established
through
a publishi
the Boletin,
152
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82
class."
fifty
but the majority
natural
and social
readers
for the Modern School:
Among the earliest
sciences.83
Urales;
second
reader
is
by brutes
inhabited
hero,
receives
Floreal,
time produces
a beautiful
learn
whose motto is
the third
Sembrando flores,
four lovely
Both texts
reader,
a rational
children
contain
children
receive
socially
complex,
lyrical
useful
resist
is
de Nono, the
named Sol,
Vida,
From their
a better
Placer
father,
prepare
them for
153
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and in
the children
school,
labor." 85
whose
and Amor with
and to work for a just
will
world."84
of Emile,
the Jesuits,
of the rational
Com-
to right."
version
an anarchist
outwits
that
to an anarchist
superior
education,
descriptions
multi-faceted
the general
illuminate
to make this
authority
knowledge
by Malvert.
Solidaria
"Money is
young woman named Armonia.
to shun religion,
Sembrando flores,
the grim kingdom of Argirocracia,
whose neighbor,
the two, Nono awakens and resolves
paring
Las aventuras
In Las aventuras
in a dream by the beautiful
named Autonomia,
paradise
espanola;
Nono, the son of poor but worthy
for the Modern School,
led
is
laborers,
were the
will
texts
house.
publishing
of Ferrer's
orientation
publications
cristianismo,
del
of these
look at several
A brief
to the
by Anselmo Lorenzo);
and El origen
pam-
introductions
filol6gica
Cartilla
de Nono, by Jean Grave (translated
by Federico
or popular
were textbooks
phlets,
nearly
educa-
revolutionary
a few frankly
included
The catalog
material.
tional
offered
and miscellaneous
Boletin
to the monthly
in addition
of the working
the instruction
of the Modern School
the Publications
Eventually
titles,
is
state,
social
and to a true
suffer,
that
of those
to the redemption
can lead
road that
the "only
that
explaining
society.
where
"healthy,
El origen
del
cristianismo
been recommended to Ferrer
primary education,
in Paris
as the only
school.
6
deleted
from the children'
Available
(originally
Science
by Georges
existing
Petit,
suitable
in two editions
text
from the Vedic myths to the present
Metaphysical
into
clerical,
the text
concluded
Age.
with
Highly
of
for a rational
the book traced
Christianity
had
the inspector
("The Cult of the Phallus"
s version),
the Scientific
et religion)
was
the evolution
transition
from the
positivistic
an homage to Science,
of
and anti"the liberator
of humanity." 87
Editions
of the Modern School
reader,
intended
for wide distribution,
nominal
price,
limited
budgets;
cost
could
be purchased
by 1904,
thirty-two
schools
texts
even most,
of these
from the Modern School
and the Casas del
schools
Pueblo
the basic
At this
even by institutions
in the province
in their
were anarchist;
of the Radical
each;
a peseta.
only
the editions
were using
texts.
two pesetas
cost
classrooms.
Ateneos
Republicans
of Barcelona
Not all,
Obreros,
also
with
not
lay schools,
purchased
the
89
The extensive
part of the general
The Modern School
126 in 1905,
direction
circulation
expansion
itself
of publications
of Ferrer's
activities
when a branch was opened in Villanueva
the son-in-law
schools
were generally
sonnel,
but by the end of the year,
one-room
classes
between
from 70 boys and girls
grew steadily,
of Samuel Torner,
from the school
there
1901 and 1906.
in 1901 to
y Geltrui under the
of Anselmo Lorenzo.
with
was only
no equipment
were fourteen
The branch
or trained
such schools
154
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perin
peak of Ferrer's
commemorative
for secular
at Tibidabo
were assembled
Barcelona
1906--Good
all
schools
and lay
from anarchist
children
1,700
Friday--when
12,
was April
empire-building
pedagogical
The
?
and Andalusia.
Valencia,
in Catalonia,
and thirty-four
Barcelona
over
exer-
cises.91
employee
wedding
to be the true
and clerical
these
from which come all
as sources
schools
anarchist
of secular
the Congreso
of subversive
take action.
remained
open,
the Conservatives
even after
against
denying
his
his
schools
guilt,
to his
Ferrer
continue
as
and to think,
six
and in the Cortes,
both lay and
to close
The Liberal
and all
took office
own advantage,
to
to
and refused
attacks
turned
gov-
was committed
however,
clerical
itself
In Bilbao,
will
propaganda.
against
to the delight
the school
to teach,
of the Modern School
The branches
Steadfastly
of the right
education
was closed,
crimes
"these
ernment of the Marques de la Vega de Armijo,
the defense
under the provisions
the king.
monsters,"93
antisocial
in which he seems
who considered
the freedom to read,
petitioned
deputies
Conservative
that
editorialized
maintain
long as Spaniards
right,
of the crime against
perpetrator
El Coraz6n de Jesus
suicide,
the Modern School
law of 1902,
of the conservative
Morral committed
Simultaneously,
to have been implicated.
of the inspection
through
of the crime,
as the instigator
was arrested
and Ferrer
in fact
A few days later
Mayor in Madrid.
the Calle
as they passed
bride
XIII and his
of Alfonso
carriage
threw a bomb at the
Mateo Morral,
house,
publishing
in Ferrer's
when an
more than a month later,
little
That empire collapsed
of the lay schools
in February
1907.
the venomous attacks
encouraging
155
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an
campaign for his
international
educational
thinking,
republican,
converted
Ferrer
this
tribunal
released
evidence
of his
the present
direct
and its
and terrible
desperate
Spain."94
outcry,
it
could
a civil
find
no
and publicizing
consequences
in
case."95
his
tour of the European capitals
The following
Rational
Education
formers,
whose honorary
issue
of the League's
Brussels,
while
an Italian
the Boletfn
the Spanish
version,
Barcelona.
The magazine
this
L'Ecole
de la Escuela
was subsidized
on pedagogical
activity,
over the educational
France.
since
entirely
his
On April
Renovee,
in Rome.
15,
appeared
by Ferrer,
imprisonment
movement in Barcelona,
190
in
On May 1, 19
Moderna, reappeared
reform written
pe
and re-
of freethinkers
was published
edition
embarked on i
League for t
the International
was Anatole
journal,
Ferrer
image as the persecuted
an organization
president
the first
Despite
his
to exploit
of Children,
the articles
from prison,
release
year he organized
agogue.
control
natural
ext
was the foreign
nor of "the teaching
implication
doctrine....
the right
of contemporary
admitting
by free-
To a certain
international
on June 12, 1907,
Ferrer
A few months after
missioned
to this
in response
partly
of a baneful
however,
as "one of the glories
of Ferrer
Nevertheless,
Less convincing,
him guilty.
wanted to find
exaltation
because
as an
over Europe,
all
had been detained
role
supported
Spain.
a martyr of priest-ridden
Ferrer
was justified;
his
campaign,
organizations
and anticlerical
into
emphasized
of this
The rhetoric
reformer.
that
release
in
who also
cc
by European educat
Ferrer
had lost
which had faltered
156
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after
Ferrer
the bombing of 1906.
for their
centers
the Modern School
closed.
Its
director,
Jose
Casasola,
never
that
chief"
of the Tragic
organized
protest
before
schools
for the poor,
through
publicity,
1909,
an organ-
1909,
his
1906.
over
tensions
and especially,
the course
and its
that
his
order.
substantial
into
degenerated
33
Ferrer
had
in Barcelona
in 1909,
he had contributed
to the
His flair
Week possible.
fortune,
spon-
including
Although
of events
Furthermore,
of his
Week, which began as an
foundations,
made the Tragic
to argue
because
punished
publications,
and
as the "author
was able
attorney
The Tragic
by a military
time,
executed,
were burned or destroyed.98
influence
enemy of the established
13,
in which 80 religious
riots,
the Modern School
revolutionary
of
section
of Children,
(this
the Moroccan war, quickly
against
popular
direct
whose
de la Place,
Education
he was being
futilely--that
taneous
little
Week of July
in Barcelona
activities
Modern School
convicted
was arrested,
on October
and finally,
convincingly--if
the original
prospered.
Thus, when Ferrer
tribunal),
tracts.96
of the Barcelona
president
League for the Rational
the International
ization
was also
by
published
anticlerical
was the Colegio
replacement
texts
adopted
to survive,
struggled
While the branch schools
with Ferrer.
former ties
to the standard
now returned
remained
had formerly
that
schools
Lay and republican
now entering
Republicans,
to renew their
were unwilling
phase,
a moderate
and the Radical
views,
extreme
and workers'
from lay schools
had been dismissed
associates
anarchist
Some of his
abroad.
was often
himself
for
had made him a potent
suspicion
lingered
157
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that
Ferrer
had unjustly
in the absence
School--the
of another
enemies
Property,
within
Ferrer's
found little
arrogant
and intellectually
more useful
a discreet
until
victim
progressives
in the events
the socialists
even before
had shared
the arrests
of 1898 had thrust
to exploit
educational
the most immediate
we have given
spectacles
cause
Ferrer
both
left
found
undoubtedly
maintained
their
Ferrer
protest
as a
had initially
of 1906 and 1909.
critique
sincerity
program.
"Who doubts
we are ignorant,
that
the anarchists'
liberating
most shameful
reserved
of
Moderate
1909 than Ferrer,
when they were able
much of the enthusiasm
of neglect.
ignorant,
passion.
Republicans,
and anarchists
academic
Because
little
the outcry
and even the extreme
of July
a genuinely
"that
aroused
The Radical
by the apparent
decades
responsibility.
in a man who had proven himself
and had been attracted
the defeat
with ultimate
and reactionaries.
In fact,
had dissipated
Family,
in Europe duplicated
execution
Thus,
and the Modern
Religion,
saddled
dishonest,
the execution,
Ferrer
foundation:
dead than alive.
silence;
of priests
scapegoat,
left
to defend
implicated
after
social
the anticlerical
Spain,
more deeply
convenient
for the bombing of 1906.
and Army"99--were
leftists
Ferrer
punishment
of "all
Authority,
Although
1906,
escaped
Middle-class
of contemporary
of their
The national
issues
aroused
into
we are poor and immoral,
and we are still
in history."l??
giving
for
proposals
crisis
that
followed
the foreground
by now," wrote Manuel B. Cossio
of our catastrophe
education
after
in 1898,
has been ignorance?
and because
we are
to the world one of the
The inauguration
158
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of the Modern
School
of Ferrer's
As the details
One early
support.
School
in scientific
denounced
Pio Baroja,
the concept
began to regret
their
of the curriculum
in the Modern School
reformer.
for rational
of their
initial
tionary
tactics,
immediate
In doing
and interests
of workers,
by Ferrer's
implicit
in educational
class,
who were not,
school.
and with
their
After
usual
reform had less
the formation
some
for evolu-
enthusiasm
by the
and the general
than ever
strike.
103
to the needs
sensitivity
invited
the evolutionary
appeal
enthusiasm
had by 1909 lost
as we have seen,
1909,
ped-
as a great
by Ferrer's
of their
of syndicalism
they had demonstrated
attracted
working
potential
and
through
had been distracted
in Barcelona
anarchists
as those
where the details
reputation
ends,
The
antimilitarism
who were not dismayed
Even at the height
ardor.
revolutionary
so,
his
put to revolutionary
education
?
were known exclusively
did he retain
Even the anarchists,
another,
had been altered:
content
Only abroad,
nationalism.
while
doctrinaire
Christianity;
atheism,
patriotic
agogical
in 1909,
were as rigidly
internationalism,
own publications,
the Modern
and insipid."
Only the dogmatic
capitalism;
Ferrer's
?
as "vulgar
textbooks
its
had deplored.
replaced
anarchism
in-
pedagogy"
minds formed in the Modern School
the reformers
the middle-class
Miguel de Unamuno, called
enthusiast,
"indefensible
program emerged,
applauded
who had initially
tellectuals
theory
anarchist
changing
reform.
in pedagogic
interest
and with national
both with
coincided
had thus opportunely
to or
approach
for
of the Confederaci6n
159
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the Barcelona
Nacional
del
Although
in Spain.
government
lay schools
were shut down, Ferrer's
the minds of the timid.
In future
public
or private
education
spectre
of social
revolution
the failure
disadvantaged
could
The anarchists'
long was quite
unwitting.
ated,
even applauded,
every
principle
of libertarian
from the inherent
contradiction
an attitude
Never distinguishing
Week to support
and the Tragic
their
and culturally
weapon. 106
of the cause
and rigid
education.
that
had moved them for so
they had toler-
program of studies
Their
in the anarchist
that was fundamentally
clearly
now
disorder.
In the name of the revolution,
a stifling
the
education,
and social
in the hands of the socially
betrayal
raise
could
popular
indoctrination
be a dangerous
in
Even more unfortunately,
had discredited
mind with
education
that
contention
the right
of the
for neutral
when new proposals
them.105
to defeat
the Modern School
cited
Conservatives
itself,
were advanced,
of the Modern School
in the public
confused
years,
after
and rebellion
to subversion
education
secular
Week had linked
Tragic
as the leader
conviction
educa-
when over a hundred
of August 1909,
repression
the initial
closed
remained
schools
anarchist
only
strongly
of secular
Week damaged the cause
of the Tragic
The events
the philosophical
from about 1918 on.
self-confidence,
the movement had acquired
until
whole-
themselves
but did not resurface
remained,
workers
educate
imperatives--to
committed
The impulse--and
to anarchosyndicalism.
heartedly
tion
of anarchists
the majority
in 1911,
Trabajo
between
failure
sprang
attitude
anti-intellectual
education
that
violated
in part
toward education
and pragmatic.
as a means to revolution
160
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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
and integrated
education
see the connection
avowedly
as a revolutionary
between
revolutionary
the two.
in its
goals,
end in itself,
The result
was Ferrer's
appallingly
repressive
methods.
161
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they
failed
school,
in its
to
NOTES
*A shorter version of this paper was read at the meetings of the
Association,
August 21,
Pacific
Coast Branch of the American Historical
supported by grants from the
1975.
Research for the paper was partially
Fulbright-Hays
Fellowship
Foundation in 1966-67 and from the University
Frank D. Bean, Joan C.
of Texas Research Institute
in 1975.
Professors
comments and
Ullman, Vicente Pilapil,
and Standish Meacham made helpful
are of course
suggestions.
Any remaining errors of fact or interpretation
my own.
on Spanish anarchism.
1There is a large and growing bibliography
A partial
A History of
list must include George Woodcock, Anarchism.
Libertarian
Ideas and Movements (New York, 1962); Josep Termes Ardevol,
en Espana.
La Primera Internacional
(1864Anarguismo y sindicalismo
en la
1881) (Barcelona,
1971); Clara E. Lida, Anarguismo y revoluci6n
Espafta del XIX (Madrid, 1972); Manuel Tuftdn de Lara, El movimiento obrero
en la historia
de Espafia (Madrid, 1972); Maximiano Garcia Venero, Historia
James Joll,
de las Internacionales
en Espana, 3 vols.
(Madrid, 1956-57);
The Anarchists
(New York, 1966); and Joaquin Romero Maura, "The Spanish
Case," in David Apter and James Joll,
ed., Anarchism Today (Garden City,
1971):
60-83.
of anarchist
2General discussions
education may be found in
Social
Gabriel Jackson, "Origins of Spanish Anarchism," The Southwestern
Science Quarterly 36 (September 1955):
135-47; Clara E. Lida, "Educaci6n
Revista de Occidente 97 (1971):
anarquista
en la Espafia del ochocientos,"
en EspaAa de 1874 a 1902.
33-47; Yvonne Turin, La educaci6n y la escuela
Liberalismo
y tradici6n,
trans. Josefa Herndndez Alfonso (Madrid, 1967);
and Joan Connelly Ullman, La Semana Tragica.
Estudio sobre las causas
del anticlericalismo
socioecon6micas
en Espanta (1898-1912),
trans. Gonzalo
Pontdn (Barcelona,
1972).
3La Solidaridad
y alcance
(Madrid),
Ferrer
Francisco
de la ensenianza
5Point
ance of Social
El proletariado
p. 49.
6Ullman,
25 June 1870,
p. 2.
Guardia, La Escuela Moderna.
racionalista
(Valencia,
n.d.),
Postuma exDlicacion
p. 65.
AlliII of the program of Michail Bakunin's International
Quoted in Anselmo Lorenzo,
Democracy, founded in 1868.
militante.
(Memorias de un internacional)
(Madrid, 1974),
Semana Trdgica,
p. 61.
162
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All use subject to JSTOR Terms and Conditions
7Natura.
Arte (Barcelona)
Center
277.
8The title
for Social
de Ciencia,
277.
Revista Quincenal
1 (15 June 1904):
Sociologia,
Literatura
y
of a speech by Anselmo Lorenzo at the opening of a
Natura 1 (15 June 1904):
Studies in Barcelona in 1887.
9La Solidaridad,
1870,
15 October
p. 3.
e instrucci6n,"
Ciencia y Arte
10Francisco
Naves, "Educaci6n
Publicaci6n
Quincenal de Sociologia,
319.
November 1900):
La Revista Blanca.
(Madrid) 3 (15
11Proudhon's ideas were introduced
into Spain with the publication
but translations
in 1854 of Pi y Margall's
La reacci6n y la revoluci6n,
after 1868.
of Proudhon's writings
were only available
of Proudhon are discussed
in Georges
12The educational
theories
pendant le Seconde Republique
sur l'education
Duveau, La pens6e ouvriere
et le Seconde Empire (Paris,
1948), pp. 145-59.
is described
in Jean Maitron,
13Bakunin's theory of education
(Paris,
1951),
Histoire
du mouvement anarchiste
en France (1880-1914)
pp. 325-26.
14 From "Federalism,
(1867) in Sam
Anti-Theologism"
Socialism,
Founder
Selected
Works by the Activist
Dolgoff,
ed., Bakunin on Anarchy:
of World Anarchism (New York, 1971).
15La Solidaridad,
El proletariado
16In Lorenzo,
1 In ibid.,
25 June 1870,
p. 2.
militante,
pp. 251-53.
p. 253.
mensual
18Anselmo Lorenzo, "Del problema social,"
de Sociologia,
Artes y Letras (Barcelona)
1882),
19Jos Llunas
p. 108.
y Prat,
Estudios
Revista
Ciencia Social.
1 (October 1895):
5.
filos6fico-sociales
(Barcelona,
of Kropotkin,
see George Woodcock and Ivan Avaku20For the theories
Study of Peter Kropotkin
A Biographical
movic,
The Anarchist Prince.
(London, 1950), pp. 305-41.
Ferrer in Boletin
21Letter of Kropotkin to Francisco
19.
Moderna (Barcelona),
Segunda epoca, 1 (1 May 1908):
163
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de la Escuela
Factories
of Kropotkin's
Fields,
Spanish translation
22The earliest
seem to have been generand Workshops is dated 1902; none of his writings
before the turn of the century.
ally available
23Lida,
"Educacifn
p. 40.
anarquista,"
El anal24The data in this paragraph is from Lorenzo Luzuriaga,
See also Walter A. Montgomery, Educafabetismo en Espana (Madrid, 1919).
No. 17, U.S. Department of the
in Spain, Bulletin
Conditions
tional
Bureau of Education (1919); Maria Dolores Samaniego, "El
Interior,
Hispania (Madrid) 33
en Espana (1900-1930),"
problema del analfabetismo
375-401; and Antoni Jutglar Bernaus, "Notas para el
(May-August 1975):
para la
estudio de la ensefAanza en Barcelona hasta 1900," Materiales
1966), pp. 238-419.
de la ciudad, Vol. 16 (Barcelona,
historia
institucional
25Samaniego,
26Rafael
"Problema del
Shaw, Spain
analfabetismo,"
from Within
(London,
p. 376.
1932),
p. 270.
al Excmo. Sr.
27Mariano Batlles
BertrAn de Lis, Memoria presentada
Aiio 1906-1911 (Barcelona,
y Bellas Artes.
P(blica
Ministro de Instrucci6n
made
ranging from 50 centimos to 2 pesetas,
Student fees,
1912), p. 32.
regStudents had to be officially
salaries.
of teachers'
up one-third
for a fee-exemption.
to qualify
istered
on- the town's poor rolls
Analfabetismo,
pp. 26-63; Anuario estadistico
28Luzuriaga,
1905 (Barcelona,
ciudad de Barcelona.
1905), pp. 234-35; Batlles
de Lis, Memoria, p. 8.
de la
Bertran
(Madrid,
Viaje por las escuelas de Espanta, 3 vols.
29See Luis Bello,
del siglo
rural castellana
"Una escuela
Jos& Andrds Gallego,
1926-27);
del Burgo, 1847-1901,"
Revista Espaniola de Pedagogia
XIX: Fuencaliente
Libre de Ensefianza to
401-15; the report of the Institucion
120 (1972):
obrera esDaniola
in 1890 in La clase
the Comisi6n de Reformas Sociales
Promocidn del Pueblo, Serie P, Num. 18
a finales
del siglo XIX, Diblioteca
Bertran de Lis, Memoria.
(Madrid, 1973), Dp. 80-81, note 43; and Batlles
30In 1890, the ILE alleged
that
or none at all.
"taptitude" certificate
possessed
7,701 teachers
La clase obrera, p. 84.
"Una escuela
31Gallego,
in Spain, pp. 18-19.
Conditions
pp. 410-11;
32Turin,
33Ullman,
Educaci6n
rural,"
y escuela,
Semana Trdgica,
Montgomery,
p. 157.
p. 41.
164
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only
an
Educational
private
34 In Barcelona in 1900, there
ones.
Batlle Bertran de Lis,
35R. D. of April
salaries;
Educacion
schools
and 518
1900.
of the teachers'
to pay two-thirds
36The State assumed the obligation
Turin,
to be paid by the students.
the remaining third was still
p. 333.
y escuela,
37R. D. of July
Revista
18,
were 190 public
Memoria, p. 8.
38Federico Urales
Blanca 6 (1 April
1, 1902.
(Juan Montseny3,
581.
1904):
"La ensenanza
39See Diego Abad de Santillan,
Contribucion
2 vols.
movimiento obrero espahol,
(Puebla, Mexico,
en Espana,H La
del
a la historia
1:285.
1962-65),
Internacional
Anarquista
40Memoria of Pedro Esteve at the Conferencia
in Chicago in 1893.
to Professor
Joan Connelly Ullman for
I am grateful
this citation.
41
A school for girls sponsored bv the Barcelona Federation
of the
education"
that included
a program of "integrated
AIT in 1872 advertised
basic literacy,
domestic economy, drawing, geography, geometry, embroidery,
and handiwork.
p. 40.
Lida, "Educaci6n anarquista,"
ironing,
Movimiento obrero espanol,
Praxedes
1:69-70;
42Abad de Santillgn,
y social
politica
Notas para su historia
Zancada, El obrero en Espana.
p. 34.
(Barcelona,
1902), p. 130; Lida, "Educacion anarquista,"
43Jutglar,
"Ensefianza en Barcelona
hasta
1900,"
p. 373.
de Ensenanza Popular de la Prov44Ateneos Obreros y Asociaciones
Exposici6n
incia de Barcelona
que eleven al Excmo. Sr. Ministro de Inuna subvenci6n
strucci6n
(Barcelona,
Publica y Bellas Artes, solicitando
1904), P. 9.
45The municipal subsidy ranged from 1,000 to 2,000 pesetas a year,
or Liberal.
Anuario
depending on whether the government was Conservative
de Barcelona,
"Ensenianza en Bar1905, pp. 236-37; Jutglar,
estadistico
celona hasta 1900," p. 373.
46The annual income of the Ateneo Obrero de Gracia in 1904 included
350 from the provincial
from the city administration;
Diputa600 pesetas
1,200 from members; and 1,200 from voluntary
tion; 1,248 from patrons;
4-5.
Obrero de Gracia 2 (30 October 1904):
Boletin del Ateneo
tuition.
165
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47Anuario
estadistico
de Barcelona,
1905,
pp. 236-37.
48Joaquin Romero MIaura, "La Rosa de Fuego."
Republicanos
y anarLa politica
de los obreros barceloneses
entre el desastre
colquistas:
onial y la Semana Tragica,
1899-1909 (Barcelona,
1975), p. 417.
49See the views of the Bishop of Barcelona in Turin, Educacion
y escuela,
p. 270.
For other testimony,
see Romero Maura, Rosa de Fuego,
pp. 417-18, note 243, and Claudi Ametlla, Memories Politiques:
1890-1917
(Barcelona,
1963), p. 138.
50Ametlla,
15 April
51See,
1882,
p. 138.
Membries,
for example,
p. 2.
52See Turin,
El Eco de la Ensenanza
Educaci6n
y escuela,
Laica
(Barcelona),
p. 271.
53In February 1873, the Boletin de la FRE de la AIT called for
"revolutionary
socialist
instruction,"
advising
"the worker who knows a
little
to teach the one who knows less,
using FRE centers as schools and
books, newspapers and pamphlets published by the International
as texts."
Quoted in Lida, "Educaci6n anarquista,"
p. 41.
54Casimiro Marti, Origenes del anarguismo en Barc2lona (Barcelona,
1959), p. 88.
See also Appendix 2, "Prensa obrera e internacionalista,"
in Termes Ard6vol, Anarguismo y sindicalismo,
pp. 281-85.
55Newspapers popular in Andalusia included
1890-93),
El Productor (Barcelona,
and
1889-1893),
). Juan Diaz del Moral, Historia
(Madrid, 1904campesinas andaluzas--C6rdoba.
(Antecedentes
para
(Madrid, 1973), p. 188.
La Anarguia (Madrid,
Tierra y Libertad
de las agitaciones
una reforma agraria)
56Ibid.
57 The first
series
of La Revista Blanca appeared between 1898 and
1906; a second series,
also edited by Montseny, was published between 1923
and 1935.
See the autobiography
of Federico Urales,
Mi vida, 3 vols.
(Barcelona,
n.d.).
58"Pellico"
~Antonio Pellicer
Natura 1 (1 February 1904):
139.
Parairej,
"Ciencia
y naturaleza,"
59Diaz del Moral, Agitaciones
For
campesinas andaluzas,
pp. 188.
other works popular with anarchists
at the turn of the century,
see Rudolf
Rocker, En la borrasca.
(Afos de destierro),
trans. Diego Abad de Santilldn
(Buenos Aires,
1949), p. 214.
166
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60Jost
L6pez Montenegro,
El bot6n de fuego
(Barcelona,
1902).
61For the ideas of Giner de los Rios, see his Obras completas,
especially
vol. 7, Estudios sobre educaci6n
(Madrid, 1922) and vol. 12,
Educaci6n y ensenanza (Madrid, 1925).
See also Maria Dolores G6mez Molleda,
Los reformadores de la Espaha contemporfinea (Madrid, 1966), and Antonio
La Instituci6n
Jim6nez-Landi Martinez,
Libre de Ensenanza y su ambiente
(Madrid, 1973).
62Ferrer,
La Escuela
Moderna, p. 77.
63Letter from Francisco
Hacia la emancipaci6n.
Tgctica
(Mah6n, 1914), p. 149.
Ferrer to Anselmo Lorenzo, quoted in Lorenzo,
de avance obrera en la lucha por el ideal
64Francisco
Ferrer, "Principios
de moral cientifico"
(unpublished
manuscript),
quoted in Sol Ferrer y Sanmarti, La vie et l'oeuvre
de Francisco Ferrer:
Un martyr au XXe sibcle
(Paris,
1962), p. 90.
65Anselmo Lorenzo, "Sin escuelas,"
Segunda dpoca, 1 (1 February 1909):
41.
6 Quoted in Abad de Santilldn,
67 Ullman,
celona,
Semana Trdgica,
68See the immigration
1902, pp. 108-9.
69For the following
70Jutglar,
Boletin
Movimiento
pp. 164,
statistics
discussion,
de la Escuela
obrero
1:508.
168.
in the Anuario
see ibid.,
"Ense?ianza en Barcelona
espahol,
Moderna,
hasta
estadistico
de Bar-
pp. 275-89.
1900,"
p. 353.
71See Sol Ferrer, La vie de Ferrer, p. 231, and Pedro Sangr6 y Ros
De la "Semana Trdgica" a la guerra europea
de Olano, La sombra de Ferrer.
(Madrid, 1917), p. 82.
72Sol Ferrer, La vie de Ferrer, p. 98; Salvador Canals, Los sucesos
de Espafta en 1909.
Cr6nica documentada, 2 vols.
(Madrid, 1910-11),
2:10-11;
Ferrer, La Escuela Moderna, p. 94; Ametlla, Membries, p. 144.
of this important
there are no known collections
73Unfortunately,
which could shed more light on the Modern
journal for the vears 1901-1906,
from 1908 to
of the "second period" of the Boletin,
School.
A collection
1909, may be consulted
at the Instituto
in Barcelona.
Municipal de Historia
74Canals,
Sucesos
de 1909,
2:73.
167
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75Canals,
de 1909,
Sucesos
2:60.
see the Carta
76For the views of the Church on coeducation,
del Emmo. y Rdmo. Sr. Cardenal Casafias, Obispo de Barcelona,
pastoral
populares que proyecta el Excmo. Ayunde estudios
sobre las escuelas
1908).
24 febrero 1908 (Barcelona,
tamiento de esta ciudad:
77Pere Sola, "Francesc Ferrer i Guardia i la Escuela Moderna,"
no. 2 (February
Revista mensual de educaci6n,
Cuadernos de Pedagogfa.
1975), p. 20.
"Excursi6n
78Josd Casasola,
La Revista Blanca 7 (15 July 1904):
Sucesos
p. 47; Sangr6,
2:92.
Ibid.,
de 1909,
de la Escuela
46-48.
Sombra de Ferrer,
Moderna a Badalona,"
pp. 107ff.;
Canals,
of some of the alumni of the Modern
80For the subsequent history
La Escuela Moderna. La obra de su fundador.
School, see Domingo Escofet,
Ante el momento actual (Barcelona,
Francisco Ferrer Guardia y sus alumnos.
1931).
81Luis
1911),
pp.
"Yo acuso."
Bertrdn,
El testamento
de Ferrer
(Barcelona,
10-11.
Sucesos
82Canals,
de 1909,
2:59.
of these publications.
See also
83See the Appendix for a list
en la Escuela
naturales
Joan Senent Josa, "La enseilanza de las ciencias
no. 2 (February
Moderna de Ferrer i Guardia," Cuadernos de Pedagogfa,
1975), pp. 21-24.
celona,
84Jean Grave,
1902).
85Federico
n.d.).
(Barcelona,
86Sol
Urales,
Ferrer,
87Malvert,
Las aventuras
Sembrando flores.
La vie
El origen
de Nono, trans.
de Ferrer,
Novela
Anselmo Lorenzo
de una vida
ideal
p. 86.
del cristianismo
on the last
88See the advertisement
de Espada (Barcelona,
Resumen de la historia
(Barcelona,
page of Nicols
1904).
168
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(Bar-
1902).
Est6vanez,
Ferrer and Lerroux had
89Ferrer,
La Escuela Moderna, pp. 111-12.
circles
meeting in republican
since their first
been frequent collaborators
See Ullman, Semana Trdgica, pp. 150-51.
in Paris in 1892.
90Canals,
Sucesos
de 1909,
2:123-24.
91Le Comitt de D6fense des Victimes de la Repressior, Espagnole,
Sa vie.
Son oeuvre (Paris,
Un martyr des prttres.
Francisco Ferrer.
n.d.),
p. 23.
of Joaquin Romero Maura,
contention
92This is the well-documented
1904-1909,"
"Terrorism in Barcelona and its Impact on Spanish Politics,
Studies 41 (December 1968):
Past and Present:
A Journal of Historical
130-84.
931
9"Quoted in Martyr des prttres,
p. 417,
94Charles
Laisant,
quoted
95Ullman,
Semana Trdgica,
96Canals,
note 243.
Sucesos
p. 24.
in Sol Ferrer,
La vie
de Ferrer,
pp. 106-7.
p. 172.
de 1909,
2:128;
Romero Maura, Rosa de Fuego,
Vice
of Ferrer.
were also close associates
97The other officers
school in Pueblo
of a rational
was Jose Robles Layas, director
President
of the publishing
director
firm; and
Crist6bal
Litran,
Nuevo; Secretary,
de la Escuela
Boletin
mistress,
Soledad Villafranca.
Treasurer was Ferrer's
de la Guerra,
Moderna, Segunda 6poca, 2 (1 April 1909); Spain, Ministerio
por la jurisy fallada
Causa contra Francisco Ferrer Guardia, instruida
AnXo1909 (Madrid, 1911), p. 464.
dicci6n
de Guerra en Barcelona.
This book provides a definitive
p. 589.
98Ullman, Semana Trfgica,
in English,
edition,
account of the events of the Tragic Week. The first
in Spain, 1875-1912 (Camis The Tragic Week. A Study of Anticlericalism
Mass., 1968).
bridge,
99E1 Universo (Madrid), 30 August 1909, quoted in Luis Simarro,
Vol. 1, El proceso
(Madrid, 1910),
El proceso Ferrer y la opini6n europea,
pp. 193-94.
100~,
Turin,
Educaci6n
101 Quoted in Canals,
appears
pp. 43-44.
y escuela,
Sucesos
de 1909,
2:183.
(Paris,
n.d.),
Pio Baroja, La dama errante
in the novel as Sr. Sunier.
pp. 90-91.
169
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Ferrer
103Ferrer himself
1901 to 1903; after 1907,
Obrera.
had published La Huelga General
he had subsidized
the activities
in Barcelona from
of Solidaridad
104 Anarchist education after 1909 is the subject of an unpublished
doctoral
dissertation
by Pere Sola, "Raices y desarrollo
de la pedagogia
racionalista
en Catalufia" (University
of Barcelona,
1975).
105This had already occurred in 1906 when the Bishop of Barcelona,
Cardinal Casanas, successfully
opposed the creation
of neutral,
coeducational primary schools by the municipality.
See Ramon Albo y Marti, El
pressupost
extraordinari
de cultura del Ajuntament y les escoles
d'ensenyansa primaria que en el mateix es proposa.
Conferencia
donada al Ateneo
barcelones
el 28 de mars de 1908 (Barcelona,
Cardenal
1908); Salvador,
24 febrero 1908.
Casaftas, Carta pastoral:
after
In this vein, the Diario de Barcelona had editorialized
the bombing of 1906:
"The poor man is no longer contented with a heavenly
reward.
He knows how to read and he reads.
What reading does he prefer?
That which speaks of his earthly redemption.
And since he is not ready to
digest
this,
lacking an idea of God and of true culture,
it gives him indigestion
and he acts unwisely."
Gonzalo de Reparaz, "Por que arrojan
Diario de Barcelona,
bombas los anarquistas,"
15 June 1906.
170
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