Año 3 nº 1 Abril 2015. Registro de la propiedad intelectual nº 5088097. Propietario: Departamento de Artes
Musicales y Sonoras, UNA. ISSN 2314-2847. http://artesmusicales.org/web/index.php/tapa/149-tapa.html pp. 55-73
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ARTÍCULOS
PLAYGROUND SONGS AND CHANTS IN ECUADOR: THE
ADULTS’ PERSPECTIVE
Johanna E. Abril
University of Miami, Miami, USA
[email protected]
Education and psychological researchers such as Froebel, Vygotsky, Piaget, and Pestalozzi have
documented the role that nature and play has on children’s lives. Young children learn and
express themselves through music and through play. This has been currently supported by
childhood researchers like Patricia Shehan Campbell and Trevor Wiggins (Campbell &
Wiggins, 2013), who draw attention to the ways children are immersed in music activity while
they interact with others, play, entertain, and communicate.
Play is at the center of children’s activities, and contemporary pedagogy and research has led to
a belief about the importance of this aspect in education. Authors such as Campbell (2005;
2010), Harwood (1993; 1998), and Marsh (2006; 2009), consider that in order to truly
understand children, what, why, and how they learn, we need to spend considerable time
watching, documenting, listening, and attempting to interpret and understand their life
experiences. Such observations have important repercussions for music education processes and
will allow educators to identify and examine a diversity of teaching practices that could
facilitate the learning activities within the music class.
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There are theories of teaching and learning inserted in almost every musical experience, which
include exploring of, listening to music, or interacting with and learning from other people.
Much research into children’s music education has been focused on the teaching and learning of
music within the formal settings of schools, and also there has been an increasing attention to
the importance of informal music teaching and learning for the development of children’s
musical attitudes, capabilities, and understandings.
According to Walsh and Graue (cited in Harwood, 1998), educators and researchers should
spend less time developing theories and more time understanding and describing the central
aspects of children’s ways of learning and their contexts. Based on this assumption, the same
holds true for early music education. Campbell and Scott-Kassner (1995) state that music itself
is part of children’s nature, and that it influences their development and their social interactions.
Therefore, their musical experiences will have an impact not only during childhood but also
during adolescence and adulthood.
When we observe and analyze children in informal musical environments such as the
playground, we can understand the wide array of capacities and skills that they have to perform
music. Children have innumerable and spontaneous forms of expression, regardless of their
ethnicity, age, or location. Campbell’s Songs in their Heads (2010) is a clear example of
children’s musical activities, expressions, and personalities. She provides us with a detailed
picture of children interacting in different musical contexts such as the school bus, the toy store,
schools, or at home, based on the idea that children have thoughtful and musical minds that take
shape through processes of enculturation.
According to John Blacking (1974), musicality is a natural human disposition, all human beings
have some sort of relationship with music, and that is why it is inserted in every culture.
Therefore, every child has the capacity to achieve musically, and if given the appropriate
circumstances and opportunities, he can maintain and develop these abilities. Music is part of
children’s lives even before they are born; they use it and live it. Children are innate musical
beings and their musicality can be perceived by analyzing their behaviors. Campbell (2010)
asserts that we must not consider children as a blank slate for us to fill; they come to us with
music that already exists within their minds.
Alan P. Merriam (1964) considers that music occurs naturally in society and that it is perhaps
the strongest cultural activity due to its influence on human feelings and behaviors. He states
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that music has many uses and functions, which have relevance on adults and children’s musical
participation. Music plays a powerful role in the lives of young children, and for them music it
is a tool for playful experimentation and also a way of interaction, socialization, and
communication. Campbell (2010) helps us to understand that children have their own culture,
which could include aspects such as ethnicity, age, musical practices, and/or daily routines.
Part of children’s nature is associated with the games in which they are engaged. One of
children’s most common practices is their musical play, which involves a wide range of
activities and outcomes that influence their education and personal development. Niland (2009)
states that most theorists agree that play encompasses enjoyment, free choice, interaction, selfmotivation, and a focus on process rather than product. In these activities, the involvement of
children of different levels and abilities is possible, and all their contributions are seen as
legitimate forms of participation.
Recent research is focused on the role that playground songs and chants have on children’s
development. Besides, of being a strong learning resource, playground songs and chants are a
valuable support for the acquisition of knowledge related to personal development and identity
construction. Related to this perspective, social constructivist theories state that learning
processes are directly connected and directed to the children’s nature and the ways they learn.
Playground songs and chants are ways of expression that allow children to have active and
spontaneous musical participation. These activities, while being natural during childhood, also
stimulate both their comprehensive formation and social adaptation.
The purpose of this investigation was to collect and examine playground songs and chants
recalled by adults about their childhood in Ecuador. This paper draws attention to the meanings
that playground music has on children’s lives in order to understand what people believed they
learned from these activities and the impact that these experiences had on their lives. The
following questions guided the study:
1. Which playground songs do adults remember from their childhood?
2. How does movement or dance play into these songs?
3. Which were the circumstances for the performances?
4. Were adults present during the activities? If so, how was the interaction between
children and adults?
5. What do adults think they learned from these experiences?
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6. What are the adults’ considerations about those experiences during childhood?
A questionnaire was designed to profile playground songs and chants used in Ecuador and to
examine and understand adults’ perceptions and meanings of these experiences. Its construction
was informed by existing research, formal, and informal discussions with music educators, and
comments and suggestions were taken into account for the final form. The questionnaire was
sent to a group of 10 people from Cuenca (Ecuador), an urban area and the third major city of
the country. The participants have different ages, backgrounds, and professions, whose
responses confirmed and supported the literature concerning playground music and its
meanings, and also showed a wide range of information regarding: (1) names and lyrics of
playground songs and chants used in Ecuador during the people’s childhood, (2) the level and
type of interaction during the activities, (3) learning experiences during the activities, and (4)
striking influences, meanings, and considerations about the activities.
Results
For the purposes of this investigation, it is important to mention that the participants were
chosen without regard to their genre, age, musical background, and profession. Within them are:
one student of psychology, one opera singer, one guitar performer (rock) and composer, three
engineers, one housewife, one singer and music college professor, one nutritionist, and one
music teacher; seven were women, three were men, and their ages ranged from 25 to 40 years.
As it was mentioned above, they were firstly asked to recall and portray the playground songs
and chants that they used during their childhood and secondly to describe games’ meanings and
functions. The analysis of the responses was based on how the participants’ responses were
related to the research questions. After this analysis, I observed nine common songs and chants,
the participants’ understandings about them, and also a wide array of aspects that had the
strongest impact in the participants’ lives.
Findings include the following categories: (1) the songs’ melody or the chants’ rhythm, (2)
lyrics, (3) the game rules, and (4) implications.
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“El Juego del Lobo”
(1) Juguemos en el bosque hasta que el lobo esté, si el
(1) Lets play in the forest until the Wolf comes; if the
lobo aparece enteros nos comerá. (2)¿Qué estás
Wolf comes, he will eat us all.
haciendo lobito?
(2) What are you doing Wolf?
(3) Me estoy poniendo el pantalón.
(3) I am putting the pants on.
Juguemos en el bosque hasta que el lobo esté, si el lobo
Let’s play in the forest until the Wolf comes; if the Wolf
aparece enteros nos comerá.
comes he will eat us all.
¿Qué estás haciendo lobito?
What are you doing Wolf?
Me estoy poniendo el chaleco.
I am putting the waistcoat on.
Juguemos en el bosque hasta que el lobo esté, si el lobo
Let’s play in the forest until the Wolf comes; if the Wolf
aparece enteros nos comerá.
comes he will eat us all.
¿Qué estás haciendo lobito?
What are you doing Wolf?
Me estoy poniendo el sombrerito.
I am putting the little hat on.
Juguemos en el bosque hasta que el lobo esté, si el lobo
Let’s play in the forest until the Wolf comes; if the Wolf
aparece enteros nos comerá.
comes he will eat us all.
¿Qué estás haciendo lobito?
What are you doing Wolf?
(4) Ya salgo para comerlos a todos.
(4) I am going out to eat you all.
This game is divided in four main parts: (1) In the first part children walk in circles while
singing the first phrase; (2) after singing, they stop and ask the “Wolf” about what is he doing;
(3) then comes the Wolf’s response. These phases are constantly repeated depending on the
“Wolf’s” response until the last (4) part of the game when the “Wolf” responds “ya salgo para
comerlos a todos” (I am going out to eat you all), and all the children start running and avoiding
the “Wolf” to catch them all.
From all the responses, it can be inferred that this is a very popular game in Ecuador, and
perhaps that is why all the participants mentioned it. However, it is important to mention that
the lyrics portrayed above are an example of individual creativity. The first phrase is standard
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along the game, but the child that performs the Wolf chooses the responses; thus, he/she decides
when to chase the children and the game finalizes when the Wolf catches one child, which
becomes the new Wolf.
One of the most striking participants’ considerations about the musical play was that these
experiences helped them to develop creativity: “With these experiences I improved my ability to
be creative and to improvise”. According to Katherine Marsh (1995), the creative element in
playground songs is seen by some theorists to be almost accidental, which result in a corrosion
of the original material, rather than a new or innovative composition. However, she also asserts
that this process is common in several cultures, and its meaning has particular implications and
interpretations. This is clearly portrayed in John Blacking’s Venda children’s songs (1967),
where creativity and innovations play a prominent role in children’s music making. He states
that in Venda children’s culture, creativity and improvisation are seen as signs of knowledge
and leadership; thus, children that are creative are considered as potential leaders during
adulthood.
“Lirón, lirón”
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Lirón, lirón. ¿De dónde viene tanta gente? De la casa de
Dormouse, dormouse. Where do these many people come
San Pedro,
from? From San Pedro’s house,
una puerta se ha caído, la mandaremos a componer.
a door has fallen and we will send it to get fixed.
¿Con qué plata? ¿Qué dinero? Con las cáscaras del
huevo.
With what cash? What money? With the eggshells.
Que pase el Rey, que ha de pasar, que el hijo del Conde
se ha de quedar.
Let the King pass, because he will pass, because the Count’s
son will stay.
This is a chant, which has three main parts and functions as following: (1) Two children are the
leaders and are standing up face to face, holding each other hands, and forming a bridge; each
one chooses an animal, fruit, country, etc. (which they maintain in secret from the other
children) and both perform the chant while the other children are passing under the bridge; (2)
when the leaders finish the chant, one of the children keeps trapped in the bridge (the leaders’
arms) and is asked to choose his/her favorite animal, fruit, or country (from the leaders’
choices). The sequence is repeated until there are no more children to pass under the bridge. The
third part of the game (3) starts when there are two groups, which form two lines and compete
by pulling against each other in order to determine which group is the strongest.
Another major consideration for the participants is the “sense of healthy competitiveness”.
“Playground songs helped me to become more socially adjusted because group games benefit
socialization and also a healthy and joyful sense of competitiveness.” When the children are
running in order to avoid the Wolf or to pull against others, they are in a competition; but this is
a positive competition because: (1) every child has the same chances to be caught, (2) any child
can become the Wolf or be part of any group, and (3) nobody is withdrew from the game.
However, there are games where children “lose” or are removed from the game because they
“messed up”. When this is the case, children do not tune out from the group, instead they wait
for another opportunity while watching the game and learning from others.
“Zapatito cochinito”
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Zapatito cochinito cambia de piecito,
Little dirty shoe change of little foot,
pero el cochinito dijo que lo cambiarías tú.
But the little pig told that you would change it.
“Zapatito cochinito” is a short game of competitiveness where children are in a circle,
crouched, and showing their feet. There is one leader who is performing the chant and pointing
one foot in each beat (quarter note in the example). As the chant finalizes the foot in the last
beat must be removed and the sequence is repeated. The idea of the game is to eliminate one
foot each time the sequence is repeated, and the last foot is the winner.
The same sense of competitiveness is present and is a common feeling and objective within
children’s games. However, this consideration is not the same in all cultures. In his study about
Venda children’s songs, John Blacking (1967) noticed that children had a “counting song”
where children used their legs instead of their feet to be selected; but unlike “Zapatito
cochinito”, Venda children used the song to select a loser, which was designed to perform an
unpleasant task, since in Venda society finding a winner is frowned upon because of their sense
of community.
“Achachi caramba achachi!”
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El juez le dijo al cura y el cura le dijo al juez,
The judge said to the priest, and the priest said to the
judge,
¿de dónde es este ritmo del Meremerecumbé?
where is this rhythm Meremerecumbé from?
Achachi caramba achachi! Achachi caramba achachi!
Achachi caramba achachi! Achachi caramba achachi!
Y dos pasitos adelante, y dos pasitos para atrás,
And two steps forward, and two steps back,
y dando la media vuelta para ver quien quedará.
and doing a half turn to see who will stay.
In this chant, boys and girls perform equally by forming a circle and placing one of the children
within the round. It is divided in three parts, as following: (1) as all the children perform the
chant, the child inside the circle must dance following the rhythm; when “achachi caramba
achachi” is sang, all the children, including the one inside the circle, begin moving the hips
with rhythm; (2) when “y dando la media vuelta para ver quien quedará” is sang, the child
inside the circle covers his/her eyes and makes circles and pointing to find another child to go
inside the circle; (3) the chant repeats indefinitely with different children inside the circle.
This popular chant is considered by some of the participants as one of the experiences that
allowed them to: (1) develop rhythm abilities, (2) to learn dancing, (3) to develop bodily
expression, and (4) to have a high amount of social adaptation due to the level of interaction and
extroversion. “Throughout this game I learned to sing, dance, and also to be more extroverted
and to interact with my friends, family, and nature. It was really important because I developed
bodily skills and ways of self-expression.”
“Arroz con leche
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Arroz con leche me quiero casar, con una señorita de
Milk rice, I want to get married, with a young lady from
San Nicolás.
St. Nicholas.
Que sepa coser, que sepa bordar, que sepa abrir la
That can sew, that can embroider, that can open the door
puerta para ir a jugar.
to go to play.
Yo soy la viudita del barrio del Rey, me quiero casar y
I am the widow of the King’s neighborhood, I want to get
no sé con quién.
married and I don’t know to whom
Con esta sí, con esta no, con esta señorita me caso yo.
To this yes, to this no, to this young lady I will get
married.
This is not a game but a common playground song in Ecuador and in many countries in Latin
America, which includes a simple choreography and two parts: (1) children are in a circle
moving their hips while singing the song, and (2) when singing the phrase “con esta sí, con esta
no, con esta señorita me caso yo”, they choose one of their peers (boys choose girls and vice
versa).
Four main elements are prominent in this song: (1) peer identification, (2) bodily movements,
(3) social stereotypes, and (4) singing. These elements were considered major influences for
personal development. During childhood, peers play a fundamental role whether in formal or
informal circumstances. As children grow up, they become identified by similarities and
affinities with their peers. This song is a good example of how children interact and show their
social preferences, which is a real sign of the process of identity construction.
Playing is a natural activity during childhood, but it does not mean that children play just for
fun; playing is one of the many ways of children’s exploration and interaction with the world
around them. “I learned to interact with my peers”, “I became more extroverted”, “I learned to
share and tolerate my peers”, and “I made many friends” were few of the social connotations
that the participants described and which show that social development is inserted in these
activities and have major implications during childhood, adolescence, and adulthood.
Some approaches and methodologies such as Orff Schulwerk or Kodály are based on the nature
of children’s folklore, culture, and context (Abril &Kelly McHale, in press). Niland (2009)
suggests a play-based, child-centered curriculum, which includes songs that relate to children’s
interests. This has been an aspect of major interest among music educators, due to the fact that
children show a wide range of musical capacities while learning and performing in the
playground. Most all of the participants mentioned that these musical experiences allowed them
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to sing and to develop bodily movements, which for some meant learning to dance, while for
others meant developing a musical orientation.
“La vaca Lola”
La vaca Lola, la vaca Lola
The cow Lola, the cow Lola,
tiene cabeza y tiene cola.
has a head and has a tail.
La vaca Lola, la vaca Lola,
The cow Lola, the cow Lola,
tiene cabeza y tiene cola, y hace muuuu!
has a head and has a tail, and does moooo!
“El elefante Trompita”
Yo tengo un elefante que se llama Trompita
I have an elephant that is called Trompita,
que mueve las orejas llamando a su mamá.
that moves the ears to call his mom.
Y su mamá le dice pórtate bien Trompita,
And his mom tells him, behave well Trompita,
si no te voy a dar, taz taz en la colita.
if not I will give you, taz taz in your little tail.
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“La vaca Lola” and “El elefante Trompita” are two early childhood songs, which are mainly
used to describe some characteristics of cows and elephants. They include simple
choreographies in which the children follow the lyrics’ descriptions while feeling the rhythm or
clapping. One of the participants mentioned “El elefante Trompita” while remembering that her
teacher used that song at school in order to improve the children’s reflections about being a
well-behaved child.
“La pájara Pinta”
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Estaba la pájara pinta sentada en un verde limón,
The Pinta bird was sitting in a green lemon,
con el pico cortaba la rama y con la rama cortaba la flor.
with the peak, it cut the branch, and with the branch it cut
Ay, ay, ay, ¿cuándo vendrá mi amor?
the flower.
Ay, ay, ay, ¿cuándo vendrá mi amor?
Ay, ay, ay, when will my love come?
Me arrodillo a los pies de mi amante, me levanto
Ay, ay, ay, when will my love come?
constante, constante.
I kneel at the feet of my lover; I stand up constant,
Dame la mano, dame la otra, dame un besito sobre mi
constant.
boca.
Give the hand, give me the other, give me a kiss on my
Daré la media vuelta, daré la vuelta entera.
mouth.
Daré un pasito atrás, haciendo la reverencia.
I will do a half turn; I will do a full turn.
Pero no, pero no, pero no, porque me da vergüenza.
I will do a step back, doing a reverence.
Pero sí, pero sí, pero sí, porque te quiero a ti
But no, but no, but no, because I feel embarrassed.
But yes, but yes, but yes, because I love you
When children play, they can engage through a variety of activities such as dancing, singing,
moving, or dramatizing; sometimes there is a combination of those elements. During these
experiences, they are continuously making their own interpretations and imitating their peers’
movements. This is a long song that includes movements, dancing, and children’s choices. Boys
and girls are forming a circle and singing, moving, and dancing at the same time. The children
follow what the lyrics say: they imagine a bird cutting the branch with its peak, or kneel
pretending to have a “lover” in front of them, shaking hands, and when singing the last phrase
(pero sí, pero sí, pero sí, porque te quiero a ti), they choose one of their peers.
One major aspect about “Arroz con leche”, “La pájara pinta”, and the following song is the
social stereotype of relationship boys-girls/men-women. Within the descriptions, the
participants state that in all of the games, songs, and chants, there were boys and girls equally;
they had the same opportunities, chances, and performances. There is a wide range of emotions
that can be inferred from the songs; marriage, love, or friendship are aspects that children are
learning all the time while singing the songs or interacting with their families, their peers, or
their environment. However, within the different contexts of the songs, children make their
choices according to what they really feel and understand. A boy could choose a girl when the
song portrays marriage (social stereotype) and vice versa; or the same boy could choose a male
peer in “La pájara Pinta” as an example of friendship and peer identification (the same with
girls).
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“Buenos días su Señoría Mantantirulirulá”
Buenos días su Señoría Mantantirulirulá.
Good morning your highness Mantantirulirulá.
Que desea su Señoría Mantantirulirulá.
What does your highness wish Mantantirulirulá?
Yo deseo a una de sus hijas Mantantirulirulá.
I wish one of your daughters Mantantirulirulá.
Cuál de ellas usted desea Mantantirulirulá.
Which one of them do you wish Mantantirulirulá?
Yo deseo a esa niña Mantantirulirulá.
I wish that girl Mantantirulirulá.
En qué oficio le pondremos Mantantirulirulá.
What occupation will she have Mantantirulirulá.
Le pondremos de lavandera Mantantirulirulá.
She will be a washerwoman Mantantirulirulá.
Ese oficio no le agrada Mantantirulirulá.
She does not like that occupation Mantantirulirulá.
Le pondremos de cocinera Mantantirulirulá.
She will be a kitchener Mantantirulirulá.
Ese oficio no le agrada Mantantirulirulá.
She does not like that occupation Mantantirulirulá.
Le pondremos de pianista Mantantirulirulá.
She will be a pianist Mantantirulirulá.
Ese oficio sí le agrada Mantantirulirulá.
She does like that occupation Mantantirulirulá.
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In this song, both boys and girls play and interact like having a conversation. There are two
groups: (1) the boys, which have a “Highness”, and (2) the girl, which have a mother/father (one
of the children or an adult). The song include movements such as jumping/walking back and
forward one group against the other while singing the song. The “Highness” starts choosing one
girl each time the sequence is repeated, and the girl accepts to go to the other group only if she
likes the “occupation”. Children can stop the sequence repetition any time, since there are no
winners or losers because the main function of this song is a playful interaction between boys
and girls.
Final considerations
Children spend much of their lives in leisure activities, including the playground. These are
social activities that develop creativity, imagination, and contribute to their attitudes towards
adaptation, tolerance, acceptance, and management of the individual space. Consequently, these
experiences are not isolated from social life or community activities. This leads children to
effectively project their personality, to express themselves both verbally and physically, and to
develop motor, visual, aural, and physical perceptions.
Following Merriam’s (1964) considerations about the uses and functions of music, it is clear
that children use music in order to make their daily lives more meaningful and to intensify their
relationships with family, siblings, and peers. Music can be a powerful medium for social
interaction and a rich environment for informal learning, and when combined with leisure
activities, it can be reinforced and children become more musically and socially competent.
After examining all the questionnaires for this study, it is evident that each one of the
participants has strong memories about the musical play of their childhood; within the
responses, they described the songs and their characteristics in a very detailed way, which gave
me the certainty that playground songs and chants are major influences during childhood, and
also have an important impact during further development.
The musical play of childhood is part of the musical culture and repertoire of adults (Soccio,
2013). Adults use music and games that they consider appropriate for children, and thus they
can influence the children’s musical repertoire. According to the participants of this study, these
experiences are highly positive not only to engage children to music (melodies, rhythms, and
lyrics), but also to develop skills such as memory, language, bodily expression, and a healthy
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sense of competitiveness. A common belief throughout the responses about the things adults
learned is that these games are meaningful for the development of cognitive, psychomotor, and
emotional skills that are directly linked to the level of socialization and interaction that they had
with other people. “I have such great memories of these activities because I used to be pretty
introverted and through these games I developed different social skills, especially when the
games included choreographies or competitions,” “These activities allowed me to share great
moments with my peers and family. It was easier to memorize the songs when I listened to my
peers,” “I think the most important thing for me when I participated in these games is that I was
able to interact and learn from my peers and family. It was important because I developed a
sense of a healthy competitiveness,” “I used to see my peers and tried to learn from them.
Besides being more extroverted, I feel like I learned to be more creative and to improvise. That
led me to choose my vocation as musician from a very early age.” According to Campbell
(2010), children develop cultural and social competency by processes of osmosis in which they
absorb the many elements and facets of their environments. This process, known as
enculturation, does not require any effort and occurs informally and in unplanned ways.
Eve Harwood (1998) states that children learn playground songs by oral transmission between
them. Though, when asked to describe if adults were present during the activities, all of the
participants responded similarly: “Most of the time there were only children playing, but adults
were present as guides, when they were teaching us the songs or the choreographies,” “Yes,
there were adults, they used to guide us during the games,” “Yes, there were adults, especially
at school when the teacher taught us the games,” “Oh, yes! I used to sing and play these games
with my cousins, aunts, and my grandmother. I especially remember her old house and its yard
where we gathered and learned all the choreographies,” “Absolutely, I can recall my aunts and
parents playing with my cousins and me. That was a lot of fun, actually, and they were like the
leaders of the game.” Certainly, the songs and chants presented in this study are orally
transmitted but not only between children, but also from adults to children. This aspect
evidences that playground songs and chants are important for children as well as for adults, who
guide, teach, and lead these activities as means of adult/children interaction.
Harwood and Marsh (2012) consider that children, regardless of their age, sometimes are faced
with challenging activities, which are often qualified by music teachers as inappropriate or
difficult, and yet children perform them quite naturally. Accordingly, John Blacking (1967)
states that Venda children show great competency to perform highly difficult rhythms when
singing or chanting. This aspect is related to a wide range of literature, which considers that
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playground music should be contemplated and inserted within the early music curriculum due to
its relationship with children’s nature. Among the participants’ consideration about the
importance of these activities during childhood are: “the development of a healthy and happy
childhood due to the connectedness of the songs to the nature of children’s ways of learning,”
“the development of cognitive skills such as language acquisition and memorization through
activities to which children are naturally linked.” The common belief throughout the responses
is related to the development of a sense of “self” through organic experiences that potentiate the
different skills that contribute to having a productive and joyful childhood.
The purpose of this investigation was to examine which songs were used by children in Ecuador
and also their meanings, implications, and influences in the adults’ lives and musical, cultural
and social development. Therefore, further exploration of playground songs and chants used in
Ecuador could imply the uses and applications of these experiences within the early music
curriculum. It is the teachers’ responsibility to include in their curricula elements that belong to
the musical and social nature of the learners and to provide them with an array of experiences
that will influence children to become agents of their own musical learning.
References
Abril, C. R. and Kelly-McHale, J. (in press). Thinking about and responding to culture in
general music. In Abril, C. and Gault, B. M. (direction). Teaching general music
approaches, issues, and perspectives. New York: Oxford University Press.
Blacking, J. (1967). Venda children’s songs: A study in ethnomusicological analysis.
Johannesburg: Witwatersrand University Press.
Blacking, J. (1974). How musical is a man? Washington: University of Washington Press.
Campbell, P. S. and Scott-Kassner, C. (1995). Music in childhood: From preschool through the
elementary grades. New York: Schirmer.
Campbell, P. S. (2010). Song in their heads: Music and its meaning in children’s lives (2nd ed.).
New York: Oxford University Press.
Campbell, P. S. (2010, January). Musical enculturation: sociocultural influences and meanings
of children’s experiences in and through music. In Barret, M. S. (direction). A cultural
psychology of music education. Oxford scholarship Online.
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Harwood, E. (1993). Content and context in children’s playground songs. Applications of
Research in Music Education, 24, 4-8.
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Johanna E. Abril holds a B.M. degree in Piano Performance and a Masters in Music Research and
Pedagogy from Universidad de Cuenca in Ecuador. A SENESCYT Scholar recipient, she is currently
pursuing her second year of Ph.D studies in Music Education at the Frost School of Music – University of
Miami. Her work is mainly focused on cultural studies and childhood music education.
Recibido
02/10/2014
Aceptado
19/03/2015
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Appendix
Questionnaire
1. Name:
2. Age:
3. Gender:
4. Profession:
5. Do you have memories about playground songs and chants during your childhood? If
so, what type of games were those?
6. Could you describe some examples?
7. Were adults present during these activities? If so, how was the interaction between
children and adults?
8. Did the games include movements or choreographies? If so, what kind of movements or
choreographies?
9. What do you think you learned from these experiences?
10. What kind of memories do you have about these activities?
11. Do you think these experiences have a positive effect during childhood? If so, Why?
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