Women Empowerment and Economic Policy: A Review of PreReform and Post-Reform Period in India
Kanwaljit Kaur Gill*
Women constitute nearly fifty per cent of world's population. They play a
very critical role in reproduction, rearing and bearing children, looking after the
family and supply of workforce in the labour market. World Women Development
Report, 1998 states that, "Women perform two-third of total labour of the World, they
earn one-tenth of wages and own one-hundredth of wealth."1 Women's work is
underpaid and undervalued.
The development theory also had so far underestimated the role of women in
production. In the matter of nutrition, their education and health, women are brazenly
discriminated against. One can't think of a healthy and balanced society without
making them equally participating group in the spheres of social, political, legal and
economic development. Mahbub-ul-Haq in his Human Development Report 1995
states that, 'development, if not engendered, is endangered.'2 The development
policies have not addressed the issues of women or the cause of gender inequality as
seriously, though it has become a fashion amongst the academicians, politicians and
various government and non government organizations to discuss and arrange
seminars and conferences pertaining to women issues, especially the women
empowerment. Unless some concrete public policy changes are incorporated in the
development policy, women empowerment is unthinkable.
The ultimate goal of
human development will be achieved only when empowerment of women and child
development gains priority in the development agenda of the country.
The declaration of 1975 as the International Women's Year and the decade of
1975-85 as the United Nations Decade can be considered as official recognition of
Women's issues at the global and international level.
The first international
conference was arranged during 1975 - the Mexico Plan of Action. Global concern
about women issues is evident from the fact that after that we have other three
international women's conferences viz., Copenhagen Conference 1980, Nairobi
Forward Looking Strategies 1985, and the Beijing Declaration and Platform for
*
Professor of Economics and Coordinator of Master's Course in Women Studies, Punjabi University, Patiala.
2
Action 1995. In spite of the welfare related activities for women, the plight of women
in the developing countries is not very sound. In the present phase of globalization
women have been worst affected by the dominant model of industry based and export
led economic growth. Boutros-Boutros-Ghali, the United Nations Secretary-General,
in his statement, made on the concluding day of the Beijing Conference said that,
'there is no country in the world where men and women enjoy complete equality'.3
The gender development Indices during 1995, also made the similar statement that 'in
no society do women enjoy the same opportunity as men' (HDR-1995).4 It is further
stated that though the developing countries have made some progress in developing
women's capabilities, women and men still live in an unequal world. It is still an
unequal world.
These conferences may not have achieved much by way of ending
discrimination met on women or gender inequality, but these have provided the
platform for wider diffusion of knowledge about women issues. Some of the women
movements and non-government organizations have contributed in inspiring the
initiatives for women empowerment. It is sell known fact that 'for too long women
have been takers, not the makers of economic policies and national policies. The
challenge now is to change it'5 (Aggarwal, Bina).
The women's movement and women's activism have given many programmes
at the international level, for the last two decades. One can see a paradigm shift in the
programme from 'welfare' to 'empowerment'. It is increasingly being emphasized that
women need to be where economic decision making and financial allocation takes
place. Now the term used is 'women in development' (WID) rather than 'women and
development' (WAD). Now rather than asking the question that 'what kind of human
development can best promote economic competitiveness and growth', one is more
concerned in knowing, 'what kind of economic development can best promote human
development'. Now WID policies are recognized by the international institutions like
World Bank, ILO and the United Nations Development Fund (UNIFEM).
In 'Women in Development' (1990) the Bank is focusing on increasing
women's economic productivity investing in human capital and improving women's
access to productive resources and labour market. Because social and cultural forces
3
influence women's economic productivity, deliberate and thoughtful effort is required
to involve women more effectively in the development process." (World Bank,
1990).6 The United Nations Development Fund for Women (UNIFEM) provides
direct support for women's projects and promotes women in decision making
processes of mainstream development programmes.
The activities supported by
UNIFEM fall into four key areas: Agricultural and food security, trade and industry,
human resource development and emerging issues. UNIFEM intends to link grassroot activities to national planning and policy decision making.7 The institution
provides all financial support to the works of women's non government activities.
Similarly, International Labour Organization (ILO) has emphasized the concern for
equality and full integration of women into development.
It has stated its
commitment to equal opportunity and treatment of women and men in all its
activities, as part of its mandate.
Thus at the international level, the institutions like World Bank, UNIFEM and
ILO, are firmly committed to the WID approach, where integration of women in
development is emphasized.
In the light of the above discussion and changed scenario, an attempt has been
made to review the economic policies with respect to women empowerment in the
developing countries in general, and with special reference to India because gender
disparity and gap between males and females is more, and almost of the same nature,
in the developing countries. The patriarchal family system and the deep rooted
attitudinal values determine the place and status of women in the society. She is
supposed to carry all these century old traditions, customs and rituals of the family,
thereby making all sorts of sacrifices and sometimes bearing the victimization just in
the name of adjustment. And this social family structure is same in all the developing
and South Asian Countries.
Over the period of time, the demographic and development indicators along
with other social and infrastructural development indicators show signs of
improvement. But, do these development indicators point towards improvement in
the status of women and women empowerment in any way? An attempt has been
made to replicate these indicators on the indicators of empowerment of women to
4
capture the extent of reality. How for the policy announcements for empowerment of
women have proven successful in raising the status of women in the society, has been
thoroughly investigated. In the end some policy recommendations are suggested to
achieve equality and social justice for the women to lead a decent life, for which they
also have the rightful right.
Empowerment of women is related with economic, social, political and legal
aspects. Though all these aspects are interrelated and do not operate in isolation yet
we have limited our study to economic aspect. Female employment and female
literacy level are taken to analyze the status of women vis-à-vis policy and strategy
adopted during plans.
I
Programmes and Policies for Empowerment of Women since 1950's: a brief
Account
It is well documented that development and empowerment of women has been
receiving attention of the government right from the beginning of the planned
development process in India. Up till now development of women was being clubbed
with 'welfare' of disadvantageous groups like, destitute, disabled, aged and the
children. This welfare approach started during the first five year plan (1951-56) and
continued up to the fifth five year plan (1979). There was shift from welfare approach
to development approach during the sixth five year plan (1980-85). The areas of
health, education and employment of women were given priority and special funds
were demarcated for the same. It was only during the seventh five year plan (1985-90)
when the 'objective of raising their economic and social status was emphasized; and
special mention was made to bringing them into the mainstream of national
development.'8 To monitor the flow of benefits to women, and enable them to
function as equal partners and participants in the development process, human
development was focused during the period of Eight Five Year Plan (1992-97). It
was the time when major policy changes were introduced at the global level and there
was paradigm shift in the strategy of economic development.
In this phase of
globalization all the forces were for deregulation and decontrol. Public sector was
relegated to second place and private sector came in the fore front.
5
This changed development structure and strategy did not in any way lessen the
importance of the issue, theoretically. Rather 'Empowerment of Women' became one
of the objectives of Ninth Five Year Plan (1997-2002). An effort was made to create
an environment where women could exercise their rights. A special strategy of
'Women's Component Plan' was adopted to monitor flow of all types of benefits to
women and to ensure that the proposed strategy brings forth a holistic approach
towards empowering women.
This was the time when National Policy for
Empowerment of Women, 2001, was adopted to 'eliminate all types of discrimination
against women' and to ensure gender justice, besides empowering women both
socially and economically. At the same time the concept of 'gender budgeting' was
introduced to attain more effective targeting of public expenditure and to offset any
undesirable gender specific consequences of previous budgetary measures. Besides,
all this the year 2001 was celebrated as 'women's empowerment year'.
The approach of Tenth Five Year Plan 2002-07 was focused on translating the
National Policy for Empowerment of Women (2001) into action.
Apart from
'strengthening legal system aimed at the 'elimination of all forms of discrimination
against women, mainstreaming a gender perspective into the development process,
allowing the de-jure and de-fecto enjoyment of all human rights and fundamental
freedom by women at par with men in all spheres – political, economics, social,
cultural and civil' was emphasized (Tenth Five Year Plan p. 238).9
A sector specific three-fold strategy was adopted for empowering women.
The economic empowerment included, provision of training, employment and income
generation activities with both forward and backward linkages with the ultimate
objective of 'making all potential women economically independent and self-reliant.
The strategy for social empowerment included creation of an environment where they
would exercise their easy and equal access to all the basic minimum services of
health, education and employment so as to enable them realize their full potentials.
The third component of the strategy was gender justice, to eliminate all forms of
gender discrimination and ensure de-fecto rights and freedom at par with the men in
all aspects of life. Since the constitution of India not only guarantee gender equality,
but also prohibits discrimination on the basis of sex.
6
In the approach to the Eleventh Five Year Plan (2007-12), it has well been
recognized that 'women and children are not homogenous categories – thus apart from
gender programme interventions, special targeted interventions, catering to the
differential needs of these different categories and groups, will be undertaken
(Eleventh Five Year Plan).10
In this plan, for the first time women are recognized not just as equal citizens
but as agents of economic and social growth. The union budget 2005-06, for the first
time included a separate statement highlighting the gender sensitivities of budgetary
allocations under ten demands for grants. The plan will seek to make all national
policies and programmes gender sensitive right from their inception and formulation
stages.
Thus, ever since the inception of planned economic development of the
country the issues of empowerment of women have remained there in one form or the
other. These programmes and policy initiatives have shown some positive results and
there are definite signs of improvement in the status of women. But the results in the
form of 'output' are not to the tune of 'input'. Much more still remains to be done as
yet. In order to have gender equity in general a concrete strategy for accelerating
progress is must for women empowerment.
III
Promises and Practice
As mentioned earlier, development and empowerment of women had become
one of issue of development strategy as early as fifties. This was the time when
woman was given the right to vote, constitutionally.
During seventies, 'women
empowerment' was used to frame and facilitate the struggle for social justice and
equality through transformation of all the economic, social, political and legal
structures at the national and international level.
United Nations Population
Information Network (POPIN) has identified five components for women
empowerment. These are:
• women's sense of self-worth;
• their right to have and to determine choices;
7
• their right to have access to opportunities and resources;
•
their right to have their power to control their own lives, both
within and outside the home; and
•
their ability to influence the direction of social change to create
a more just social and economic order, nationally and
internationally (POPIN).11
Empowerment of women is the balanced distribution of power between both
males and females. This power can be the control over physical, natural, intellectual,
financial and human resources along with the control over their self esteem. (The
physical and natural resources include land, water forests, etc., intellectual resources
are – knowledge information and ideas; and the human resources include their labour
and skill. Self is a combination of intelligence creativity, self esteem and confidence).
Empowerment of women is a process that demands life cycle approach for
their upliftment.
The constitution of India is based on the principle of liberty,
fraternity, equality and justice, to all citizens. Women's right to equality and nondiscrimination is guaranteed in the constitution. But, unfortunately these affirmations
are only in the constitution, the fruits of development are not being equally shared by
men and women on any front. Women have lagged behind not because they are
incapable but because they have been denied the opportunity to prove their metal.
The National Policy for empowerment of women in its goals and objectives states that
the 'de-fecto enjoyment of all human rights and fundamental freedom by women on
equal basis with men in all spheres-political, economic, social, cultural and civil' will
lead to real empowerment of women.
Mainstreaming gender perspective in the
development process is the ultimate goal.
But it has been increasingly felt that everywhere in the world women are
facing threats to their lives, health, and well being. In all spheres of their life they are
discriminated. They receive less education, enjoy less health facilities, less nutrition
than man but are over represented among poor and powerless.
Let us now have a look on the scenario of existing policies and programmes in
India. The need to bring women into the mainstream of development has been a
8
national concern since early fifties; though in the early phase of planning, the concern
and issues related with women's development were not taken as very important. From
the early fifties to seventies the Central Social Welfare Board was looking after the
voluntary actions at various levels to take up the issues related with women and child
welfare. A special cell was created to look after and monitor the issues related with
women employment.
Some legislative measures were undertaken to protect the
interests of women. During the third and fourth plan (1960-61 to 1973-74) education
and maternal health also came on the priority list. Thus, up to the period of fifth five
year plan women were the policy takers and not the policy makers. A multi-sectoral
approach was adopted during the sixth five year plan (1980-85) for the development
of women.
A Beneficiary-Oriented Scheme was launched to get benefits from various
development progammes during Seventh Five Year Plan (1985-90) related with
education, health, employment and other economic activities.
This programme
continued during eight five year plan when in the first Human Development Report
(1990) special development programmes for women were formulated. This was the
time when new economic policy was implemented in India under the programme of
New Economic Reforms. The era of globalization had ushered in which affected
power and development balance adversely between males and females.
During the period of 1995 the Human Development Report suggested two
important composite measures GDI (Gender-related Development Index) and GEM
(Gender Empowerment Measures) to know the existing gender bias in the world. For
achieving gender equality and women empowerment GDI and GEM have been
constructed for almost all the countries of the world including India.
The tenth plan approach aims at empowering women by implementing the
National Policy for Empowerment of Women (2001) into action into all the different
components and sectors economic, political, social and legal etc. But here we will
investigate the economic situation which is related with participation of women in
economic activity more especially the female work participation rate.
Since
employment and educational level are inter-related, situation of female literacy level
has also been studied.
9
We have GDI, GEM and other indicators which have been used for achieving
and measuring gender disparity for India.
Table 1 measures GDI* which includes life expectancy at birth, adult literacy
rate, and gross enrolment ratio in schools at all the different levels and estimated
earned income. This is according to the PPP of US dollars.
Table 1: Gender-related Development Index for India
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Variables
GDI
Rank
Value
Life Expectancy at Birth
Female
Male
2005
2007-08
99
0.401
98
0.586
113
0.600
60.9
59.7
65.3
62.3
65.0
61.8
65.3
62.3
(2005)
44.1
29
58
35.2
63.7
47.8
73.4
47.8
73.4
(1995-2005)
Female
P 81
S 27
T 5.2
45.8
56
60
Male
P 113
S 50
T 12.3
63.8
64
68 (2005)
870
19.2(%)
80.8(%)
134
1569 (Rs.)
4130 (Rs.)
127
1620 (Rs.)
5194 (Rs.)
128
Adult Literacy Rate
Total
Female
Male
1990
1995
-
2000
Combined Gross Enrolment
ratio for Primary Secondary
and Tertiary School
Estimated Earned Income
(PPP US$)
Total
Female
Male
HDI Rank
123
128
Source: Compiled from various Human Development Reports of UNDP.
The GDI figures for 1990, 1995, 2000, 2005 and 2007-08 are taken for
making comparison over the period of time. The value of GDI rank has increased
from 0.401 in 1995 to 0.600 during 2007-08. Similarly some improvement in life
expectancy is observed. It might be due to the general improvement in health services
*
GDI concentrates on the same variables as the HDI but focuses on inequality between women and
men as well as on the average achievement of all people taken together (UNDP-HD Report 1995, p.
72).
10
or rise in nutritional level of masses. Infrastructural facilities and other amenities
available also have positive impact on longevity of life. But when we take the literacy
level, may it be the adult literacy or the enrolment ratio at various primary, secondary
or tertiary levels, male are far better placed than the females. The following table 2
presents the sex-wise literacy level at different census periods.
Table 2: Sex-wise Literacy Rate and Gender Disparity in India
(%age)
Year
Persons
Males
Females
F/M
Gender gap
1971
34.45
45.95
21.97
0.48
23.98
1981
43.57
56.38
29.76
0.53
26.62
1991
52.21
64.13
39.29
0.61
24.84
2001
65.38
75.85
54.16
0.71
21.69
Note: 1.
F/M ratio highlights gender disparity in all the educational parameters.
This is the ratio of female level of literacy to the male level of literacy.
2.
Gender gap is the difference between the level of literacy of male and
female respectively.
Source: Indian Economic Survey 2002-03, March 2003, p. 223.
The vertical comparison looks very sound when we see that female literacy
rate has increased from about 22 per cent in 1971 to 39.3 per cent in 1991 and further
to 54.16 per cent in 2001 and narrowing gender gap also shows increase in female
literacy level. But when these figures are compared horizontally, i.e. with their
counterpart, the males, the picture is very gloomy. These figures are about the gross
enrolment rate. Hence there is a catch in these figures. What about the drop out rate,
which is higher among the girl students even at the lower primary level and goes
much higher at higher educational level?
A perusal look at the statistical information about the overall level, and quality
of education being imparted to girl students speaks the social reality and our
patriarchal social structures towards females in general and imparting higher
education in particular.
Seriousness of the situation is reflected in cost-benefit
analysis at the household level, where boys are allowed to get education in priced and
11
technical courses, whereas the girls are sent, if any, in relatively less priced, nontechnical and non-professional courses.
During 1991-2001 girl students getting
higher education in non-priced and non-technical courses were about 55 to 60 per
cent. Only 18 to 20 per cent of the girls were getting technical and professional
training in education, while for boys this percentage was as high as 80 per cent.
Here privatization of education under the phase of globalization and
withdrawal of public funding from education has aggravated the situation because it
has implications on expenditure on schooling for girls.
Gender inequality in education is explicitly displayed in table-3 where gross
enrolment rate of females and their ratio as compared to males is shown. From 1990
to 2005 there is some increase in female enrolment rate at all levels but at
higher/tertiary level female enrolment rate is only 9. This again speaks the gender
disparity in education and our attitude towards females.
The Gender Empowerment Measures (GEM)* examines whether women and
men are able to actively participate in political and economic life and take part in
decision making.
GDI is related with expansion of capabilities while GEM is
concerned with exercising those capabilities in real life.
In table 4 we present GEM where we do not observe any improvement.
Despite the fact that some women have reached the top and they are occupying higher
seats of political as well as administrative power, but on an average political activity
is typically monopolized by males in almost all the economies/countries. The
representation of women in decision making, if judged by the positions held in
administration and professionals, is very low. The IAS and IPS there were only 5.4
per cent women in 1987, which increased marginally to 7.6 per cent in 2000. The
countries in South Asia can claim, to some extent, for giving their first woman heads,
to mention few, as S. Bhandaranyake - Sri Lanka, Smt. Indira Gandhi – India, Benzir
Bhutto-Pakistan. Otherwise the seats held in Parliament by the woman have always
been less than 10 (Table 4). The GEM value is very low (0.226) during 1995. The 33
*
GEM is an Index that focuses on the variables that reflect women's participation in political decision
making, their access to professional opportunities and their earning power (Source HDR 1995, op.cit.)
12
per cent reservation policy has also not shown any impact on increasing the number of
their seats.
Table 3: Gender Inequality in Education
Sr.
No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Adult literacy
Female rate (%) aged 15
and older
(1995-2005)
F rate as % of M rate
(1995-2005)
Youth literacy
Female rate
(%) aged 15-24
F rate as % of M-rate
Net Primary enrolment
F rate (%) 2005
Ratio of F rate to M-rate
Gross Primary
enrolment
F-rate (%) 2005
F to M-rate %
(2005)
Gross secondary
enrolment
F-rate
F to M-rate
Gross tertiary enrolment
F-rate
F-rate to M-rate
Note: 1.
2.
1990
2000
2005
2007/08
29
43.5
47.8
47.8
0.58
0.65
(1998)
0.65
0.65
-
-
67.7
0.80
67.7
0.80
-
-
81.0
71.0
85.0
116
-
0.86
(1997)
0.94
0.94
27.0
48.0
50
0.68
(1997)
30.4
(as % of F tertiary
students)
0.61
(1994-97)
0.80
5.2
-
For year 1990, 1995 please consult table 1 also.
F-Female, M-Male.
Source: HDR (for different time periods), op. cit.
85
0.93
9
0.70
13
Table 4: GEM-Gender Empowerment Measures
Sr. No.
Variables
Years
1995
1.
2000
2005
2007/08
GEM
Rank
101
-
-
Value
0.226
-
-
9.3
9.0
-
-
0.38
0.31
2.
Seats held in Parliament
(% of women)
7.3
3.
Administrators and
Managers (% of women)
2.3
4.
Professionals and
technical workers (% of
women
20.5
5.
Ratio of estimated
female to male earned
income
19.2
7.6
Source: ibid.
Table 5 presents the political participation of women. Though women got the
right to vote and stand for election long back in 1950 but their representation in
government at the ministerial level has rather come down from 7.9 per cent in 2000 to
3.4 in 2005 and still now it is 3.4 per cent during 2007-08. So far as the decision
making power is concerned it is never exercised independently by the women. Even
in the Panchayti Raj Institutions (PRIs) wherever women surpanches and panches are
there, they act according to the instructions given by their husbands. At the time of
election they are usually projected as someone's mother, sister or wife, and not as an
independent identity or as people's representative.
14
Table 5: Political participation of Women
Sr. No.
Variables
1.
Year when women
received right
to vote
to stand for election
Year when first women
elected (E) or appointed
(A) to parliament
Women in Government
• at all levels
• at ministerial level
• at sub ministerial
level
Seats in Parliament held
by women
• lower house 1990
• lower house 2005
• upper house
Participation in
Panchayati Raj
Institution (%)
2.
3.
4.
5.
Years
1995
2000
2005
2007/08
1950
1950
1950
1950
1950
1950
1950
1950
1952 (E)
1952 (E)
1952 (E)
1952 (E)
4.9
7.9
4.2
3.4
3.4 (2005)
8.5
8.3
11.6
26.6
(2001)
5.0
8.3 (2007)
10.7 2007)
8.5 (1999)
33.5
Source: Ibid.
The reason again for all this type of situation is the age old feudal social norms
and values where women is subordinate to man and is supposed to carry all the (out
dated) customs and traditions with her.
Table 6: Gender Inequality in Economic Activity
Variables
1990
Female Economic
Activity (aged 15 and
above)
Rate
Index (1990=0)
As % of male rate
Source: Ibid.
25.6
1995
Years
2000
-
41.8
-
24
49.3
2005
2007/08
42.5
105
(2003)
50
34.0
94
(2005)
42
15
Gender inequality in economic activity explains male-female differentials in
employment in different sectors of the economy. The female economic activity has
increased from one-fourth (25.6 per cent) during the period of 1990-95 to one-half (50
per cent) during 2000-05. But it has again declined to 42 per cent during the period of
2007-08 (Table 6). Taking base period 1990=100, the index of female economic
activity came down from 105 in 2005 to 94 in 2007-08 indicating decline in economic
empowerment of women during this period.
Gender Differentials in Employment
The census reports and data pertaining to percentage of workers to total
population indicate that:
•
There is increase in percentage of total female workers (from 19.7 in 1981 to
25.7 in 2001); this increase is far lesser when compared with the percentage of
male total workers (52.6 in 1981 and 51.9 in 2001). This is true for both rural
and urban areas. (Table 7).
•
At rural level there is marginal decline in percentage of male workers (53.8
per cent in 1981 to 52.4 in 2001) but for rural females there is increase from
23.1 per cent in 1981 to 31.0 per cent in 2001.
•
There is marginalization of female workers. When we say that percentage of
total females workers both at rural and urban level has increased, this increase
is not as 'main workers' rather this is in the category of marginal workers
(Table 7). Percentage of total female marginal workers increased from 5.6 in
1981 to 6.2 in 1991 and further to 11.0 per cent in 2001, which is much higher
than the percentage of (total) male marginal workers. (1.0 in 1981, 0.6 in 1991
and 6.6 in 2001). These facts are true for both rural and urban areas. Female
work participation has doubled as marginal workers during this period which
implies that they do not get employment throughout the year on a sustained
basis.
•
Percentage of female non-workers is also higher than the male non-workers
(see table 7).
16
•
Increase in female work participation is not because of increase in main
workers rather it is due to the change in definition of work also. Now the
activities related to production even for domestic consumption are treated as
work.*
Table 7:
Percentage of workers in total population by residence and sex in
India: 1981-2001
Percentage of Total Population
Total/
Rural/
Urban
Persons/
Males/
Females
Non-workers
Workers
Total workers
Main workers
Marginal workers
1981
1991
2001
1981
1991
2001
1981
1991
2001
1981
1991
2001
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
1
2
Total
Persons
36.7
37.5
39.3
33.5
34.1
30.5
3.2
3.3
8.7
63.3
62.5
60.7
Males
52.6
51.6
51.9
51.6
51.0
45.3
1.0
0.6
6.6
47.4
48.4
48.1
Females
19.7
22.3
25.7
14.1
16.0
14.7
5.6
6.2
11.0
80.3
77.7
74.3
Persons
38.8
40.0
42.0
34.8
35.8
31.0
4.0
4.3
10.9
61.2
59.9
58.0
Males
53.8
52.6
52.4
52.6
51.8
44.5
1.2
0.7
7.9
46.2
47.4
47.6
Females
23.1
26.8
31.0
16.1
18.7
16.8
7.0
8.0
14.2
76.9
73.2
69.0
Persons
30.0
30.2
32.2
29.2
29.5
29.3
0.8
0.7
2.9
70.0
69.8
67.8
Males
49.1
48.9
50.8
48.5
48.6
47.5
0.5
0.4
3.4
50.9
51.1
49.2
Females
08.3
09.2
11.8
07.1
08.1
09.1
1.0
1.0
2.4
91.7
90.8
88.5
Rural
Urban
Source:
Census of India, 2001, series 4, Punjab Provisional Population totals
paper 3 of 2001, Distribution of workers and non-workers, p. 40.
At all India level the annual compound growth rate for total workers remained
almost same during both the pre and post reform period (1981-91 to 1991-2001)
(Table 8). The growth rate for male as main workers has declined from 2.13 per cent
*
Work has been defined as "participation in any economically productive activity with or
without compensation, wages or profit. Work involves not actual work but also part time help
or unpaid work on farm, family enterprise or in any other economic activity." (Census of
India, 2001, series 4, Punjab, p. 25).
17
in 1981-91 to 0.93 per cent during 1991-2001. In case of females this decline is
sharper where it came from 3.94 per cent to 0.94 per cent during the same period. On
the other hand marginal workers show much higher growth rate for both males (- 2.64
per cent to 29.16 per cent) and females (3.23 per cent to 7.87 per cent) for these two
periods.
Thus, decline in main workers for males (though with a marginal increase in
female main workers) and increase in marginal workers, both in terms of percentage
as well as growth rate speaks itself the employment policy of the country in general
and the employment policy towards females in particular.
Table 8: Annual compound growth rate of workers, region and sex-wise
Total
Persons
Males
Females
Rural Persons
Males
Females
Urban Persons
Males
Females
1981-1991
Total
Main
Marginal
workers workers Workers
2.52
2.52
2.47
2.03
2.13
-2.64
3.61
3.94
3.23
2.33
2.31
2.51
1.75
1.84
-2.89
3.62
3.79
3.23
3.28
3.31
1.86
2.92
3.07
-1.11
3.58
5.01
3.29
1991-2001
Total
Main
Marginal
workers workers Workers
2.53
0.93
12.22
2.18
0.93
29.16
3.32
0.94
7.87
2.26
0.36
11.72
1.81
0.31
29.20
3.13
0.50
7.66
3.47
2.72
19.06
3.23
2.60
28.93
4.74
3.47
11.96
Source: Calculated from census reports. Quoted in Indian Journal of Labour
Economics, Vol. 46, Nov., 2003, Changing Work Force Structure in India,
1981-2001: An Inter-state Study, Ajit Kumar Singh, p. 890.12
Table 9 shows the sectoral distribution of workers according to different
NSSO rounds. Shift from primary sector to the secondary and tertiary sector is
observed which is very high in case of males as compared to females. This leads us to
conclude that:
•
whenever the opportunities for sectoral shift are available, it is availed of by
males
18
•
socio-cultural norms and taboos still persist in rural areas that restrict their
mobility
•
gender differentials in skill and knowledge acquisition also hamper the
female’s lot to joining jobs in industry and the service sector.
Table 9: Sectoral Distribution of all Workers (usual Status)
Sr. No.
Sectors
38th
1983
NSSO Rounds/Years (%)
50th
55th
1993-94
1999-2000
1. Primary
Persons
Male
Female
68.7
62.3
81.1
64.6
58.3
77.8
61.7
54.9
76.2
Persons
Male
Female
13.3
15.0
12.5
14.2
15.9
10.9
15.8
17.8
11.8
Persons
Male
Female
18.0
22.7
9.1
21.2
25.8
11.4
22.5
27.3
12.0
2. Secondary
3. Tertiary
Source: NSSO Report No. 458, Employment and Unemployment in India (19992000), Govt. of India.
IV
As identified and emphasized by (Population Information Network) POPIN
and other studies, in all the areas of social, economic, political and legal, woman
empowerment is needed. The statistical evidence given by HDRs NSSO, various
rounds, census reports and other primary and individual studies, lead us to conclude
that though development process has led to 'developing the women's capabilities, but
women and men still live in an unequal world';13 they do not enjoy the same status in
the society.
The Human Development Report 1995 came to the conclusion that out of the
130 countries for which HDI was available, the GDI rank was as follows:
19
Sr. No.
1.
GDI
Rank
1 to 32
Number of
countries
32
2.
33 to 85
53
3.
86 to 130
45
GDI value
and Category
above 8
0.019 Sweden, at the top)
0.812 Uruguay
less than 8
0.798 Thailand and
but greater
0.502 Cape Verde
than 5
less than 5
0.487 Popua New Guinea
but greater
and 0.169 Afghanistan, at
than 1
the bottom
India with GDI rank 99 (out of 130 countries) and GDI value as 0.401 during
1995 (HDR) falls in the third category of achieving equality between men and
women. The height of inequality is deserved in the economic aspect where share in
earned income of women is less than one fifth (19.2 per cent) of the share of men
(80.8 per cent). According to Human Development Report 2005 GDI rank is 98
(among 177 countries) with GDI value equal to 0.586 which shows movement
towards gender equalities as it has shifted from third category to second one with
respect to GDI value.
Engender economic model given by Mahbub-ul-Haq during 1995, suggests
that –
•
In order to have gender equality, in all walks of life-social, economic, political
and legal – we should identify the barriers and obstacles in this path and
concrete steps should be taken to remove these barriers through
comprehensive policy and strong affirmations.
•
Women should have participatory role in development process. She should
also be the policy maker rather than only remaining as the policy taker. She
should be regarded as 'agent' and 'beneficiary' of policy changes. Hence,
rather than "investing in women is good, our concern should be, what
investment is good for women".
Thus, we should learn form the experience of those countries which are at the
top of GDI rank and value.
Sweden, Finland, Norway, Denmark (the Nordic
countries) and the USA and Australia have GDI value above 0.9. These countries are
better in health (life expectancy) and education (adult literacy and the combined
20
enrolment ratio (1995). But so far as sharing of income is concerned the situation is
not very good. In all these top GDI rank countries the share of earned income is
between 34.6 per cent (USA) to 41.6 per cent (Sweden) (HDI, 1995). So
economically, women are not having command over the financial resources. Hence
they face economic inequality. But in these Nordic countries due to skill formation
and higher level of literacy, women enjoy professional satisfaction and participation
in economic activity.
In India, education, employment and participation in decision making have
shown some improvement in the respective fields.
For example, gander gap in
education is shrinking in India. It was 26.62 in 1981 which came down to 24.84 in
1991 and further the 21.69 in 1921 (refer table 2). Similarly gross enrolment ratio has
shown increase at both primary and middle class level i.e. class one to five and the
class sixth to eighth. This ratio for women has increased from 64.1 during 1980-81 to
85.2 during 1999-2000 at primary level, and from 28.6 to 49.7 at middle level during
the same period (Table 10). The fall in drop-out rate from 62.5 per cent to 42.3 per
cent at lower primary level and from 79.4 per cent to 58.0 per cent at middle level
during the period of 1980-81 to 1999-2000 again speaks about increasing awareness
among the masses that female education and literacy has great role in the society in
general and in the family in particular. The saying goes that, 'when you educate a
male, you educate one person, when you educate the female you educate the whole
family.'
Table 10: Literacy and Education
Sr.
No.
1.
2.
3.
Indicators
Literacy Rates (1981-2001)
Gross enrolment ratio
(1980-81 and 1999-2000)
Classes I-V
Classes VI-VIII
Drop-out rate (1980-81 and
1999-2000)
Classes I-V
Classes VI-VIII
1980-81
Women
Men
29.76
56.38
Total
43.57
1999-2000
Women
Men
Total
54.16
75.85
65.38
64.1
28.6
95.8
54.3
80.5
41.9
85.2
49.7
104.1
67.2
94.9
58.8
62.5
79.4
56.2
68.0
58.7
72.7
42.3
58.0
38.7
52.0
40.3
54.6
Source: Govt. of India, Tenth Five Year Plan.
21
Similarly in the field of employment we have observed decline in employment
gap and increase in work participation rate. Gender gap in worker participation rate
has come down from 32.9 percentage points in 1981 to 26.2 percentage points in
2001. Though only about 26 percent of the females are working now (2001) but as
compared to pre-reform era it was only 20 per cent during 1981 (Table 11). And
further, women are entering into those jobs also, which earlier were the exclusive
monopoly of the men, or they were denied the entry on one social and biological
pretext or the other.
Table 11: Work and Employment
Sr.
No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Indicators
Work Participation
Rate (1981-2001)
Organized sector (No.
of million in 1981 and
1999)
Public sector (No. in
million in 1981 and
1999)
Government (No. in
million in 1981 and
1999)
1980-81
Men
52.6
Total
36.7
2.80
(12.2%)
50.05
22.85
4.83
(17.2%)
23.28
28.11
15
(9.7%)
14.0
15.5
2.8
(14.5%)
16.6
19.4
1.2
(11%)
9.7
10.9
1.6
(14.6%)
9.1
10.7
Women
19.7
1999-2000
Women
Men
25.7
51.9
Total
39.3
Note: Figures in parenthesis are percentages.
Source: Ibid.
The involvement and increase in economic activity directly has a bearing on
decision making capacity both at household level as well as in the administration.
Their share in the administration has increased from 5.4 per cent in 1987 to 7.6 per
cent in 2000 (Table 12). Similarly increased participation in parliament from 7.2 per
cent in 1980-81 to 8.5 per cent in 2001 and in the Central Council of Ministers though
marginally all these are the indicators pointing towards the efforts in capacity
building, gender development during the past two decades, specifically the pre reform
period and the post reform period.
22
Table 12: Decision Making
Sr.
No.
1.
2.
3.
4.
Indicators
1980-81
Administration (No.
of IAS and IPS in
1987 and 2000)
PRIs (No. in
thousand in 1995 and
2001)
Parliament (No. in
1998 and 2001)
Central Council of
Ministers (No. in
1985 and 2001)
1999-2000
Women
360
(5.4%)
Men
6262
Total
6622
Women
645
(7.6%)
Men
7815
Total
8460
318
(33.5%)
630
948
725
1997
2722
59
(7.2%)
4
(10%)
761
820
750
820
36
40
70
(8.5%)
8
(10.8%)
66
74
Note: Figures in parenthesis are percentages.
Source: Ibid.
Though, economic and political participation are one of the important
components of women empowerment, the society at large and the traditional social set
up, norms and values are the major impediments in the way to development.
Crime against women, harassment at work place, etc., they are on the increase.
Son preference or at least one surviving male child in the family is must in all the
South Asian countries including India leading to declining sex ratio in these countries.
In the modern phase of globalization woman is a sandwich between the
traditional social taboos and the modern westernized system, where she is allowed to
enjoy all types of freedom and pattern. She is considered weaker section of the
society whereas she is biologically stronger than men (not physically).
It is, hereby, suggested that in order to achieve the targeted (millennium)
development goals for education, health and employment, the implementation of the
already formulated programmes and policies should be ensured. For this, the
following steps should be taken:
•
The funds which are earmarked for specific items/heads should be spent for
the same.
The gap between the outlay (which is higher) and actual
expenditure which is lower) should be avoided.
23
•
Women participation in decision making should be encouraged. For economic
empowerment of women, the policies related with micro finance and other
credit facilities should be strengthened.
•
Capacity building among women is equally an important issue which is
possible through elimination of all types of discrimination in education,
health, employment, opportunities, political participation and make sure that
she enjoys all legal rights and social justice.
The policy makers should keep in mind that economic policies and
programmes if not engendered are endangered.
24
References:
1.
Human Development Report 1995 UNDP, Oxford.
2.
Ibid. also quoted in Govt. of India, Planning Commission (2002), Tenth
Five Year Plan 2002-07, New Delhi.
3.
Platform for Action and Beijing Declaration, Fourth World Conference on
Women, Beijing, China, 4-15 September 1995, U.N. Department of Public
Information.
4.
Human Development Report 1995, op. cit.
5.
Aggarwal Bina, From Mexico '75 to Beijing '95 Mainstream, Vol.
XXXVI, No. 49, October 28, 1995, p. 10.
6.
World Bank, 1990, Women in Development: A Progress Report on the
World Bank Initiative. Word Bank, Washington, DC, USA. Quoted in
Feminist Theory and Development: Implications for Policy, Research and
Action, V. Eudine Barritean.
7.
Ibid.
8.
Tenth Five Year Plan, op.cit.
9.
Ibid.
10.
Government of India: Planning Commission (2008), Eleventh Five Year
Plan 2007-2012, Vol. II, Social sector.
11.
Guidelines on Women Empowerment, U.N. Population Information
Network, U.N. Population Division, Department of Economics and Social
Affairs.
12.
Ajit Kumar Singh, Changing Work Force Structure in India: 1981-2001,
Indian Journal of Labour Economics, Vol. 46, Nov. 2003.
13.
Population Information Network, op. cit.