Leadership
Professor Ming Sun
School of Energy, Geoscience, Infrastructure & Society
Heriot-Watt University
CONTEXT OF LEADERSHIP
Leadership Definition
• According to Crainer there are over 400 definitions of
leadership. Here are some examples:
– Leadership is a matter of making a difference.
– It entails changing an organisation & making choices among
plausible alternatives.
– It depends on the development of others & mobilising them to get
the job done.
– Leadership is a combination of persuasion & compulsion that
results in making people do things they might not otherwise have
done
– Leadership is a relationship through which one person influences
the behaviour or actions of other people.
Leadership vs Management
• Management – getting things done through other
people in order to achieve stated organisational
objectives
• Leadership – emphasis on interpersonal behaviour in
a broader context
• Leadership is often associated with the willing &
enthusiastic behaviour of followers & does not
necessarily take place within the hierarchical structure
of the organisation
Leading vs Managing
• Managers do things right; leaders do the right
things
• Managing is an authority relationship; leading is
an influence relationship
• Managing creates stability; leading creates
change.
Manager vs Leader
LEADERSHIP THEORIES
Framework for
Leadership studies
Early Trait Theories
• This approach assumes that leaders are born and not
made. Leadership consists of certain inherited
characteristics, or personality traits, which distinguish
leaders from their followers: the so-called Great Person
theory of leadership.
10 Traits of Effective Leaders
Criticism of Trait Theories
• Research failed to identify common traits amongst
recognised leaders
• Some common traits, such as individuality and
originality, highlight diversity rather than commonality
• Assessment of “good” or “bad” leaders can be
subjective
• The lists of possible traits tend to be very long and
there is not always agreement on the most important
Functional Approach
• The attention is not on the personality of the
leaders, but on the functions of leadership.
• This approach believes that the skills of
leadership can be learned, developed and
perfected.
• One example of this approach is Actioncentred Leadership
Action-centred Leadership
• Focuses on what leaders
actually do.
• Leader’s function can be
summarised as meeting
the needs of three
overlapping aspects:
– Task needs
– Team maintenance needs
– Individual needs
Action-centred leadership
Task functions
• Achieving the objectives of the work group
• Defining group tasks
• Planning the work
• Allocation of resources
• Organisation of duties & responsibilities
Action-centred Leadership
Team Maintenance Functions
• Maintaining morale & building team spirit
• The cohesiveness of the group as a working unit
• Setting standards & maintaining discipline
• Systems of communication within the group
• Training the group
• Appointment of sub-leaders
Action-centred Leadership
Individual Functions
• Meeting the needs of the individual members of
the group
• Attending to personal problems
• Giving praise & status
• Reconciling conflicts between group needs &
needs of the individual
• Training individuals
Leadership as a
Behaviour Category
• Focuses on the behaviour of leaders.
• Two major dimensions of leadership behaviour –
– Consideration (People Oriented behaviour)– reflects the
extent to which the leader establishes trust, mutual respect &
rapport with the group & shows concern, warmth, support, &
consideration for subordinates
– Initiating Structure (Task Oriented behaviour) – reflects the
extent to which the leader defines & structures group
interactions towards the attainment of formal goals
Blake & Mouton
Managerial / leadership grid
The grid provides a basis for a comparison of managerial styles
in terms of –
• A concern for production
–Focus – getting things done
–Uses direct, close supervision
–Many written or unwritten rules
• A concern for people
–Focus – relationships
–Less direct, close supervision
–Fewer written or unwritten rules
–Displays concern for people and their needs
Managerial / Leadership Grid
Managerial / leadership grid
combinations
• 9,1 – autocratic, relying on centralised systems &
authority
• 1,9 – hold a belief that contented staff will undertake
what is required of them & achieve a reasonable level
of output
• 5,5 – middle-of-the-road, live & let live approach with a
tendency to avoid the real issues
• 9,9 – integrate task needs & concern for people
Broad Classification of Leadership
Style
•
There are many dimensions to leadership and many
possible ways of describing leadership style, such as
dictatorial, unitary, bureaucratic, benevolent,
charismatic, consultative, participative and
abdicatorial. The style of managerial leadership
towards subordinate staff and the focus of power can
however be classified within a broad three-fold
heading.
–
–
–
Authoritarian (autocratic) style
Democratic style
Laissez-faire (genuine) style
Authoritarian (or Autocratic) Style
• The authoritarian (or autocratic) style is where the focus
of power is with the manager
• All interactions within the group move towards the
manager.
• The manager alone exercises decision-making and
authority for determining policy, procedures for
achieving goals, work tasks and relationships, control of
rewards or punishments.
Democratic Style
• The democratic style is where the focus of power is
more with the group as a whole
• there is greater interaction within the group.
• The leadership functions are shared with members of
the group and the manager is more part of a team.
• The group members have a greater say in decisionmaking, determination of policy, implementation of
systems and procedures.
Laissez-faire Style
• The manager observes that members of the group are
working well on their own. The manager consciously
makes a decision to pass the focus of power to
members, to allow them freedom of action ‘to do as
they think best’, and not to interfere; but is readily
available if help is needed.
• This is different from the manager who could not care,
who deliberately keeps away from the trouble spots and
does not want to get involved.
Tannenbaum and Schmidt
Continuum of Leadership Styles
CONTINGENCY THEORIES
(SITUATIONAL LEADERSHIP)
Contingency Models of Leadership
• Claims that there is no best way to leadership. The best
leader is contingent (dependent) upon the internal and
external situation. A contingent leader effectively
applies their own style of leadership to the right
situation.
• Major contingency models of leadership include –
–
–
–
–
Favourability of leadership situation (Fiedler)
Quality & acceptance of leader’s decision (Vroom & Yetton)
Path–goal theory (House)
Maturity of followers (Hersey & Blanchard)
Favourability of Leadership
Situation (Fiedler)
•
•
•
‘Least Preferred Co-worker’ (LPC) scale to describe leadership style
– A leader with high LPC score tends to focus on people and
relationship
– A leader with low LPC score tends to focus on task and performance
Factors about the situation
– Leader-member relationship (good or poor)
– The task structure (structured or unstructured)
– Position power of the leader (strong or weak)
Leadership style should match the situation in order to produce good
performance
Situations and Effective Leadership Styles
situation
leadership style
Quality & Acceptance of Leader’s
Decision (Vroom & Yetton)
• Five possible leader styles are defined
• Seven decision rules are used to decide the
most appropriate leadership style for a
situation. Three of these rules are related to
Quality of Decision; the other four are related
Acceptance of Decision.
Five Leadership Styles
• Autocratic
– A.I – leader makes decision with no input from others
– A.II – leader makes decision with information from subordinates
• Consultative
– C.I – leader makes decision after consultant with subordinates
individually
– C.II - leader makes decision after consultant with subordinates
as a group
• Group
– G.II – leader and the subordinates group make decision
collectively
Vroom and Yetton’s Leadership
Decision Tree
situation
rules
leadership style
Path–goal Theory (House)
• Path-goal theory centres on how leaders motivate
subordinates to accomplish designated goals
• Emphasizes the relationship between
– the leaders style
– the characteristics of the subordinates
– the nature of task (and work setting)
• Use a Leadership Style that best meets subordinates
motivational needs
Path–goal Theory (House)
• Four leadership styles
– Directive leadership: letting subordinates know exactly what is
expected and giving specific directions.
– Supportive leadership: adopting a friendly and approachable
manner and displaying concerns for the needs of
subordinates.
– Participative leadership: consulting subordinates before
making decisions.
– Achievement-oriented leadership: setting challenging goals
and showing confidence in subordinates.
• Two situation factors
– Characteristics of subordinates
– Nature of task
Leadership Styles for
Different Situations
leadership style
situation
Maturity of Followers (Hersey &
Blanchard)
• Suitable leadership is decided by:
– Readiness of subordinates: followers’ ability
and willingness to perform
– Task behaviour: extend of leader’s direction
and instruction with regard to task
– Relationship behaviour: extend of leader’s
two-way communication with followers
Maturity (Readiness) of Followers
(Subordinates)
• R1 – low follower readiness – refers to followers who are both
unable and unwilling, and who lack commitment and motivation; or
who are unable and insecure.
• R2 – low to moderate follower readiness – refers to followers who
are unable but willing, and who lack ability but are motivated to
make an effort; or who are unable but confident.
• R3 – moderate to high follower readiness – refers to followers who
are able but unwilling, and who have the ability to perform but are
unwilling to apply their ability; or who are able but insecure.
• R4 – high follower readiness – refers to followers who are both
able and willing, and who have the ability and commitment to
perform; or who are able and confident.
Leadership Style Options
Leadership style
Suitable context
S1 – Telling: high amounts of guidance (task) but
limited supportive behaviour (relationship).
R1 followers
S2 – Selling: high amounts of both directive (task)
and relationship behaviour.
R2 followers
S3 – Participating: high amount of support
behaviour (relationship) but low on task guidance.
R3 followers
S4 – Delegating: low on both task and relationship
behaviour.
R4 followers
leadership style
situation
TRANSACTIONAL VS
TRANSFORMATIONAL
Transactional Leadership
• Based on legitimate authority within the
bureaucratic structure of an organisation
• Emphasis on the clarification of goals & objectives,
work tasks & outcomes, organisational rewards &
punishments
• Appeals to the self interest of followers
• Based on a relationship of mutual dependence &
an exchange process of ‘I will give you this, if you
do that’
Transformational Leadership
• A process of engendering higher levels of
motivation & commitment among followers
• Emphasis is on generating a vision for the
organisation, the leader’s ability to appeal to
higher ideals & values of followers, & creating a
feeling of justice, loyalty & trust
• Is about transforming the performance or
fortunes of a business
Transactional vs Transformational Leadership
Transactional
Transformational
Leader’s source of power
Rank, position
Character, competence
Follower reaction
Compliance
Commitment
Time frame
Short term
Long term
Rewards
Pay, promotion, etc.
Pride, self-esteem, etc.
Supervision
Important
Less important
Counseling focus
Evaluation
Development
Where change occurs
Follower behavior
Follower attitude, values
Where “Leadership” found
Leader’s behavior
Follower’s heart
Expected Learning Outcomes
•
•
•
•
•
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Students should understand the nature of leadership;
Students should understand the comparison between leadership and management;
Students should know the different approaches to leadership:
– Traits approach;
– Functional approach;
– Behavioural approach;
Students should know the characteristics of the different styles of leadership:
– Authoritarian;
– Democratic;
– Laissez-faire;
Students should know the main principles of contingency leadership theories and
understand their implications in management practice;
Students should be able to compare transactional and transformational leaderships.