Cullowhee Conference on Communica0ve Disorders Tim Brackenbury From Angry Birds to Learning Words: Applying Features of Game Design to Seman0c Interven0on 03/15/13 Collaborators Dr. John Folkins Dr. Miriam Krause Allison Hadley Tim Brackenbury, Ph.D., CCC-­‐SLP March 15, 2013 Cullowhee Conference on Communica0ve Disorders 1 A bit about me •  Boys Town Na0onal Research Hospital •  Children’s Therapu0c Learning Center 3 Video Games Mo0vate 2 •  Video Game Design & Clinical Prac0ce •  The Full Experience of Seman0cs •  Discovery & Risk Taking in Development •  Generaliza0on from Treatment •  Unlocking Future Rewards 4 Video Games Mo0vate •  People invest money in video games –  Games grossed $10.5 billion in 2009 •  A wide variety of people play video games –  67% of U.S. households play video games –  40% of gamers are female –  average age of gamers is 34 –  48% of games are rated E for Everyone •  People willingly invest 0me and effort in video games –  The average gamer spends eight hours per week playing video games •  People concentrate on video games and stay on task for long periods of 0me Reference: hUp://www.esrb.org/about/images/vidGames04.png Anna Ehrhorn Schedule •  Atari and Sega, late 1970s into 1990s •  M.A. at University of Kansas •  5 years as a clinical SLP •  Ph.D. at University of Kansas Elizabeth WiUer
Reference: hUp://www.esrb.org/about/images/vidGames04.png 5 6 1 Cullowhee Conference on Communica0ve Disorders Tim Brackenbury The Appeal of Video Games is Not Accidental 03/15/13 Five Principles of Video Game Design •  Games of all sorts have been refined through the years. •  Game designers are mo0vated to make games more engaging. •  Principles of game design have been studied extensively in both industry and academia. 1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 
Full Experience Principle Risk Taking Principle Discovery Principle Generaliza0on Principle Rewards System Principle 7 8 1. Full Experience Principle Five Principles of Video Game Design •  Not every games includes every principle •  Many games address epic themes –  alloca0on of limited resources –  decision making in ambiguous contexts. •  The newer video games are par0cularly relevant (sorry, Pong) •  Every aspect of the game contributes to the epic themes •  As I introduce each principle, start thinking about how it could relate to clinical prac0ce. Example Game: Penumbra 9 Penumbra 10 2. Risk Taking Principle •  Tasks are designed to be challenging but not impossible. –  Goldilocks / Zone of Proximal Development •  Player innova0on and crea0vity are encouraged –  Failure has only small penal0es and is expected •  Example Game: Braid 11 12 2 Cullowhee Conference on Communica0ve Disorders Tim Brackenbury Braid 03/15/13 3. Discovery Principle •  Players learn by explora0on and experimenta0on •  How to instruc0on is kept to a minimum –  no manuals –  online player supports available Example Game: World of Goo 13 World of Goo 14 4. Generaliza0on Principle •  New knowledge is put to work right away •  Skills learned early should transfer and be useful later Example Game: Epic Mickey 15 Epic Mickey 16 5. Rewards System Principle •  Reinforcements are given frequently and in a variety of ways –  points –  new tools / weapons –  addi0onal informa0on –  unlocking extra levels Example Game: Pokémon 17 18 3 Cullowhee Conference on Communica0ve Disorders Tim Brackenbury 03/15/13 Groups
Pokémon •  Get together with 4 or 5 people •  Pick a principle •  Discuss how it might relate to client learning –  How does your current clinical prac0ce reflect this principle? –  What might be new ways to incorporate this principle into prac0ce? Groups will report out in 10/15 minutes. 19 Recap of the Five Principles of Video Game Design 1. 
2. 
3. 
4. 
5. 
20 Group Reports Full Experience Principle Risk Taking Principle Discovery Principle Generaliza0on Principle Rewards System Principle •  Each group reports •  General Discussion, ques0ons, and observa0ons 21 Focus on Seman0cs 22 The Full Experience of Seman0cs •  Con0nue using the video game principles •  Seman0cs has an image problem –  but now applying them to –  Seman0cs = Vocabulary •  what we do as clinicians •  how children learn seman0cs 23 24 4 Cullowhee Conference on Communica0ve Disorders Tim Brackenbury The Full Experience of Seman0cs 03/15/13 The Full Experience of Seman0cs •  Seman0cs has an image problem •  Problems with a Seman0c = Vocabulary focus –  Seman0cs = Vocabulary –  Vocabulary items need to be •  Complete •  Interconnected •  Seman0cs > Vocabulary –  vocabulary is one aspect of seman0cs –  Seman0cs deals with both of these issues and more 25 The Full Experience of Seman0cs: Completeness •  What is a word (or vocabulary item)? 26 The Full Experience of Seman0cs: Completeness •  What is a word (or vocabulary item)? –  a unit of language, consis0ng of one or more spoken sounds or their wriUen representa0on, that func0ons as a principal carrier of meaning. (www.dic0onary.com) –  a unit of language, consis0ng of one or more spoken sounds or their wriUen representa0on, that func0ons as a principal carrier of meaning. (www.dic0onary.com) –  a phonological form paired with a meaning –  a phonological form paired with a meaning / dʌk / duck 27 28 The Full Experience of Seman0cs: Completeness The Full Experience of Seman0cs: Completeness –  The form and meaning(s) should be shared across people –  The form and meaning(s) should be shared across people •  kooba •  kooba –  The meanings should be complete, but don’t have to be •  pervert •  sacapuntas –  The meanings should be complete, but don’t have to be •  pervert •  sacapuntas 29 30 5 Cullowhee Conference on Communica0ve Disorders Tim Brackenbury 03/15/13 The Full Experience of Seman0cs: Completeness The Full Experience of Seman0cs: Completeness •  What are the parts of a dic0onary’s defini0on? •  What are the parts of a dic0onary’s defini0on? 31 The Full Experience of Seman0cs: Interconnectedness •  A dic0onary’s defini0on is a good metaphor for vocabulary completeness •  But, a dic0onary is not a good metaphor for the lexicon •  each individual’s mental library of word knowledge •  Vocabulary entries should include all of these parts. 32 The Full Experience of Seman0cs: Interconnectedness –  5 people have target words. –  We want to connect these words •  What combina0ons of other single words will achieve this? –  think six degrees of separa0on 33 –  We need a data keeper 34 The Full Experience of Seman0cs: Interconnectedness Discovery & Risk Taking: Seman0c Development •  Rich lexicons are like three dimensional webs. •  Learning first words is a slow, laborious process –  mostly dependent on adult models and repe00on •  Defini0ons vs. Metaphors •  But it starts to take off during the second year of life –  because of experien0al learning and applica0on •  finding a paUern and using it to increase learning –  a process of discovery and risk taking 35 36 6 Cullowhee Conference on Communica0ve Disorders Tim Brackenbury 03/15/13 Discovery & Risk Taking: Seman0c Development Discovery & Risk Taking: Seman0c Development –  Experien0al Learning and Applica0on Examples •  Between 18 months and 18 years of age •  Infant phonological sensi0vi0es •  seman0c principles •  word’s seman0c and phonological proper0es –  children learn an average of 9 to 10 words a day •  Fast Mapping –  ini0al connec0on between a new phonological form and a referent •  Slow Mapping –  refinement of a fast mapped lexical entry over 0me and experience »  and perhaps integra0on with known items 37 Discovery & Risk Taking: Seman0c Development Discovery & Risk Taking: When things go wrong •  Reduced input •  Effec;ve and efficient lexicons are organized –  hearing loss, au0sm, poverty –  cannot build a large vocabulary or interconnected lexicon –  Entries are interconnected in mul0ple ways •  Taxonomic categories •  Thema0c categories •  Synonyms / antonyms •  Phonological structure •  Abstract seman0cs develop across the elementary school years 38 •  Low vocabularies –  late talkers 39 Discovery & Risk Taking: When things go wrong 40 Generaliza0on to BeUer Seman0cs: Assessment –  What do you do to assess seman0cs? •  Word finding deficits •  Brackenbury & Pye (2005) –  vocabulary may be within normal limits –  underdeveloped meanings –  Standardized tests are mostly focused on vocabulary –  A few look at other aspects –  •  especially with with abstract concepts –  specific language impairments Preschool Language Scales 41 Test of Seman0c Skills Ages 9 – 13 42 7 Cullowhee Conference on Communica0ve Disorders Tim Brackenbury Generaliza0on to BeUer Seman0cs: Assessment –  Language sample analysis 03/15/13 Generaliza0on to BeUer Seman0cs: Case Examples •  Lara, 3 years, 7 months •  limited informa0on •  may need to verify with other tasks –  first expressive words ~ 18 months –  recep0ve and expressive vocabulary scores < 10th percen0le –  sorts and labels common objects into categories –  vocabulary during language sample focused on –  Nonword repe00on tasks •  measure of phonological short-­‐term memory •  objects in the environment •  aUribute words •  prototypical ac0on words for those objects –  Clinician developed tasks •  good for evalua0ng interconnectedness 43 44 Generaliza0on to BeUer Seman0cs: Case Examples Generaliza0on to BeUer Seman0cs: Case Examples •  In groups of 4 or 5, spend 10 minutes discussing •  Luigi, 9 years, 8 months –  your targets for Lara –  how you would address them –  recep0ve and expressive vocabulary scores at 18th and 14th percen0le, respec0vely –  accurate but slow word naming –  defini0ons imprecise –  averages 65% accuracy with classroom vocabulary –  categorizes by common groups and func0ons –  write down your responses to be collected later •  no names needed •  low accuracy for classroom vocabulary 45 46 Generaliza0on to BeUer Seman0cs: Case Examples Generaliza0on to BeUer Seman0cs: Interven0on for Low Vocabularies •  Now do the same group ac0vity for Luigi •  Interac0ve Modeling –  embed lexical models in everyday contexts –  facilitate their use through focused s0mula0on techniques •  spend 10 minutes discussing –  your targets for him –  how you would address them I.  Parent Training Models –  write down your responses on a new sheet of paper 47 –  training parents/caregivers as agents of change 48 8 Cullowhee Conference on Communica0ve Disorders Tim Brackenbury Generaliza0on to BeUer Seman0cs: Interven0on for Low Vocabularies –  The Hanen Program 03/15/13 Generaliza0on to BeUer Seman0cs: Interven0on for Low Vocabularies –  Research Evidence •  parents are taught techniques that promote language learning through daily interac0ons •  Posi0ve effects on parent language facilita0on –  GirolameUo, Pearce, and Weitzman (1996) –  Observe, Wait, Listen –  Say less, Stress, Go Slow, Show •  Increases in children learning target words –  GirolameUo, Pearce, and Weitzman (1996) –  Whitehurst et al. (1991) •  adults model target vocabulary, but do not require a response •  Variable results for generaliza0on to other word learning –  Significant results by GirolameUo, Pearce, and Weitzman (1996) –  Non-­‐significant results from Whitehurst et al. (1991) 49 Generaliza0on to BeUer Seman0cs: Interven0on for Low Vocabularies •  Posi0ve effects with parents across naturalis0c environments –  Home:
–  Clinic group:
–  Classroom: 50 Generaliza0on to BeUer Seman0cs: Interven0on for Low Vocabularies II.  Clinician-­‐based models GirolameUo, Pearce, and Weitzman (1996) Whitehurst et al. (1991) Lederer (2001) Wilcox, Kouri, and Caswell (1991) •  Posi0ve effects with SLP focused s0mula0on –  Kouri (2005) •  Classroom + supplemental work –  Lotus, Coyne, McCoach, Zipoli, and Pullen (2010) •  Posi0ve effects with other adult conversa0onal partners –  Ruston & Schwanenflugel (2010) 51 Generaliza0on to BeUer Seman0cs: Interven0on for Low Vocabularies •  Posi0ve effects when targe0ng seman0c and phonological features of new words –  Motsch and Ulrich (2012) 52 Generaliza0on to BeUer Seman0cs: Case Examples •  Given what we’ve just discussed –  How would you alter your interven0on for Lara? –  draw a horizontal line on your original sheet –  write your changes below the line •  Explicit vocabulary instruc0on helps –  Coyne, McCoach, and Kapp (2007) 53 54 9 Cullowhee Conference on Communica0ve Disorders Tim Brackenbury Generaliza0on to BeUer Seman0cs: Case Examples 03/15/13 Generaliza0on to BeUer Seman0cs: Interven0on for Word Finding •  What we did… –  Hanen model + clinician focused s0mula0on –  Sessions targeted prior and new technique Storage of words •  parent use previous technique •  introduce new technique •  clinician use of technique •  parent trial of technique •  discuss parent performance and words to target Retrieval of words WFD –  Later sessions highlighted seman0c & phonological features 55 Generaliza0on to BeUer Seman0cs: Interven0on for Word Finding Storage of words 56 Generaliza0on to BeUer Seman0cs: Interven0on for Word Finding Retrieval of words Seman0cs Phonology Emphasizes: Increasing knowledge within lexical entries Seman0cs Emphasizes: Cueing strategies to improve lexical access Improving connec0ons between entries Phonology 57 Generaliza0on to BeUer Seman0cs: Interven0on for Word Finding •  Hodgepodge of interven0on models –  single feature 58 Generaliza0on to BeUer Seman0cs: Interven0on for Word Finding •  Research Evidence –  Seman0c Storage •  seman0c storage •  Marks and Stokes (2009) –  mul0ple features •  seman0c vs. phonological –  mul0ple features across modes •  seman0c vs. phonological storage vs. both 59 –  Narra0ve-­‐based interven0on, targe0ng words through »  defini0onal sentences »  contextual sentences »  exposure, imita0on, and retelling –  Significant increases in target words –  Non-­‐significant for control words 60 10 Cullowhee Conference on Communica0ve Disorders Tim Brackenbury Generaliza0on to BeUer Seman0cs: Interven0on for Word Finding –  Phonology Retrieval 03/15/13 Generaliza0on to BeUer Seman0cs: Interven0on for Word Finding –  Seman0c vs. Phonology •  German (2002) •  Wing (1990) –  Iden0fied and prac0ced phonological cues of »  syllable coun0ng »  phonological neighbors »  verbal rehearsing –  Significant increases in target words –  Non-­‐significant for control words –  Seman0c features »  defini0on
categoriza0on picture associa0on –  Phonological features »  rhyming
syllable count imagery
phoneme count –  Phonological group > seman0c group on trained and untrained words 61 Generaliza0on to BeUer Seman0cs: Interven0on for Word Finding –  Seman0c vs. Phonology Generaliza0on to BeUer Seman0cs: Interven0on for Word Finding –  Seman0c vs. Phonology •  Wright, Gorrie, Haynes, and Shipman (1993) –  Seman0c features »  category
func0on descrip0on
similarity
–  Phonological features »  length rhyme ini0al sound other sounds 62 •  Bragard, Schelstraete, Syners, & James (2012) –  Seman0c features »  defini0ons
associa0ons –  Phonological features »  ini0al sound phoneme segmenta0on content associa0on rhythm –  Children responded beUer to condi0on that matched their ini0al strengths –  Seman0c group > phonological group on untrained words 63 Generaliza0on to BeUer Seman0cs: Interven0on for Word Finding Generaliza0on to BeUer Seman0cs: Interven0on for Word Finding Interven0on = # WFD –  Seman0c vs. Phonology vs. Both •  McGregor & Leonard (1989, 1995) –  Seman0c features »  category
aUributes
–  Phonological features »  rhyming
ini0al sound
64 Improvement = Storage + Retrieval func0ons syllable coun0ng Improvement = Seman0c + Phonology –  Words trained under Both condi0ons were learned the best WFD = TEACHING > TESTING 65 66 11 Cullowhee Conference on Communica0ve Disorders Tim Brackenbury 03/15/13 Generaliza0on to BeUer Seman0cs: Case Examples Generaliza0on to BeUer Seman0cs: Case Examples •  Given what we’ve just discussed •  What we did… –  How would you alter your interven0on for Luigi? –  Teach seman0c and phonological features for common words •  sor0ng and grouping ac0vi0es •  iden0fying –  draw a horizontal line on your original sheet –  write your changes below the line –  Iden0fy the features in low frequency words –  Iden0fy the features in target vocabulary words •  within contexts 67 Unlocking Future Rewards 68 Unlocking Future Rewards •  What might the future hold??? •  What about your future??? –  Selec0ng groups of words based on seman0c and phonological neighbors –  What ques0ons and comments do you have? –  Targe0ng unusual words to improve learning –  How might you change your prac0ce as a result of this conference? •  like maximal opposi0on therapy –  Addressing/Including syntac0c informa0on 69 70 71 72 Contact Informa0on Tim Brackenbury, Ph.D., CCC-­‐SLP 246 Health Center Building Bowling Green State University Bowling Green, OH 43403 [email protected] 419.352.2515 12 Cullowhee Conference on Communica0ve Disorders Tim Brackenbury Core References 03/15/13 Core References Video Game Principles Gee, J. P. (2005). Good Games and Good Learning. Phi Kappa Phi Forum, 85, 33-­‐37. Gee, J. P. (2007). What Video Games Have to Teach Us About Learning and Literacy. New York: Palgrave Macmillan. Storkel, H. L., & MorriseUe, M. L. (2002). The lexicon and phonology: Interac0ons in language acquisi0on. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 33, 24–37. Generaliza:on to BeEer Seman:cs Brackenbury, T. & Pye, C. (2005). Seman0c deficits in children with language impairments: Issues for clinical assessment. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 36, 5-­‐16. Full Experience of Seman:cs Dollaghan, C. A. (1992). Adult-­‐based models of the lexical long-­‐term store: Issues for language acquisi0on and disorders. In R. S. Chapman (Ed.) Processes in Language Acquisi;on and Disorders. St. Louis, MO: Mosby-­‐
Year Book. Discovery & Risk Taking in Seman:c Development Golinkoff, R. M., Mervis, C. B., & Hirsh-­‐Pasek, K. (1994). Early object labels: The case for a developmental lexical principles framework. Journal of Child Language, 21, 125–155. Kuhl, P. (2011). The Linguis;c Genius of Babies. Retrieved February 26, 2013, from hUp://www.ted.com/talks/
patricia_kuhl_the_linguis0c_genius_of_babies.html 73 Core References Research Evidence: Low Vocabularies Cable, A. L., & Domsch, C. (2011). Systema0c review of the literature on the treatment of children with late language emergence. Interna0onal Journal of Language and Communica0on Disorders, 46(2), 138-­‐154. Coyne, M. D., McCoach, D. B., & Kapp, S. (2007). Vocabulary interven0on for kindergarten students: Comparing extended instruc0on to embedded instruc0on and incidental exposure. Learning Disability Quarterly, 30, 74-­‐88. Ellis-­‐Weismer, S., Murray-­‐Branch, J., & Miller, J. F. (1993). Comparison of two methods for promo0ng produc0ve vocabulary in late talkers. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 36, 1037-­‐1050. 74 Core References GirolameUo, L., Pearce, P. S., & Weitzman, E. (1996). Interac0ve focused s0mula0on for toddlers with expressive vocabulary delays. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, 39, 1274-­‐1283. Kouri, T. A. (2005). Lexical training through modeling and elicita0on procedures with late talkers who have specific language impairment and developmental delays. Journal of Speech, Language, and Hearing Research, 48, 157-­‐171. Research Evidence: Low Vocabularies Lederer, S. H. (2001). Efficacy of parent-­‐child language group interven0on for late-­‐talking toddlers. Infant-­‐toddler interven0on, 11(3-­‐4), 223-­‐235. Lotus, S. M., Coyne, M. D., McCoach, D. B., Zipoli, R., & Pullen, P. C. (2010). Effects of a supplemental vocabulary interven0on on the word knowledge of kindergarten students at risk for language and literacy difficul0es. Learning Disabili0es Research and Prac0ce, 25(3), 124-­‐136. Motsch, H. J., & Ulrich, T. (2012). Effects of the strategy therapy 'lexicon pirate' on lexical deficits in preschool age: A randomized controlled trial. Child Language Teaching and Therapy, 28(2), 159-­‐175. Ruston, H. P., & Schwanenflugel, P. J. (2010). Effects of a Conversa0on Interven0on on the expressive vocabulary development of prekindergarten children. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 41, 303-­‐313. Whitehurst, G. J., Fischel, J. E., Lonigan, C. J., Valdez-­‐Menchaca, M. C., Arnold, D. S., & Smith, M. (1991). Treatment of early expressive language delay: If, when, and how. Topics in Language Disorders, 11(4), 55-­‐68. Wilcox, M. J., Kouri, T. A., & Caswell, S. B. (1991). Early language interven0on: A comparison of classroom and individual treatment. American Journal of Speech-­‐Language Pathology, 1, 49-­‐62. Research Evidence: Word Finding Bragard, A., Schelstraete, M., Snyers, P., & James, D. (2012). Word-­‐finding interven0on for children with specific language impairment: A mul0ple single-­‐case study. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 43, 222-­‐234. German, D. (2002). A phonologically based strategy to improve word-­‐finding abili0es in children. Communica0on Disorders Quarterly, 23 (4), 179-­‐192. 75 Core References 76 Video Game Movie URLs Marks, I., & Stokes, S. (2010). Narra0ve-­‐based interven0on for word-­‐finding difficul0es: A case study. Interna0onal Journal of Language Communica0on Disorders, 45 (5), 586-­‐599. McGregor, K., & Leonard, L. (1989). Facilita0ng word-­‐finding skills of language-­‐
impaired children. Journal of Speech and Hearing Disorders, 54, 141-­‐147. McGregor, K., & Leonard, L. (1995). Interven0on for word-­‐finding deficits in children. In M. Fey, J. Windsor, & S. Warren (Eds.), Language interven0on: Preschool through the elementary years (pp. 85-­‐105). Bal0more, MD: Brookes. Wing, C. (1990). A preliminary inves0ga0on of generaliza0on to untrained words following two treatments of children’s word-­‐finding problems. Language, Speech, and Hearing Services in Schools, 21, 151-­‐156. Wright, S., Gorrie, B., Haynes, C., & Shipman, A. (1993). What’s in a name? Compara0ve therapy for word-­‐finding difficul0es using seman0c and phonological approaches. Child Language Teaching and Therapy, 9 (3), 214-­‐229. •  Penumbra hUp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=GAvQAkXqnUg •  Braid hUp://braid-­‐game.com/ •  Skyrim hUp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Fe_lhUuyyZw •  World of Goo hUp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=XAoW9~Kmo4 •  Super Mario Galaxy 2 hUp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=3EIVDo_uuSM •  Epic Mickey hUp://www.youtube.com/watch?v=-­‐pyQLiE5wEg 77 78 13 Cullowhee Conference on Communica0ve Disorders Tim Brackenbury 03/15/13 Image URLs Image URLs •  Slide # 1 hUp://gsgill37.deviantart.com/art/Angry-­‐Birds-­‐209987239 •  Slide # 8 hUp://images.wikia.com/assassinscreed/images/archive/8/8e/
20110509151451!Ezio.jpg •  Slide #2 hUp://www.computerweekly.com/blogs/inspect-­‐a-­‐gadget/2011/07/angry-­‐
bird-­‐developers-­‐stop-­‐short-­‐of-­‐wan0ng-­‐world-­‐domina0on.html •  Slide # 3 hUp://www.uvlist.net/es/game-­‐99763-­‐Superman •  Slide # 9 hUp://www.xblafans.com/the-­‐xbla-­‐fans-­‐staff-­‐looks-­‐back-­‐on-­‐our-­‐gaming-­‐
memories-­‐57592.html/pong-­‐console/ •  Slide #4 hUp://nerdreactor.com/2011/06/23/sonic-­‐turns-­‐the-­‐big-­‐2-­‐0-­‐today/ •  Slide # 20 hUp://fc03.deviantart.net/fs46/f/2009/178/0/e/
Best_VideoGame_Characters_Ever_by_PacDuck.jpg •  Slide #5
hUp://t2.gsta0c.com/images?q=tbn:ANd9GcQmPCbd4inAGQhzZgtmjM6-­‐
hhweO4IV-­‐drI6Ft33UD8pihETLLtOmLiuU3q1Q •  Slide # 21 hUp://www.gamerdad.com/blog/wp-­‐content/uploads/2008/10/super-­‐
smash-­‐bros-­‐brawl.jpg 79 Image URLs 80 Image URLs •  Slide # 22 hUp://cdn.redmondpie.com/wp-­‐content/uploads/2011/05/Angry-­‐
Birds.png hUp://www.shoemycolor.com/media/wysiwyg/plants-­‐vs-­‐zombie-­‐
papercrat.jpg •  Slide # 32 www.dic0onary.com •  Slide # 34 hUp://www.lalaloopsyparty.com/toss-­‐the-­‐ball-­‐of-­‐yarn-­‐party-­‐game/ •  Slides # 24 & 25 hUp://www.allouUabubblegum.com/main/?p=12703 •  Slide # 35
hUp://www.tellingmachine.com/post/How-­‐does-­‐IPv6-­‐impact-­‐web-­‐
debugging-­‐with-­‐VS200%2858%29.aspx •  Slide # 28 hUp://4chon.net/duck/index.html •  Slide # 37 hUp://news.stanford.edu/news/2012/december/infants-­‐process-­‐
faces-­‐121112.html •  Slide # 30 hUp://www.statewide1.com.au/index.php?cPath=8_116 81 Image URLs 82 Image URLs •  Slides # 41 hUp://learnenglish.bri0shcouncil.org/en/vocabulary-­‐games •  Slide # 49 hUp://www.staspeech.com/parents.htm •  Slide # 42 hUps://www.pearsonassessments.com/HAIWEB/Cultures/en-­‐us/
Productdetail.htm?Pid=PLS-­‐5 hUp://www.linguisystems.com/products/product/display?itemid=10253 •  Slide # 59 hUps://signal.federatedmedia.net/thursday-­‐signal-­‐hodge-­‐meet-­‐podge/ •  Slides 69 & 70 hUp://rlv.zcache.com/achievement_unlocked_s0cker-­‐
p217613456253850489envb3_400.jpg •  Slides # 44, 54, & 55 hUp://www.listal.com/viewimage/268326 •  Slides # 46, 67, & 68 hUp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Luigi 83 84 14