Universität für Bodenkultur Wien
University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna
Department Wasser-Atmosphäre-Umwelt
Department of Water, Atmosphere and Environment
Institut für Hydrobiologie und Gewässermanagement
Institute of Hydrobiology and Aquatic Ecosystem Management
Fish and fisheries prospective
in arid inland waters of
Burkina Faso, West Africa
A thesis submitted to the University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna, Austria,
for the award of Doctor rerum naturaluim technicarum
(Doctor of Natural and Technical Sciences)
composed and submitted by
Raymond OUEDRAOGO, MSc
Vienna, November 2010
ACADEMIC SUPERVISORS
Ao.Univ.Prof. Dipl.-Ing. Dr.nat.techn. Stefan SCHMUTZ
University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna
Department of Water, Atmosphere and Environment
Institute of Hydrobiology and Aquatic Ecosystem Management
Dipl.-Ing. Dr. nat.techn. Andreas H. MELCHER
University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna
Department of Water, Atmosphere and Environment
Institute of Hydrobiology and Aquatic Ecosystem Management
People all like to go up higher but water runs to the lowest possible place.
(Taoist quotation, in Stikker, 1998)
DEDICATION
To my late father Etienne N. OUEDRAOGO, my late mother Elise K.
SAWADOGO, my late elder brother Paul OUEDRAOGO and my late
daughter Jasmine Wend-N-So OUEDRAOGO.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I am thankful to the Austrian government for having funded my studies through the Austrian
Academic Exchange Service (OEAD), in particular to Katharina Engel, Elke Stinnig and
Heike Kernbauer. Additionally, the Austrian Partnership Programme in Higher Education and
Research for Development (APPEAR) has provided financial support to prepare a project in
waters and fisheries management in Burkina Faso, which will promote research and
development in water and fisheries in my country. The Institute of Hydrobiology and Aquatic
Ecosystem Management contributed to funding my studies and is a particular partner for the
APPEAR project. Many thanks.
For additional financial funding special thanks to Dr. Mario Tertschnig from Graz.
I am grateful to Prof. Dr. Stefan Schmutz, and to Dr. Andreas Melcher for having supervised
my studies. I am particularly indebted to Dr. Andreas Melcher for his understanding, patience,
tolerance and availability: you went beyond your academic duties and I appreciated your
financial, social and administrative assistance. Dr. Jan Sendzimir of the International Institute
for Applied Systems Analysis (IIASA) in Laxenburg, Austria has guided me in modeling to
direct scientific research - policy development related to the sustainable development of
communities in water systems. Your inputs are well appreciated.
I experienced working in the Institute of Hydrobiology and Aquatic Ecosystem Management.
To name a few people, Kurt Pinter, Guenther Unfer, Bernhard Zeiringer, Clemens Trautwein,
and Hossein Mostafavi were ready to assist me. All staff work as a team but not just as a
group; thank you very much. I have to mention the assistance and the friendship that I
received from Martin Seebacher in computers, from the secretary Franziska Schmuttermeier
and from Rafaela Schinegger in many matters.
Gerold Winkler of the International Training Programmes in Limnology, in Mondsee, Austria
was my first contact when I was looking for supervision in Austria. He directed me to Prof.
Dr. Herwig Waidbacher the right persons and our relationship went beyond this step. Many
thanks to both of you.
My gratitude to Prof. Dr. Jos Snoeks of the Royal Museum for Central Africa (RMCA) in
Tervuren, Belgium for having assisted me in fish species identification. Many thanks also to
Prof. Jacques Moreau, INP Toulouse, and Prof. Herwig Waidbacher, BOKU Vienna, for
reviewing my thesis.
For their contribution to data collection, I would like to thank the Fisheries Department of the
Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Fish Resources and the Association Belem Kuilse in
Koubri, Burkina Faso. I also thank other governmental and nongovernmental institutions. I
appreciated the availability of the fishermen who helped in sampling fish and those who I
interviewed. I particularly acknowledge the availability and the readiness of the leaders of
traditional communities in Bam and in Kompienga to discuss with me.
Thanks to the Association des Ressortissants du Burkina Faso en Autriche (ARBA that is the
association of the Burkinabe people in Austria) and the Embassy of Burkina in Vienna for
having assisted me in social and administrative matters during my studies. I appreciated the
support and the closeness of Greitschi Kerl, Mag. Petra Radeschnig, Vienna, and individual
people from Burkina Faso living, studying or living Austria and my friend Guillaume de la
Hougue and his family in Nanterre, France.
My family and friends in Burkina ‘paid’ much for my studies, please receive my gratitude.
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
1
TABLE OF CONTENT
ABSTRACT .....................................................................................................................................................3
1‐
INTRODUCTION.....................................................................................................................................4
1.1‐
WORK PLAN AND THESIS OUTLINE................................................................................................................. 5
1.2‐
INTRODUCTION TO BURKINA FASO ............................................................................................................... 5
1.2.1‐ The country...................................................................................................................................... 5
1.2.2‐ Socio‐economic facets ..................................................................................................................... 6
1.2.3‐ Climate and hydrographic outlines ................................................................................................. 6
1.2.4‐ Water resources development and uses of reservoirs..................................................................... 7
1.2.5‐ Paralleling developments of water resources and fisheries ............................................................ 9
1.3‐
ECOLOGICAL AWARENESS ......................................................................................................................... 11
1.4‐
FISH ECOLOGY ........................................................................................................................................ 14
1.5‐
THE QUALITY OF EXISTING DATA ................................................................................................................. 15
2‐
STUDY AREAS......................................................................................................................................19
2.1‐
2.2‐
2.3‐
2.4‐
3‐
THE HEAVILY MODIFIED LAKE BAM ............................................................................................................. 22
THE MODERATELY IMPACTED AREA OF KOUBRI .............................................................................................. 23
THE PROTECTED GAME RANCH OF NAZINGA................................................................................................. 26
THE LARGE SIZE RESERVOIR OF KOMPIENGA .................................................................................................. 28
METHODOLOGY ..................................................................................................................................30
3.1‐
IDENTIFICATION OF THE ACTIVITIES THAT POTENTIALLY IMPACT WATERS IN KOUBRI............................................... 30
3.2‐
THE QUESTIONNAIRE AND THE INTERVIEWS .................................................................................................. 30
3.3‐
SAMPLING OF FISH .................................................................................................................................. 32
3.4‐
ANALYSIS OF WEAKNESSES IN WATER MANAGEMENT ...................................................................................... 34
3.5‐
DATA BASE AND DATA ANALYSIS ................................................................................................................. 34
3.5.1‐ Development of databases............................................................................................................ 34
3.5.2‐ Data analysis ................................................................................................................................. 35
4‐ RESULTS OF THE STUDY ON THE ECOLOGICAL AWARENESS IN THE FISHERIES AND PRESSURES TO WATERS 36
4.1‐
SCIENTIFIC BACKGROUND .......................................................................................................................... 36
4.2‐ NATIONAL LEVEL ACTIVITIES THREATENING WATER‐BODIES .............................................................................. 38
4.3‐
LOCAL LEVEL ACTIVITIES POTENTIALLY THREATENING WATERS IN KOUBRI ............................................................ 38
4.4‐ THE FINAL LIST OF ACTIVITIES THAT POTENTIALLY IMPACT WATERS IN KOUBRI ...................................................... 42
4.5‐
THE FISHERMEN KNOWLEDGE ON THE ANTHROPOGENIC THREATS TO WATER‐BODIES ............................................ 43
4.6‐
FISHING AND LIVELIHOODS ........................................................................................................................ 47
4.7‐
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS ON THE ECOLOGICAL AWARENESS .................................................................... 48
4.8‐ IMPLICATIONS FOR CAPACITY BUILDING AND EDUCATION ................................................................................. 51
5.1‐
FISH SPECIES COMPOSITION AND THEIR NAMES IN LOCAL LANGUAGE.................................................................. 53
5.2‐ FISH ECOLOGY ........................................................................................................................................ 56
5.2.1‐ Fish association to habitat ............................................................................................................ 56
5.2.2‐ Species assemblages as assessed with different gears ................................................................. 58
5.2.3‐ Spatial and temporal shifts in Koubri ............................................................................................ 59
5.2.4‐ Fish species assemblages in the three areas of study ................................................................... 68
5.2.5‐ Fish abundance and biomass in the three areas of study ............................................................. 81
5.2.6‐ Discussion on fish ecology ............................................................................................................. 82
5.2.7‐ Conclusions.................................................................................................................................... 95
5.2.8‐ Proposition of sentinel species ...................................................................................................... 96
5.2.9‐ Contribution to the development of a fish‐based assessment method for the ecological integrity of Burkina waters ......................................................................................................................................... 98
5.2.9‐ Field observations on fish migration in Burkina Faso, explained in pictures............................... 101
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
2
6‐ THE DRIVING FORCES THAT HAVE LED TO THE DECLINE OF LAKE BAM: A CASE STUDY FOR APPLIED WATER MANAGEMENT ............................................................................................................................. 112
6.1‐
THE APPROACH USED TO STUDY WATER AND FISHERIES MANAGEMENT............................................................. 113
6.1.1‐ The aquatic ecosystem resilience ................................................................................................ 114
6.1.2‐ The fishermen livelihoods............................................................................................................ 115
6.1.3‐ Institutions in fisheries ................................................................................................................ 116
6.2‐
COLLECTION OF DATA ON THE MANAGEMENT OF LAKE BAM AND KOMPIENGA RESERVOIR ................................... 116
6.3‐
DESCRIPTION OF PRESSURES ON BAM AND KOMPIENGA WATERS .................................................................... 118
6.3.1‐ Human settlements and food security ........................................................................................ 118
6.3.2‐ Agriculture................................................................................................................................... 119
6.3.3‐ Cattle breeding............................................................................................................................ 120
6.3.4‐ Deforestation and desertification ............................................................................................... 121
6.3.5‐ Climate change............................................................................................................................ 121
6.3.6‐ Damming..................................................................................................................................... 122
6.3.7‐ Mining of sand and gold.............................................................................................................. 122
6.4‐
IMPACTS TO THE AQUATIC ECOSYSTEMS ..................................................................................................... 124
6.4.1‐ Historical changes in the fisheries ............................................................................................... 124
6.4.2‐ Historical shifts in fish species assemblage in Bam and in Kompienga ....................................... 127
6.4.3‐ Sedimentation and siltation ........................................................................................................ 130
6.4.5‐ Important loss of water: evaporation, abstraction and siltation ................................................ 132
6.4.6‐ Homogenization of habitat ........................................................................................................ 133
6.4.7‐ Pollution by pesticides and fertilizers .......................................................................................... 133
6.4.8‐ Disconnection to other bodies of water ...................................................................................... 133
6.5‐
THE FISHERMEN LIVELIHOODS .................................................................................................................. 135
6.5.1‐ The fishermen’ livelihoods alternatives in Lake Bam................................................................... 135
6.5.2‐ The fishermen’ livelihoods alternatives in Kompienga ................................................................ 136
6.6‐
INSTITUTIONS ....................................................................................................................................... 138
6.6.1‐ The traditional institutions in Bam.............................................................................................. 138
6.6.2‐ Traditional institutions in Kompienga. ........................................................................................ 143
6.6.3‐ The republican institutions in Bam .............................................................................................. 143
6.6.4‐ The Kompienga fishery management regime ............................................................................. 148
6.6.5‐ Other trends in the republican institutions in Burkina Faso ........................................................ 151
6.7‐
DISCUSSION ON WATER MANAGEMENT ..................................................................................................... 152
6.7.1‐ Relevance of the study on water management........................................................................... 153
6.7.2‐ Institutions................................................................................................................................... 156
6.7.3‐ Livelihoods................................................................................................................................... 157
6.7.4‐ Ecosystems .................................................................................................................................. 158
6.7.5‐ Historical trajectories of the two water‐bodies systems ............................................................. 158
7‐
OVERVIEW OF THE RESEARCH AND FINAL DISCUSSION ...................................................................... 162
7.1‐
7.2‐
7.3‐
7.4‐
7.5‐
7.6‐
7.7‐
OVERVIEW OF THE STUDY ....................................................................................................................... 162
CHALLENGES IN AFRICAN WATERS ............................................................................................................ 164
FISHERIES AND WATER RESOURCES DEVELOPMENT IN AFRICA ......................................................................... 168
THE USE OF FISH AND FISHERIES TO MONITOR WATER HEALTH IN AFRICA .......................................................... 169
RESERVOIR FISHERIES AND LOCAL PEOPLE LIVELIHOODS ................................................................................. 169
POTENTIAL FIELDS OF RESEARCH ............................................................................................................... 169
SUMMARY IN FRENCH ............................................................................................................................ 172
8‐
CURRICULUM VITAE .......................................................................................................................... 175
9‐
REFERENCES...................................................................................................................................... 176
10‐
APPENDIX .................................................................................................................................... 200
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
3
Abstract
The conservation of inland waters is a great concern in nations occupying arid climatic zones
such as Burkina Faso. Therefore, the main aims of this thesis were (1) to identify typical fish
communities and to analyze anthropogenic impacts on waters, (2) to distinguish seasonal and
fish sampling effects, (3) to analyze fishermen’s ecological awareness and (4) to develop
concepts useful for developing policies for future management of waters and fisheries. From
2008 to 2009 the ecological situation affecting fish and fisheries was studied in four different
areas in the Nakanbe river catchment - the heavily impacted Lake Bam, the fairly impacted
area of Koubri, and the protected areas of Nazinga and Kompienga. More than 100 fishermen
were interviewed about their knowledge on threats to waters. In addition, fish were sampled at
396 stations by using traditional and electro-fishing gears.
It was determined that when used in appropriate waters, electric fishing and cast netting have
similar efficiency in terms of assessing fish diversity. All together we sampled 56 fish species.
The most common species were Barbus ablabes, Barbus macrops and Sarotherodon
galilaeus. In Koubri, the species richness increased from the end of the dry season to the end
of the rainy season from 19 to 30 species. Also significant seasonal shifts in fish size and
abundance were found. The lotic waters exhibited 35 and the lentic ones 31 species. The free
flowing section with a free fish passage to the main channel had the highest biodiversity (32
species) of all sampling areas. In the protected area 48 species occurred. Small species were
dominant in river sections with a lot of anthropogenic activities (n = 35). The most impacted
area of Lake Bam exhibited only 20 species. While the Lake Bam fish assemblage was
dominated by S. galilaeus, the average body size of this species remained very small.
The study of the Bam system showed limitations in livelihoods, ecosystem and fishery
management. Fishing is an additional but important activity for farmers. The fishermen were
able to identify and describe factors that acted as drivers of pressures that impacted waters.
They named irrigated vegetables farming and water abstraction as the most negative effects
on fish. In response to the fish decrease, they introduce species, but till now all these effort
has not been successful. In light of these declining trends, fishermen’s knowledge becomes
increasingly important to improve efforts to conserve fisheries through more sustainable land
use and water management.
Key words: Burkina Faso, waters, impacts, fish, fisheries, management, ecological
awareness, livelihoods
4
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
1- Introduction
All organisms alter their environment but human have been impacting the nature very fast
(Vitousek et al. 1997). In doing so, humankind has historically used freshwater for their
socio-economic well being as proven by the settlement of many large cities on the banks of
rivers (Baron et al. 2002). Today, freshwaters are possibly the most threatened (Malmqvist &
Rundle, 2002) but there is an increasing awareness to promote their conservation, which
requires the involvement of scientists, policy makers and resource users.
After Borja et al. (2006), natural scientists have shown that agriculture, livestock breeding,
deforestation, dams, impoundment, fishing, water withdrawal, introduction of invasive
species, roads, river channelization, river bed modification, transportation, mining, human
settlements, tourism, and transportation have resulted in hydro-morphological changes,
pollution, increase of nutrients in waters, alteration of biodiversity, fragmentation of biotic
connectivities, sedimentation and siltation, drought and reduction of habitat variability.
Particularly, biologists are using fish to assess the biotic status of waters. Social scientists
have shown that the threats to water also affect people. Finally policy makers are gradually
developing and implementing strategies for water protection.
Although damming and impoundment are known as sources of peril to waters (Ovidio &
Philippart, 2002), in arid countries the creation of reservoirs is regarded as a prerequisite for
socio-economic development. While impeding fish migration, dams built on seasonal streams
create waters where fish and fisheries develop. This affirmation is much significant in arid
and agriculture dependant countries such as Burkina Faso. But threats to water go beyond
damming that it physically restricted to the river channel. They embrace any activity
undertaken at catchment scale. For that reason we want to use fish and fisheries to analyze the
extent to which land is imprudently used.
Therefore, the main aims of this thesis were (1) to identify typical fish communities and to
analyse anthropogenic impacts on waters, (2) to distinguish seasonal and fish sampling
effects, (3) to show the fishermen ecological awareness and (4) to develop future concepts for
fisheries management and protection of freshwater ecosystems.
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
5
1.1- Work plan and thesis outline
This thesis is a result of a work lasted from November 2007 to November 2010. During that
period stays in Austria and in Burkina Faso alternated: three in Austria and two in Burkina
Faso.
From November 2007 to June 2008 I stayed in Austria to design the research and attend some
lectures at the University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences, Vienna. Then, I went back
to Burkina Faso for the first season of data collection and data entry. In October 2008 Dr.
Andreas MELCHER came to supervise my field work for 10 days. I came back to Austria
from January to May 2009 for the first phase of data processing to produce preliminary
results. The second season of data collection and entry lasted from June 2009 to January
2010. During the final step that was also the third stay in Austria I verified and processed the
data for the second time in order to generate final results. This was followed by the writing of
manuscripts and the development of the present monograph. However, along this research, I
put into contribution my 20-year working experience.
This piece of work contributes to the use of fish and fisheries in analysis, management and
conservation of waters in arid countries, with Burkina Faso as example. The thesis is divided
into ten chapters. The first chapter is a general introduction that describes Burkina Faso and
challenges in the water domain. The second chapter presents the study areas and the third
chapter its approach. Chapters 4, 5 and 6 show the results and discussion of the three main
parts of the research that are respectively about ecological alertness in fisheries, fish ecology
and adaptive management of waters. The seventh section overviews and discusses the entire
research. In chapter 8 I give my summarized curriculum vitae and in chapter 9 the literature
cited in the thesis. The last fragment regroups the appendixes, seven in total.
1.2- Introduction to Burkina Faso
1.2.1- The country
Burkina Faso is a Sahelian landlocked country located in the central part of West Africa
between the latitudes 09°20' & 15°03' N and the longitudes 02°20' E & 05°03' W. It is
6
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
274,200 km2 large and is bordered by the Republics of Niger in the East, Mali in the North
and North-West, Côte d'Ivoire in the South-West and Ghana, Togo and Benin in the South.
The country was formerly known as Upper Volta, meaning that it is located in the upper part
of the Volta River. Its name changed 04 August 1984 and the new name has taken root from
the most spoken national languages. Burkina means correctness and integrity in moré and
‘Faso’ home land in dioula; the word Faso is used like the word republic is. A particle be, in
fulfulde, the third most spoken national language, meaning from, is added to the name of the
country to indicate people of Burkina.
1.2.2- Socio-economic facets
The population is growing fast. Its size was 4.3 million of people in 1960, 7.964 in 1985, 15.7
today and is expected to reach 18.45 in 2015 and 21.5 in 2025 (Africaplis, undated; INSD,
2009). In 2006 the density of the population was 51.8 inhabitants / km², the central part of the
country being the most populated area with more than 100 persons per km²; a household has 6
persons on average (INSD, 2010a). In 2008, only 59.4 % of the children were going to
primary school (DEP/MEBA, 2008). Today the life expectancy at birth is 56.7 years (INSD,
2010 b). In 2003, the absolute poverty threshold was 82672 CFAF (i.e. 126 €) per person and
per year and 46.4 % of the population were poor, the rural people being mainly concerned by
poverty (IMF, 2005). That source indicated that famine is recurrent and mentioned that
chronic malnutrition affects 44.5 % of the 5-year age children and 13 % of the women of
childbearing age. Therefore the achievement of food security is a central point of national
development policies and strategies (DGPSA, 2007). In one word, Burkina Faso was the
seventh least developed country in 2009 (UNDP, 2010).
The economy relies on agriculture and cattle breeding that are the occupation of 85% of the
population. The agriculture is mainly rain fed but irrigated agriculture has emerged. In 2008,
Burkina Faso produced 4358500 tons of cereals, 720700 tons of cotton and 8072000 bovines
(INSD, 2008).
1.2.3- Climate and hydrographic outlines
The climate is Sahelian and characterized by two seasons that punctuate agricultural activities.
The dry season lasts from October to June and the rainy season from July to September. The
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
7
northern part of country receives 500 mm of rain per year and the southern part 1000 mm.
The high temperature (20 to 40°C) results in a massive loss of water due to the evaporation
which rate is more than 2000 mm/year (Baijot et al., 1994).
Most of the country area is occupied by a plateau. The mean altitude is 400 m and the
culminating one 747 m (Albergel, 1987). The country is drained by three international rivers
systems. The main river that is the Volta covers 64 % of the country area and where it is
divided in three tributaries: the Mouhoun, the Nakanbe and the Nazinon, formerly known as
Black Volta, White Volta and Red Volta in that order. These former names were referring to
the likely color of their water. The two other international river catchments are the Niger
River one (30% of the country area) and the Comoé one (6%). Apart from a very few brooks
in the South-West, the rivers are all seasonal and most are intermittent (FAO, 2005a).
1.2.4- Water resources development and uses of reservoirs
The demand for water has grown along with the population growth and the shifts in the
economy. For an arid country, the creation of as many reservoirs as possible is the first step
toward a solution to the water shortage. Traore et al. (1994) remarked that the first reservoirs
were created in the 20’s by the Catholic Church. More than 100 were developed before 1960.
The creation of the reservoirs was amplified after the Sahelian drought of 70’s. Then, under
the Revolution political regime that lasted from 1983-1987, each village was asked to
formulate and implement its own development plan, which resulted in more dams being
constructed. Data provided by the Water Resources Department of the ministry in charge of
water show that today, more than 1400 rain fed reservoirs of 1-25000 ha large exist in the
country, ranking Burkina as a leading country in water resources development in Africa. Most
of them (60-70 %) are seasonal partially due to their small size, to the high rate of evaporation
that accounts for 60 % of the reservoirs volume (Traore et al. 1994), to the water withdrawal,
to the infiltration and to the periodicity of the brooks on which they are built. Today the
national water surface area is estimated at about 300,000 ha of which more than 80 % account
for artificial lakes (SP/CONAGESE, 2001).
The reservoirs hydrological regime follows the seasonal one and is subject to important
spatial and temporal variations in connection to the rain distribution. For illustration fig. 1.1
describes the monthly precipitations and the hydrology of Reservoir No 3 of the capital city of
Ouagadougou that is located in the middle of the country. The reservoir was created in 1979
8
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
on the Nongr-Massom River, a tributary of the Nakanbe to provide water to the city. It is 50
ha large, which is approximately the size of most reservoirs of the country; thus, it is
representative of the reservoirs size. In 1990, the filling of the reservoir lasted 3 months (end
of May-begining of September); the following year it lasted a very few hours (one night in
May).
Fig. 1.1: Unstable climatic and hydrological conditions in Burkina: on the left hand side,
rainfall in the capital city of Ouagadougou in 2003 and 2004 (after Direction de la
Météorologie, 2010) and hydrological profile of Reservoir No3 of the same city in 1990
and 1991 (after Traore et al., 1994). On the right hand side, climatic zones of Africa
The purpose of the water resources development is to provide people with water for any use.
Therefore, they are concentrated in the most populated area that is the central part of the
country and on the catchment of Nakanbe River that hosts 50% of the reservoirs (GIRE-BF,
2000a). The reservoirs supply water for irrigation, cattle breeding and domestic uses but four
also produce hydro-power. However, fishing is progressively regarded as contribution to
ensure food security and to alleviate poverty (DGRH, 2010). Therefore one would expect the
fish production to increase along with the water resources development.
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
9
1.2.5- Paralleling developments of water resources and fisheries
The lack of historical tradition in commercial fisheries is caused by the lack of important
natural water bodies. Then, professional fishermen from the neighboring countries of Mali,
Niger and Ghana were encouraged to settle in Burkina (Traore et al., 1994). This positioned
them as trainers for local residents and as suppliers of fish products.
Moreover, fisheries development projects were implemented and people were strongly
encouraged to be trained in fishing. Candidate fishermen were offered many presents and
supports like bicycles and hundreds of kilogrammes of rice (Nacoulma, pers. Com.)1. Likely,
producing as much fish as possible was the perfect proof that fishing can provide substantial
livelihoods. Bouda (2002) listed 12 major projects entirely devoted to capture fisheries and
aquaculture that took place from 1956 to 1993. Additionally, some fishery undertakings were
a component of many development projects. Consequently, the production of fish has
increased from less than 800 t in 1950 to more than 12000 tons per year today. The landings
of fish are partially sold fresh, partially consumed by the fishermen families and partially
processed by women.
The increase of fish production lasted until the early 1990s, when signs of full and overfishing
were detected by Baijot et al. (1994). This was followed by a sharp decrease of landings in
the most important fishery of Kompienga from 1998 onward (Zampaligre, 2004). As the
national demand for fish has not been met yet, fish import increased from 740 tons in 1986 to
21000 today (fig. 1.2) and the main supplying countries are Senegal, Mauritania, Mali and
Côte d’Ivoire (Zerbo et al., 2007 and FAO, 2010a). Therefore, 33000 t of fish are offered to
the national market. The Burkinabe people consume 1.5 kg of fish per capita and per year,
against 7 in Africa and 13.4 in the world (Matthews & Hammond, 1999).
For technical, economical and sociological reasons, the sector of aquaculture is still at its first
steps of development. The peak of production occurred in 2008 with 3 tons of fish (FAO,
2010). Today, the number of fishermen culminates to 32700 persons to whom one can add
3400 traders of fresh fish, 2300 traders of processed fish and 3000 female fish processors
(DGRH, 2010).
1
Mr. Laurent Nacoulma is a forester who worked for the fishery development project of Mogtedo in the
Province of Ganzourgou, which was one of the first fishery projects. I discussed with him in August 2008.
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
10
Fig. 1.2: Paralleling developments of reservoirs and capture
fisheries in Burkina Faso. The data on reservoirs were
provided by the Water Resources Department of Burkina
Faso. The ones on fish were extracted from the archives of the
Fisheries Department of Burkina Faso and FAO (2010a) and
compiled.
Due to the low productivity of agriculture in its widest sense and due to the population growth
natural resources, including the reservoirs water are seriously impacted, particularly in the
central area (Kessler & Geerling, 1994; FAO, 2005a). Despite the political efforts that are
made to protect the nature, the challenges are growing day by day. In 2008, the total surface
of the protected areas was 3930097 ha (INSD, 2010c) that was 14.3% of the national territory,
ranking Burkina as a leading country in the nature protection in Africa (Giraut et al. undated).
However, the level of protection varies from area to area. Noticeably, in Burkina even in
highly protected areas such as ranches and parks dams must be built to keep water for the
nature mainly fauna, which is conflicting with the general belief that reservoirs development
harms the nature.
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
11
1.3- Ecological awareness
Background
Around the world, people have historically exploited freshwater for many urban, agriculture
and industrial activities without sufficient consideration to its value in supporting ecosystems,
which in turn, jeopardizes livelihoods (Baron et al. 2002; Karr, 2006). It is recognized that the
growing and conflicting demands for water increase risks of food insecurity, poverty and
environmental damages in river systems (Cook et al., 2009). But traditional approaches used
in natural resources management have shown their limits because they were confined to
single disciplines, usually the natural ones (Lal et al., 2001). As the problem of waters is
connected with other development-related issues, i.e. social, economic and environmental
issues (Asit & Biswas, 2004), an adaptive approach towards integrated water management is
necessary. Therefore, recent advances are more holistic and tend to put people and resource
users as focal points. The sustainable approach (Serrat, 2008), the community-based approach
(Manley, 2007) and the collective action (Bandiera et al., 2005) can be cited for illustration.
The political decentralization process that took place in many African countries two decades
ago (Le Bay & Loquai, 2008) supports this move towards socio-economic development and
conservation of natural resources. We note that the likely conflict between development and
conservation can be conciliated and simultaneously achieved within the framework of the
community-based conservation approach (Berkes, 2004). Still, the contribution of the
community and resource users in the formulation of conservation plans remains marginal
(Goldman, 2003), possibly because the level of their environmental awareness is not
sufficiently known. Filling this gap is imperative for emerging rural activities like fisheries
that develop along with reservoirs creation in arid countries.
As far as found in the literature, little investigation has been conducted typically on the
fishermen awareness on the protection of waters. On the other hand, much research is done on
the knowledge of many other types of users of natural resources such as famers and local
communities. A varied terminology is used worldwide to indicate that knowledge: old
knowledge (Gadgil et al., 2000), indigenous knowledge (Aswani & Hamilton, 2004),
traditional knowledge (Moller et al., 2004; Adrian, 2008), aboriginal knowledge (Hawley et
al., 2004; Fraser et al. 2006), vernacular knowledge (Leopold et al., 2008), ethno (-
12
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
ecological) knowledge (Sileshi et al., 2009) and so on. However, the discussion about
different methodologies is beyond the scope of this work.
Ecological awareness in Burkina
In Burkina, reservoirs are attractive and their development much solicited as they offer
development opportunities. However, many challenges arise with their creation and uses. It is
believed that water resources development impacts natural environment, and in turn
livelihoods are affected; therefore the sustainable management of water resources requires a
holistic and trans-disciplinary approach (Mata-Lima, 2009) as indicated in the European
Water Framework Directive (Pahl-Wostl et al., 2008). And we agree with World Water
Assessment Programme (2009) that pointed out that competition for water, conflicts in water
uses, uncertainties in water spatio-temporal distribution, shortage in water resource planning,
lack of data and the need to protect the environment pose challenges in water resources
policies.
Development of ecological awareness in policies
The drop off of the Burkinabe fish production as mentioned above raised a clear call for wiser
exploitation of fish and water resources. But shifting to a more protectionist option required
the adaptation or the development of natural resources strategies and legislations: 1997,
forester (i.e. forestry, wildlife and fisheries) and environment codes; 1998, decentralization
law; 1999, national biodiversity strategy; 2001, water management orientation law; 2003,
integrated water resources management and fisheries strategies; 2004, poverty alleviation
strategy, and so on. The environment code (Assemblée des Députés du Peuple, 1997a)
protects river banks, bans water pollution and provides for environmental impacts assessment
and environmental education. The forester code (Assemblée des Députés du Peuple, 1997b)
fixes the principles of exploitation and protection of fish resources. It bans the catching of
juvenile fish, massive and destructive fishing methods and fishing methods impeding the
migration of fish. It also formalized the approaches to participatory fisheries for waters larger
than 5,000 ha and community-based fisheries management for the small ones. The water law
(Assemblée Nationale, 2001) protects aquatic biodiversity and requires the maintenance of
rivers’ longitudinal connectivity. It also defined the river catchment area as the geographical
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
13
unit of water resources management. Water resources are gradually being managed in an
integrative approach (MAHRH, 2003b).
To guide the development, protection and uses of the Burkinabe fish resources eight
documents on fisheries policy and strategy were written up to 1997 (Bouda, 2002). The latest
enterprise was the revision of the fishery strategy paper that took place in February 2010. As
national policies in the sphere of natural resources have recognized that waters are vulnerable
or endangered (MEE, 2000a and MEE 2000b) and the institutions weak, the participatory
approach for natural resources management is required. Therefore, efforts are made to
allocate important pieces of power to user communities (Sebahara, 2000) in the conservation,
management and development of natural resources such as forests, wildlife, fish, water and
land. But still, there is not enough communication between the fishermen, the fisheries
administrators and the territory administrators.
Use of fish and fisheries to assess ecological awareness among local people
As in Africa resource users frequently have to pursue conservation efforts with little
governmental support (Butterworth et al. 2010), we need to know to what scale they are
aware of the threats to water-bodies. Fraser et al. (2006) defines traditional ecological
knowledge as knowledge, practice, and belief, evolving by adaptive processes and handed
down through generations. Adrian (2008) linked local knowledge to innovations in policies
and Butterworth et al. (2010) appealed to learn from and support local initiatives and
experiments in water resources. Our understanding of the fishers’ knowledge is next to these
view points. We believe that the fishermen are among the primary users of waters. Hence we
would like to learn from their understandings of threats to waters, understand and support
mitigation measures, in line with the view point of the definition of environmental awareness
in Schmidt (2007): environmental awareness encompasses incorporating knowledge on
contemporary issues affecting nature locally and undertaking prevention or mitigation actions.
The international community has placed development and sustainability goals in the contexts
of changing environmental conditions and the need to increase the awareness to maintain
ecosystem services (McIntyre et al., 2009). As for Africa, LEIAA et al. (2003) advocated
raising awareness among all levels of stakeholders in the environment management.
Paralleling the biologists’ inclination to use fish as bio-indicators, social scientists can use fish
14
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
as focal point to assess the ecological knowledge of local people. Besides, probably fish and
fisheries are the most vulnerable resources and activities (respectively) in the uses of waterbodies (Dyer & McGoodwin, 1999 cited by Clay & Olson, 2008). Accordingly in Burkina,
the fishermen are often at the front to work for fair sharing of water for the advantage of
aquatic resources. In September 1999 at the ceremony to launch the re-stocking campaign
along the banks of Kokologo reservoir, the local fishermen appealed for a slowing of water
withdrawal for the re-construction of the national road No1: they were ignored and the
reservoir exceptionally dried out that year, and resulted in damages to aquatic biota and water
related activities. Moreover, fish is a central point of public awareness. The mortality of fish
following intense pollution events stirs up public consciousness for the protection of waters as
their floating dead bodies attract passing-by people who then report to fisheries officers or to
newspapers (Ouattara, 2006).
Keeping in mind that fishing is a new activity in reservoirs of arid areas, this part of the study
was designed to provide evidence of ecological awareness among the fishermen of African
small size reservoir fisheries. It will also raise fishery information for policy makers and
scientists.
1.4- Fish ecology
Scientists have demonstrated that the health and the vulnerability of aquatic ecosystems are
closely connected with the uses of land (Allan & Johnson, 1997; Metzger et al., 2006; Postel,
2007). And since the Convention on Biodiversity was signed, the attention on species
conservation is gradually increasing, the first steps being rising knowledge on species, the
threats they are facing and their responses to stresses induced by land uses (Robinson et al.
2002). Mis-uses of land uses have resulted in massive loss of species (Lévêque, 1995). In this
frame, inland waters are of particular interest since they have been historically used to meet
socio-economic needs (Baron et al. 2002). To name some examples, activities such as
agriculture (Horrigan et al., 2002), livestock breeding (Robert et al., 2010), fishing (Albaret &
Laë, 2003), introduction of species (Ricciardi & Rasmussen, 1998; Richardson & van Wilgen,
2004), human settlements (Awomeso et al., 2010), damming (Ovidio & Philippart, 2020) and
water withdrawal (Freeman & Marcinek, 2006) are known to expose species to disturbances.
Noticeably, freshwater fishes are known to be threatened but they are able to respond with or
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
15
without delay to pressures and preserve these responses over time (Karr, 1981; Pont et al.
2006; Schmutz et al., 2007).
For three decades biologists are increasingly using fish as bio-indicators to assess the biotic
status of waters (Grabarkiewicz & Davis, 2008; Kadye, 2008). It should be kept in mind that
dams obstruct the longitudinal migration of fish (Jos et al., 2008; Arthington et al., 2006) that,
in Burkina, takes place during the rainy season in connection to the hydrological regime
influencing the availability of habitat (Winemiller & Jepsen, 1998). The migration of fish is
crucial to the completion of their life cycle, including the reproduction phase that is highly
important (Welcomme, 2001). It is also important for the survival of fish in case of stress
event (Bénech & Quensière, 1987). The abundance of fish and diversity of species are
therefore related to their ability to migrate but seasonal fluctuations are recorded (YanezArancibia et al., 1988; Ornellas & Couthino, 1998) which should be considered in a sampling
design.
In Burkina there is little knowledge on threats for waters resulting from land use for
agricultural activities, urbanization, damming, water abstraction, roads construction and
mining (Malmqvist & Rundle, 2002). The approach of this part of the research takes
advantage of works from Welcomme (2001), Karr (1981), Nicholson & Jennings (2004),
Tejerina-Garro et al. (2005), and Karr (2006) describing developments in fish communities
according to the level of the water impacts. In an impacted water, large species and specimens
decrease in favor of small size species and specimens and tolerant species. The species
richness and the abundance of fish also decline. This part of the research was designed to
increase knowledge on fish diversity in Burkina Faso.
1.5- The quality of existing data
The lack of reliable data in Africa in general is well known as mentioned by many authors
like Sachs & Warmer (1997) and Willem & Andrea (2005) in some domains other than fish
and fisheries; and I would like to illustrate this with some examples related to my research.
For a long time it was thought that in Burkina there were 8000 fishermen and 3000
fishmongers and fish processors together as mentioned in the fisheries strategy paper of 2003
16
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
(MAHRH, 2003a). However two years ago, that was one year after the start of this research,
an agriculture inventory was carried out and its preliminary results show that the fishermen
population was four times higher.
The number of reservoirs varies from one source to another, both at local and national levels.
According to Zigani (2000), Burkina had 2100 reservoirs in 1995. However, GIRE-BF
(2000a) mentioned 1460 reservoirs and Cecchi et al. (2007) 2000. In this research, we relied
on a database of the Water Resources Department (WRD) of the Ministry of Agriculture,
Water and Fish Resources. In 2001, the WRD toured the country to collect data on reservoirs.
Then a list of 1451 lentic water-bodies, both natural and artificial was written. One could
believe that the number of artificial lakes is close to 1400 after subtracting 51 that would be
the number of natural waters. Unfortunately, the surface area and many other fishery relevant
data on waters are missing so far. At local level, Commune Koubri (2005) that stands for the
final paper of the development project of the administrative area of Koubri has declared that
86 reservoirs exist in the area but no detail is given. By the way the WRD database has
indicated only 38.
The creation of a reservoir requires considerable resources and the production of data that can
be gathered and synthesized at local, regional and national levels. In addition one does not
need to be necessarily expert in reservoirs development to report these data. Therefore,
reliable data were expected to be available, which was not the case. Then, we understand the
extent at which data on living aquatic biota and resources are missing since their identification
and investigation need skills. As a result, the current fish diversity is actually unknown
despite the availability of these data is a legislative, scientific and a technical concern. The
most cited source on fish species list is Roman (1966) that stands for a PhD thesis written half
a century ago and that is a catalog of 121 species. That study covered a few sites of the
upstream part of the Volta River catchment and overlooked the catchments of the rivers
Comoé and Niger. Today, the names of many species have changed. Currently fisheries
officers believe that there are less species but an update is urgently needed. The most referred
source on fish biology and ecology is Baijot et al. (1994), a book that was written after data
on 20 reservoir fisheries were collected during the implementation of an 8-year long fisheries
development project.
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
17
I would like to pay attention on the migration of fish since this was the preliminary topic of
my research which initial title was ‘Characterization of fish migration in the Nakanbe River,
Burkina Faso and proposition of models of migratory devices’. To my knowledge the first
real attempt to study fish migration is mine. This is corroborated by the electronic messages
that I recently exchanged with Dr. Didier ZIDA (Burkina Faso), in July 2010. He was
commissioned by the government to study the topic. He referred to the Fisheries Department
of the Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Fish Resources that in turn referred him to me.
However, the content of his work was restricted to identifying the migration routes of fish. As
a result, I emphasize on the topic along this thesis.
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
18
1.6- Overall objectives of the thesis
The goal of the study is to analyse the potential use of fish and fisheries within sustainable
management of waters in arid countries. Its specific objectives are to:
-
Describe impacted areas in Burkina Faso;
-
Raise the availability of information on fisheries and livelihoods;
-
Explore the trends of ecological awareness in policies;
-
Investigate the ecological awareness among the fishermen;
-
Contribute to standardize fish sampling by pointing out temporal and spatial changes
in fish communities and by examining the fish species composition assessed with
different fishing gears;
-
Show the inclination of fish to migrate;
-
Demonstrate that dams may hinder the migration of fish;
-
Demonstrate connections between fish community traits and the threats that waters are
facing;
-
Propose sentinel fish species;
-
Suggest approach to the use of fish to assess the quality of water and water bodies in
the context of Burkina Faso;
-
Show that sustainable management of waters and fish resources appeals for concern
about the institutional, social and ecological dimensions.
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
19
2- Study areas
As a consequence of spatial interest and data availability explained above I selected the
Nakanbe River catchment as defined in the framework of the formulation of the national
strategy for integrated water resources (Présidence du Faso, 2003). In this area, I worked on
four areas: Lake Bam located in the north, the area of Koubri in the center, the area of
Nazinga in the south and Kompienga, a large size reservoir located in the south-west. They
are impacted at different degrees.
The location of the four study areas is shown along the river catchments (fig. 2.1), the
distributions of the population (fig. 2.2), the reservoirs (fig. 2.3) and the protected areas (fig.
2.4). A comparison of the four maps indicates that the Nakanbe River catchment is the most
populated area and the most dammed area, thus the impacted. Fig. 2.5 shows maps of the
areas of Bam, Koubri and Nazinga.
Fig 2.1: The study areas and the river catchments as defined by the
water strategy (After GIRE-BF, 2000a)
20
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
Fig. 2.2: The study areas and the population distribution in
2006 (After from Ouedraogo & Ripama, 2009)
Fig. 2.3: The study areas and the reservoirs distribution
(Adapted from De Graaf, 2003)
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
Fig. 2.4: The study areas and the protected areas distribution (Adapted
from Sawadogo, 2006)
Fig. 2.5: The areas of Bam, Koubri and Nazinga (in different scales)
21
22
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
2.1- The heavily modified Lake Bam
Lake Bam, the most important natural water body of Burkina Faso is located in the northern
part of the country, between the longitudes 1°14’W & 1°58’W and the latitudes 12°46’N &
13°55’N. It is 600-2,200 ha large and 1.5- 4 m deep according to the dry vs. rainy seasons.
The lake catchment, which altitude is 300-330 m, is 2600 km2 large and is entirely included in
the Province of Bam that is 4017 km2 large (CINTECH, 2008a). The Province of Bam is
subdivided into the nine territorial departments of Bourzanga, Kongoussi, Rollo, Zimtanga
(all entirely included in the lake basin), Nassere (partly included in the basin) and Guibare,
Rouko, Sabce and Tikare, out of the basin. The lake longitudinal slope is less than 0.4 m/km
and the transversal one 1.5 to 20 m/km (CINTECH, 2008 b). Different sources give different
figures of the water surface. However, from an aerial picture of the lake taken 20 December
1972, that is after a dike was built in 1920 and heighted in 1963, the water area was 1460 ha
(Pouyaud, 1986). Actually the dike was built as road to connect the main city to the Catholic
Church. The lake is said to be extensively impacted to the extent that it is must be
rehabilitated.
The area is highly populated (more than 72 inhabitants/km2) and the population emigrates a
lot. After Boutillier et al. (1985), 25-30% of the population have emigrated. The reservoirs
database of the Water Resources Department shows that the catchment area of Bam hosts
about 40 small size reservoirs. We also extracted data and information from the archives of
the provincial services of livestock breeding, agriculture and environment. They show that
861,000 domestic animals frequent the banks of the lake. The vegetal cover is much
destroyed and artisanal mining of gold has recently emerged. The area is much used for
extensive rain fed agriculture. Nearly all the lake banks area used during the rainy period for
rain fed agriculture and during the dry period for irrigated vegetables gardening that was
introduced in 1921 Ouedraogo, 1993). Today 2,000 ha of banks area are used to produce
25,000 tons of vegetables partly exported to Europe. Fertilizers and pesticides are much used
with little control. The lake is facing a high sedimentation rate of 500,000 m3 of sediments per
year, resulting in a high siltation rate that made the lake lost 1/3 of its depth from 1963 to
2006. Commercial fishing started 6 decades ago. The fishermen association estimated the
fishermen population at about 600-700 persons, meaning a density of fishermen of 1.15
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
23
person per hectare of water, which is much higher than that recommended by the FAO that is
less than 0.02 fishermen per hectare of water in African inland waters (Baijot et al. 1994).
Prohibited fishing gears and methods are commonly used. In one word Bam is physically and
biologically dying and will disappear in 25 years but there is a strong political will to restore
it very soon.
2.2- The moderately impacted area of Koubri
Maps from Google Earth show that the area lies between the latitudes 12°07’35.88’’N &
12°07’05.15’’N and the longitudes 01°16’57.37’’W & 01°26’08.72’’W. This part of the
research targets area of 15 reservoirs of 5 to 420 ha large, created between 1960 and 1988 in
the catchment of the Nariale River, which is an affluent of the Nakanbe River, formerly
known as the White Volta River. On the main Nariale we targeted the reservoirs of Segda in
the bellow part, Arzoum Baongo, and Naba Zana, on the left hand side Tanvi, Napagbtenga,
Badnogo, Toyoko, Mogtedo, Zeguedse and Zakin, and on the right hand side Kogse, Gonse,
Poedogo, Kagamzinse and Wedbila. Their names change depending on the literature and
depending on the village and people who were consulted in the field.
Fig. 2.6: The dam of Segda was broken in 1998 is still unrepaired
but keep some water for a short period of time
Brother Adrien Saint Benoit of the Monastery of Koubri (he built 13 of the 15 reservoirs that
we are targeting) and the fishermen supplied valuable information on the reservoirs. From our
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
24
discussion with these people, we found that most of the dams have been periodically
destroyed by floods and crocodiles, 16 breaks between 1998 and 2004 (fig. 2.6). They were
all repaired excepted Segda located in the lower part of the area. Arzoum Baongo, Naba Zana,
Poedogo, Napagbtenga never dry, but the others sometimes do. During the rainy season, some
usually spill over but some do on occasion. Details on the reservoirs sizes, dates of creation,
of breaks and repair are given in table 2.1. The reservoirs of Koubri may not behave like most
of the reservoirs in the country. Firstly, some are relatively old and secondly experts in
reservoirs creation have mentioned that the 13 reservoirs built by the monastery do not meet
technical requirements. Between the study area and the main Nakanbe River, the dam of Pelle
was created in 1950 on the Nariale River but was broken in 2004 and is sill un-repaired.
Table 2.1: Description of the targeted reservoirs, including, geographic coordinates (Latitude LAT and longitude
LONG; WGS84), maximum size (ha), year of creation, years of accidental disruption, latest year of re-building,
and remarks on their flow.
Reservoirs
Latitude
(1 )
Longitude
(1)
Maximum size
(1)
Date of
creation (2)
Years of
disruption (2)
Arzoum
Baongo
12°13’10.7
6’’N
1°17’44.03’
’W
420
1986
Naba Zana
12°12’17.6
7’’N
12°13’35.0
7’’N
1°21’06.89’
’W
1°21’04.57’
’W
300
12°10’50.1
1’’N
12°11’33.7
0’’N
Wedbila
Toyoko
Napagbteng
a
Poedogo
PK25
Kogse
Kagamzinse
Tanvi
Zeguedse
Gonse
Segda
July 2004
Last year of
re-building
(2)
2004
Remarks (2)
Never dries
1972
2004
2004
Never dries
208
1962
1991
Unreported
1°20’34.16’
’W
1°24’14.33’
’W
198
1982
2004 and earlier
2004
Never dries;
Spills over
every 5 years
Never dries
150
1962
2004, little
damage
2004
Never dries
12°08’58.7
5’’N
1°25’00.66’
’W
100
1978
Never
-
12°14’10.3
8’’N
12°12’16.5
3’’N
12°08’24.7
5’’N
12°13’50.5
1’’N
1°23’47.86’
’W
1°18’09.20’
’W
1°20’49.72’
’W
1°19’22.05’
’W
47
1976
Never
-
Often dries; Is
currently being
extended to 159
ha (3)
-
30
1984
1998
1998
Frequently dries
23
1979
Never
-
Dries every year
18
1977
2004
2004
12°12’17.4
6’’N
12°12’13.1
6’’N
1°24’07.56’
’W
1°19’46.83’
’W
16
1988
2004
2004
Frequently
dries;
Spills over
every 4 years
Dries every year
12
1985
1985, 1997,
2003
2003
Dries every 5
years
12°13’23.7
1°17’08.46’ 12
1978
1998
Not repaired
Frequently dries
3’’N
’W
Badnogo
12°15’50.1
1°22’38.16’ 10
1982
2004
2004
Frequently dries
5’’N
’W
Mogtedo
12°15’04.8
1°23’49.33’ 6
1960
Never
Frequently dries
9’’N
’W
Zakin
12°13’42.5
1°24’48.94’ 5
1984
Twice
Repaired
Dries every year
7’’N
’W
(1) From Google Earth; coordinates at the intersection point between the dike and the main brook it is built on.
(2) Compilation of data collected among the fishermen and from Brother Adrien St BENOIT of the Monastery of Koubri; he built 13 of the 16
reservoirs.
(3) Source: HYDROCOOP France and IFEC (2008)
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
25
Between two successive reservoirs, the length of the brook segments varies from 0.0 to 6 km.
They are about 1.5 m deep and 2-200 m large depending on the season (table 2.2); the brooks
are all intermittent.
Table 2.2: Dimensions of the brooks segments (*estimated from Google Earth, ** field
observations)
From
To
Length (km)* Depth (m)** Width (m)**
Kogse
1.50
Gonse
1.25
Arzoum Baongo Poedogo
3.00
Napagbtenga Tanvi 2.25
Tanvi
1.50
Naba Zana
0.10
Segda
1.50
< 1.5
2-200
Wedbila
5.63
Naba Zana
Toyoko
4.30
Zeguedse
1.35
Poedogo
Kagamzinse
3.10
Toyoko
Mogtedo
1.50
Napagbtenga
Badnogo
3.90
Zeguedse
Zakin
2.75
During the study period it was observed that, in chronological order, the dates of spill over in
2008 were 6 July for Naba Zana, Gonse, Kogse, and Mogtedo, 20 July for Zeguedse, 25 July
for Poedogo and Arzoum Baongo, 29 August for Kagamzinse, 31August for Wedbila and 16
September for Napagbtenga. Tanvi and Toyoko did not spill (or they did very late in
September). Following a reservoir being filled, the water flows in the downstream brook for
1-10 hours after it rained on the catchment of the reservoir. Then the brook breaks into pools
until the next rain. However, after upstream reservoirs are filled the water runs in the brook
from Arzoum Baongo to Segda and to the main Nakanbe River until January. Moreover, some
resurgence water continuously flows in that brook until February- March, that is the middle of
the dry season.
The area hosts 536000 domestic animals, is moderately populated with a density of 65
inhabitants / km² and is facing a moderate immigration rate and a low emigration one. More
than 18000 ha of land are used for rain fed agriculture and the reservoirs banks are much used
26
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
to farm vegetables mainly sold in the city of Ouagadougou. Koubri is much impounded,
probably the most one of the country with 8.8 reservoirs/100 km2. The land uses are more
described in chapter 2. There are two types of reservoir spill way in the area. The central type,
incorporated into the dams of Naba Zana, Wedbila and Kagamzinse is 1.75-3 m high and
probably blocks the migration of fish. The lateral type of spill-over of the other dams diverts
the water flow from its natural course. This shifts the area of junction to the natural brook into
ravines which possibly delay or prevent fish migration.
To analyze the spatial change in fish diversity we broke the area of Koubri into 4 sections
according to the level at which they are impacted. On the main Nariale section 1 is the brook
segment of 1.5 km long and 1-150 m large that connects Arzoum Baongo to the broken dam
of Segda. In this river segment water continuously flows from August to October. This is the
least impacted part of the area and the free flowing section since the disruption the dams of
Segda and Pelle. Pelle is located about 15 km bellow. The upstream part of this section is
composed by a series of 15 damaged dissipation basins that fish probably use as ladders to
access section 2 that is the reservoir of Arzoum Baongo contiguous to section 1. Arzoum
Baongo has the two types of spill way. Section 3 is the reservoir of Naba Zana, located above
section 2. Its dam is about 1.75 m high but has four sets of fish ladders which performance is
uncertain. Section 4 regroups the tributaries that are the remaining smaller reservoirs and
minor brooks on both left and right hand sides of the main Nariale River. The water of section
4 flows into section 2 or into section 3, directly or indirectly after transiting in a reservoir. The
brooks of section 4 flow for only 1-10 hours after a rain and only when upstream reservoirs
are filled. Sections 2 and 3 are both at 98% impounded, the remaining 2% being small river
segments of 0-750 m long depending on the season. Therefore sections 1, 2 and 3 are
contiguous during the period of highest water level.
2.3- The protected Game Ranch of Nazinga
The Nazinga Game Ranch (NGR) is located in the South of Burkina Faso at the frontier with
the Republic of Ghana and lies between the latitudes 11°00’N & 11°18’ N and the longitudes
01°16’ & 01°43’W. It is 91300 ha large and was created in 1979 on the area of a forest that is
protected since 1953. The main objectives of the GRN management are to protect and
develop wildlife and to maintain ecological balances (UICN/PACO, 2009). Much research is
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
27
done in the NGR; in 20 years it has produced 1,500 pieces of work mainly on wildlife and
forestry (SOFRECO, 2003) but seldom on fish and fisheries that were somehow disregarded
in the ranch potentials. Unfortunately, most of the results of the research are not available in
the library of the ranch in Nazinga. The ranch is divided into three wildlife areas: a
conservation zone, a buffer zone and a hunting zone. At the periphery 13 protected village
cynegetic zones of 54,300 in total are set. Three other protected areas are very closed to the
GRN, in the north the National Park KABORE Tambi (155,500 ha large, located only 5 km
away), in the south-west the Sissili hunting zone (49,000 ha large) that is adjacent to the ranch
and in the east the Nazinon Classified Forest (35,000 ha) that is directly connected to the
NGR by a protection corridor (UICN/PACO 2009). No village exists in the ranch area
because human settlements are forbidden. But the neighboring area that has a population
density of 14 inhabitants / km² is experiencing a high rate of immigration of people from the
Northern part of the country (including the area of Bam) in search for agricultural land
(Vermeulen, 2004). No traditional economic activity such as agriculture, livestock breeding
and wood puncture is allowed in the ranch area.
The ranch is crossed by three seasonal brooks that are the Sissili, the Dawevele and the
Nazinga. In addition to a natural pond, 11 reservoirs were built to provide wildlife with water.
Because the water is abstracted by wildlife only nine of the eleven waters are permanent and
the two others seasonal. Eight reservoirs were targeted: Kalieboulou (maximum size 60 ha,
created in 1987), Boudjoro (24 ha, 1985), Kozougou (21.6 ha, 1981), Barrage Central (21 ha,
1987), Barka (20 ha, 1983), Nagio (20 ha, 1985), Talanga (18 ha, 1984) and Nakourou (18 ha,
1981). Only the dam of the Barrage Central has a lateral spillway that in all probability does
not block the migration of fish. The seven other dams all have central type of spill way but
they are equipped with fish ladders even if their functioning is questionable. When they are
not, then the slope of the dam is not abrupt, so that fish are probably able to migrate usptream.
To contrast the level of impacts of the three areas, fig. 2.7 illustrates the land uses and table
2.3 summarizes some details on the three areas.
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
28
Fig. 2.7: Land uses in Nazinga, Koubri and Bam areas (Data sources:
Commune Koubri (2005), CINTECH, (2008a) and Adouabou et al.
(2004)
Table 2.3: A comparison of the level of impacts of the three areas
Bam
Koubri
Population density (inhabitants/km²)
72
65
Emigration
Very high Moderate
Immigration
Very low
Moderate
Area protection
Open area Open area
Maximum total water surface area (ha) 2200
1550
Density of fishermen (/ha of water)
1.5
0.25
Fish landings (tones/year)
80
100
Limitation of fishing effort
No
No
Nazinga
± 0 (34.6 in next areas)
Very low
Very high
Much protected area
202
--27
Yes
2.4- The large size reservoir of Kompienga
Located in the South-Eastern part of the country in a catchment of 5800 km2 large, the
reservoir of Kompienga was built in 1988 on the river of the same name for hydropower
production as main purpose. It can stock 2.05 billions of m3 of water (GIRE-BF, 2000a) that
is 16000-20000 ha of surface. The reservoir lays between 0°30’-0°40’E and 11°05’-11°20’N
(Anon., 2005), almost entirely in the Province of Kompienga. Prior to its development, the
vegetal cover of the area that is expected to be flooded was partially cleared for domestic and
commercial uses. Kompienga is the most important reservoir of Burkina in terms of stocking
capacity, the firstly created hydropower plant 1988) that produces 14 MW and which costed
41.3 milliards FCFA (62966915.7 €). Additionally, it is the most important fishery (in terms
of production).
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
29
The study on adaptive management of waters was carried out on Lake Bam and the reservoir
of Kompienga (fig. 2.8).
Fig. 2.8: The areas of Bam and Kompienga in different scales; the map of
Bam is adapted from Pouyaud (1975) and the one of Kompienga from
Anon. (2005)
30
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
3- Methodology
3.1- Identification of the activities that potentially impact waters
in Koubri
The study on the ecological awareness took place in July-December 2008 in the territorial
department of Koubri, Province of Kadiogo, Burkina Faso. The first step was to go back to
the literature to understand how human being threats waters. A list of drivers and pressures
were then developed. To make the study relevant to national policies we referred to major
documents written in the framework of the formulation of the national strategy for integrated
water resources management. Hence, we went through BF (1999), MEE (2000a), and MEE
(2000b). At local level, human activities are not described yet as for their potential
externalities to water-bodies. Therefore, with regard to the national policies, statistics and
other information were extracted from the archives of local development plans of villages in
the rural area of Koubri that are referenced in this paper as Commune Koubri (2005). Finally
the internet was used and tours through the area undertaken to confirm some of this data and
to collect additional information. Then, a questionnaire was developed to interview the
fishermen.
3.2- The questionnaire and the interviews
A questionnaire, that comprised four parts, was designed in order to interview the fishermen
(appendix 8.1). The first part was about general information on the fisherman, including his
age, marital status and experience in fishing. The second part was about livelihoods in
fisheries, including other economic activities and the use of catches and the periodical use of
gears. The third category addressed the respondant ecological awareness, including his
knowledge on the threats to waters generated by the activities identified as mentioned above,
the shifts in fish species as the interviewee experienced. For each activity the fisherman was
asked if he believes that it impacts waters. When the answer was positive, he was asked to
explain how the activity impairs water-bodies. The fourth part aimed at collecting data on any
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
31
activity that was implemented by the fishermen to lessen the threats. Along the interview
additional questions were asked in order to collect details.
The questionnaire was administered in more, a local language. To set the sample size, we
asked some fishermen to estimate the total number of fishermen as the fishermen population
is not known. The estimates ranged from 75-100. Then, we decided to interview nearly all of
them.
We interviewed the fishermen according to their availability, usually on the banks of the
reservoirs as soon as they landed (fig. 3.1 and 3.2). An interview session lasted 45 min to 1 hr
depending on how talkative the respondent was. However, to promote their availability and
cooperation, an interview session used to took place after we sympathized with the
interviewees. This step is imperative as the fishermen are often fearful of being tracked by
fisheries police officers.
Fig. 3.1: An interview session in a canoe in
Tanvi reservoir
Fig. 3.2: The elder fisherman who was
interviewed was 65-year old
To find the names of fish species in the local language that was moré, I relied on my
knowledge in that language that is my native and spoken one and on our 20-year working
experience in capture fisheries and aquaculture. But in this task, I was helped by two local
professional fishermen who were member of the fishing team.
32
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
3.3- Sampling of fish
The fishing team comprised 4-5 persons. We sampled in Koubri in August, October and
December 2008 and June 2009, in Bam early July 2009, and in Nazinga at end of November
and early in December 2009. We waded to catch the fish from lotic and lentic waters. Four
types of gear were used: cast net (CN), gillnets (GN), long lines (LL) and electric fishing (EF)
(fig. 3.3 to 3.6). We used a multifilament CN of 10 mm stretched mesh size, 2.45 m long,
13.20 m of circumference. We also used two monofilament GN of 30 m long and 1.5 m large
each. The stretched mesh size was 60 mm for one GN and 40 mm for the other. The hanging
ratio (i.e. length of stretched meshes size / length of rode) was 14.5 %. The 2 GN were
assembled to make a set of GN. The LL were made of hooks of No 8, 11 and 12, 56 hooks
each No. The hooks were alternated in No and two successive hooks were 0.5 m distant. We
used soap as bait. For EF, we used a portable generator of mark Honda, model GXV50. Two
professional fishermen were recruited to make CN, GN and LL and to fish with these gears.
In Bam and Koubri, the GN and LL were set sometimes around 16:30 UT and lifted the next
day around 08:00 UT and sometimes around 07:00 and lifted around 17:30 UT the same day;
but in Nazinga, they were used only daytime because of the large number of crocodiles that
used to destroy them and take the fishes; hence, they were usually set at 08:00 and lifted at
16:00 UT the same day. CN was daytime only. The number of CN throws was recorded. It
was 8 throws per site in Bam and Koubri, but in Nazinga it varied from 2 to 21 due to the high
density of vegetation. We e-fished day time only, one run in each EF-site. Before an e-fishing
session took place, we set a mosquito net at the extremity of the EF-site to prevent movement
of fish out of the area being fished. The surface of EF sites was visually estimated by two
members of the E-fishing team.
For all gears, we briefly described the dominating substrate of each sampling sites. For each
gear, all catches at one site accounted for one sample, no matter the number of throws of CN,
the area fished with EF or the time spent in the water for GN and LL. In Koubri, no site was
sampled in the same season and with different gears. We searched commercial landings to
look for complementary data such as fish species and large size fishes that our gears were not
catching.
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
Fig. 3.3: Electric fishing
Fig. 3.4: Sampling with a cast net
Fig: 3.5: Sampling with gill nets
Fig. 3.6: Sampling with long lines
33
Then, the fishes were sorted into species according to Lévêque et al. (1990, 1992) and
counted. They were weighted to the nearest 0.1 g and their total length measured to the
nearest millimeter. Additionally, I spent four days at the Royal Museum for Central Africa,
Tervuren, Belgium to identify some species.
To study the spatial changes in the fish community within a relatively restricted area, Koubri
was split into four sections: a free flowing section, two largest upstream reservoirs accounting
for one section each and the tributaries. The three first sections are contiguous during the
rainy season.
To show periodical changes in fish community within Koubri, the sampling full period was
divided into three parts (table 3.1): the end of the dry season (June), the rainy season (August)
and the beginning of the dry season (October and December). To compare fish community in
the three areas, we divided the study period in two parts: the end of the dry season (June and
July) for Bam and Koubri and start of the dry season (October –December) for Koubri and
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
34
Nazinga. The fish species diversity and structure, fish length and abundance were used for the
comparisons.
Table 3.1: Division into seasons
Season
Bam
End of dry season
June - July
Rainy season
--Start of dry season
---
Koubri
June
August
October and December
Nazinga
----November and December
3.4- Analysis of weaknesses in water management
A workshop and discussions with fishermen, leaders of indigenous authority, employees of
governmental local services and nongovernmental organizations in the areas of Lake Bam and
Kompienga were used to collect data and information in order to analyse the weaknesses in
management of water and fish resources. Narratives were used to show the vulnerability of
the systems of the two waters.
3.5- Data base and data analysis
3.5.1- Development of databases
Two data bases were set, the first on ecological awareness and the second on fish. The
ecological awareness record contains data on the fishermen age, marital status, fishing
experience (number of years), fisheries that they have frequented, the seasonal use of gears,
current annual catches, the use of catches and fishing revenue, and the economic activities
(time allocated and returns generated). The shifts of fish species composition, the fish species
transfers and the fishermen views on the threats to waters as declared by each interviewee are
included.
The second database is the most important. It includes the:
-
Identity of water-body: name, section, type (lotic vs. lentic), section and a semi
quantitive description of the water flow velocity;
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
-
35
Charactistics of fishing sites: the dominating substrate of the sampling sites, a semi
quantitative description of the vegetation, depth, location (up or downstream);
-
Sampling date, starting and ending times, the number of throws of cast net and the
area electric fished,
-
A qualitative description of the weather: rain, wind and cloud,
-
Fish: families, species, length and weight,
-
Landings type: commercial vs. experimental
3.5.2- Data analysis
I calculated the frequencies of the interviewee’s declarations on their knowledge on the
threats, summarized their initiatives to lessen them, compiled the shifts of fish species and
gave the names of the fish species in local language.
Then I analyzed:
i-
The fish species association to habitat (lotic vs. lentic waters, dominating substrate),
ii-
The species richness as assessed by EF compared to traditional fishing gears,
iii-
Within Koubri:
-
The changes in species richness and assemblages in the four sections,
-
The seasonal shifts in fish species composition and length for the entire area,
-
The seasonal variation in catches per unit of fishing effort defined as the
catches per throw for CN and per hectare of water fished for EF, for the entire
area.
iv-
In the three areas of Bam, Koubri and Nazinga:
-
The fish species richness, assemblage and length,
-
The catches per unit of fishing effort.
For comparison of fish length and abundance the non parametric Mann-Whitney test (p <
0.05) was used. The observations of commercial landings were only used to state the fish
species richness and assemblage in three areas; they were excluded from the other
calculations.
The analyses were done by using MS Excel and SPSS.
36
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
4- Results of the study on the ecological awareness
in the fisheries and pressures to waters
4.1- Scientific background
Agriculture pollutes water, soil and air, and increases soil erosion, reservoir siltation and
drought probability; it also reduces habitat variability and biodiversity. Livestock alters river
morphology and vegetal cover, increases the nutrients content in water bodies. Excessive
fishing, destructive fishing methods and species introductions can impair aquatic ecosystems.
Deforestation affects the water quality, the water cycle and the watershed, deprives aquatic
animals of shelter, food and spawning grounds. Roads construction and traffic increase
deforestation and soil erosion, alter stream hydrology, morphology and hydrobiology, and
create wet areas. Sand mining modifies river morphology, increases water turbidity and
affects aquatic and riparian biota. Water abstraction affects the biota, hydrology and
ecosystem functions. Human settlements impact the biotic and abiotic components of rivers.
Impoundment and damming alter the river hydrology, sedimentation and biological
communities. We note that dams can block fish migration, a crucial process enabling the
yearly colonization of temporary water bodies. Tourism and leisure can impair the
environment. Finally the control of diseases can also disturb waters biotic integrity. A few
references on the threats to waters were selected to cover nearly all sources of threats to
waters and according to their likely current and future relevance to Africa and to Burkina
Faso, no matter the study did not take place in that continent (table 4.1).
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
Table 4.1: Major drivers and pressures on waters in selected literature
DRIVERS
PRESSURES
SOURCES
1 Deforestation
Changes in stream flow
Mumeka (1986), Benavides
& Veenstra (2005), Growns
et al. (1998), Toham &
Teugels, (1999)
2 Tourism
Pollution
Mbaiwa (2003)
3 Dams
Shifts in species assemblage,
Ovidio & Philippart (2002),
erosion of biodiversity, changes in
Gourène & Teugels (1999),
water flow, fragmentation of biotic Arthington et al. (2006), Jos
connections
et al. (2008)
4 Impoundment Shifts in species assemblage,
Gourène & Teugels (1999),
erosion of biodiversity, changes in
Quinn & Kwak (2003),
water flow
Arthington et al. (2006)
5 Agriculture
Pollution, siltation, drought,
Horrigan et al. (2002),
reduction of habitat variability,
Mumeka (1986)
erosion of biodiversity
6 Introduction of Alteration of biodiversity
Reissig et al. (1996),
invasive
Ricciardi & Rasmussen
species
(1998), Balirwa et al. (2003),
Gophen et al. (1995)
7 Roads
Biodiversity modifications
Geneletti (2003)
8 Livestock
Alteration of river morphology,
Derlet et al. (2010),
increase of nutrients in waters,
Benavides & Veenstra
pollution
(2005), Agouridis et al.
(2005)
9 Fishing
Erosion of fish species diversity
Albaret, J.-J., Laë, R. (2003)
10 Channelization Hydromorphological changes,
Jungwirth et al. (2005)
ecological modifications
11 River bed
Changes on habitat structure and
Syms & Jones (2000)
modification
biological communities
12 Water
Degradation of aquatic habitats,
Freeman & Marcinek (2006)
withdrawal
erosion of biodiversity
13 Mining of
Changes on physical processes and Byrnes et al. (2004), Hines et
sand and
biological communities
al. (2000)
minerals
14 Human
Pollution, buildings,
Awomeso et al. (2010)
settlements
15 Shipping
Pollution, changes in clouds
Riegl (2001), Schreier et al.
property, bio-physical logical
2006)
degradations
16 Diseases
Pollution with insecticides, changes Paugy et al. (1999)
prevention
in biodiversity
37
38
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
4.2- National level activities threatening water-bodies
The approach to integrated management of the Burkinabe water resources is based on three
principles. The first is the precautionary principle states that the lack of scientific knowledge
is not a reason for not considering an activity to be a source of threat as far as it is suspected
to be. The second principle that is the prevention one recognizes that protective measures are
more efficient than the recovering ones. The last principle, the polluter-payer one affirms that
a polluter must cover the cost of attenuation or compensation.
The catchment of the Nakanbe River is recognized to be the most impacted area of the
country, sedimentation, siltation and pollution being the most important pressures to waters.
The increase of drought, the degradation of watersheds, the loss of habitat and the decrease of
fish and birds’ nurseries and the erosion of aquatic and riparian biodiversity are stated as
pressures. Agriculture, cattle breeding, deforestation, urbanization, reservoirs construction,
introduction of the water jacinth, bush fires, and poaching of wildlife are listed as drivers.
4.3- Local level activities potentially threatening waters in
Koubri
The agricultural activities are marked by the climate that is characterized by two main
seasons. The dry season lasts from October to June and the rainy one from July to September.
The area of study receives 750 mm of rainfall annually, the rainiest month being August (35
% of the precipitations).
The administrative area of Koubri is said to be 555 km² large, and to be inhabited by 44,780
people distributed in 25 villages. It is crossed by seasonal brooks totaling only 1.5 ha of water
surface on which 86 reservoirs of 1,862 ha in total were built. We note that less official but
more reliable sources give less number of reservoirs. They are said to be heavily fished and to
produce 10 tons of fish per year. Prohibited fishing methods are commonly used. Much water
is withdrawn for a variety of purposes. Irrigated gardens lie on the river banks and the
vegetables are mainly consumed in the city of Ouagadougou. For instance, there are 100 ha of
vegetables at Naba Zana and more than 40 ha at Wedbila. Abundant pesticides and fertilizers
are used with little control. More than 18,000 ha of land are devoted to extensive rain-fed
agriculture with no particular anti-erosion measures. More than 536,000 domestic animals are
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
39
extensively bred. In 2004, 864.5 m3 of wood were officially sold, but this is a clear
underestimate because most people do not declare the wood they sell. Furthermore, the
puncture of wood to be used as the exclusive energy source for households is not evaluated. It
is also used for other domestic needs like house construction. The area of Koubri is relatively
well provided with county roads and crossed by a national tarred road. More than 2,000 m3 of
sand are extracted yearly from the study area and transported by lorries of 10-30 m3 of
capacity to the neighboring city of Ouagadougou.
Maps from Google Earth show many reservoirs of which 25 are located in an area of 273.3
km2, which is equivalent to 8.8 reservoirs/100 km2. In all probability Koubri is the most
highly dammed area of the country that hosts 0.5 reservoirs per 100 km² on average. Then, we
toured the area to collect field information. We visited all the reservoirs of the study area,
some vegetables farms and sand mining sites. We counted 9 important sand mining sites
located at Tanvi, Mogtedo, Kogse, Badnogo, Napagbtenga, Arzoum Baongo, Toyoko, Naba
Zana and Poedogo but many more minor sites are spread across the area. We also detected
that the soil is taken from the bottom and the banks of reservoirs to make bricks, which we
assimilated to sand mining. Fig. 4.1 points up different types of impacts that we observed.
The land use has changed over time. The dissimilarity between fig. 4.2a and fig. 4.2b draws
attention on the temporal trend in land use from 1986 to 2002: increase of rain fed agricultural
land area, loss of forest and creation of reservoirs. From the data that we collected, the first
reservoir of the area was created in 1962 and the last one in 1990. In three decades the water
surface area was boosted from 1.5 ha (intermittent brooks) to 1,862 ha, that is an increase of
1,240%. In 2005 half of the space was occupied by agriculture and nearly 40% by agroforestry (fig. 4.3).
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
40
More than 25 reservoirs in an area of 271.5 km2.
The 15 reservoirs are shown (Adapted from
Google Earth)
The dam of Wedbila is high enough to bar
the migration of fish
Gardens at Toyoko (adapted from Google Earth)
Vegetables farm at Arzoum Baongo
Water withdrawal from Naba Zana
Cattle on the banks of Poedogo
Sand mining, Badnogo
Fishing, Arzoum Baongo
Fig. 4.1: Illustration of some activities that potentially affect water in Koubri
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
41
Fig 4.2a: Space occupation in the Nariale River catchment in 1986
Fig. 4.2b: Space occupation in the Nariale River catchment in 2002
Reservoirs names (targeted reservoirs: from 1 to 15)
0 : Pelle
1 : Segda (broken dam)
2 : Arzoum Baongo
3 : Naba Zana
4 : Tanvi
5 : Napagbtenga
6 : Toyoko
7 : Badnogo
8 : Mogtedo
9 : Zeguedse
10 : Zakin
11 : Kogse
12 : Gonse
13 : Poedogo
14 : Kagamzinse
15 : Wedbila
16 : PK25(out
of the study
area)
Fig. 4.2: Changes in land use in the Nariale River catchment from 1986 to 2002. The loss
of green areas suggests increasing deforestation and the increase of reddish area
increasing land degradation. The appearance of reservoirs in 2002 is obvious (e.g.
reservoirs Nos 0, 2 and 14; some reservoirs are so small that they are not visible in these
maps. (Adapted from maps provided by the Association Belem-Kuilse in Koubri; BelemKuilse would mean ‘Handling of Waters’)
42
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
Fig. 4.3: Land uses in the area of Koubri in 2005 (Data
source: Commune Koubri, 2005)
We noted that our readings provided us with no statistics on the fishermen population size. To
fill the gap, five times, we asked a fisherman to estimate it. The estimates ranged from 75 to
100. Also no list of fish species occurring in the area is available.
4.4- The final list of activities that potentially impact waters in
Koubri
Three sources of threats mentioned at national level were excluded at local level. Tourism that
is not described as important activity, bush fires that are no longer in practice in the area, and
the introduction of the water jacinth. Three activities not mentioned at national level are
revealed to be important at local level. The mining of sand appears essential at local level.
Actually, this is a particularity of areas located in the surroundings of important cities. As the
roads system is not developed in the country, at national level they are disregarded, which is
nearly the opposite in Koubri. Fishing is not listed at national level but we kept it because we
were targeting the fishermen and Koubri is recognized to provide the city of Ouagadougou
with fish and to ‘export’ fishermen to other areas of the country.
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
43
In one word, the sources of threats to the water-bodies that we retained for this study are rainfed agriculture, irrigated vegetables farming, cattle breading, deforestation, sand mining,
roads, damming, fishing, water abstraction, and human settlements.
4.5- The fishermen knowledge on the anthropogenic threats to
water-bodies
We interviewed 97 fishermen on their knowledge on anthropogenic threats to waters,
historical shifts in fish species, past experiences in fishing, seasonal use of gears, landings and
the contribution of fishing in their livelihoods. They all blamed irrigated vegetables farming,
and nearly all water abstraction (fig. 4.5). Most pointed the finger at rain-fed agriculture,
deforestation, sand mining and cattle. But for 75 % of the respondees dams have a positive
influence on the environment. Fishing and cattle breeding are seen as positive by 19.3% of the
people. Most interviewees had no idea about the impacts of roads and human settlements on
waters.
Fig. 4.5: Anthropogenic threats to aquatic ecosystems in Koubri: the fishermen’
opinions
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
44
Sedimentation, siltation, loss of water and wet area and change in biodiversity were the most
mentioned pressures and the most cited drivers were rain fed and irrigate agriculture, cattle
and deforestation (table 4.2). The least cited pressures were the changes in water flow velocity
partially driven by sand mining and the blockage of fish migration partially driven by the
neglection of fishing rules.
Table 4.2: Frequency (%) of pressures as cited by the fishermen (IWRM: Integrated Water
Resource Management). N=731 is the number of times that all pressures are mentioned. One
pressure is usually mentioned many times by the same interviewee
Frequency (%)
of times the
pressures are
mentioned
15.60
15.60
10.26
Negative
opinions
9.03
8.89
8.48
8.34
2.19
1.78
2.19
Positive
opinions
2.46
6.16
Pressures
mentioned by the
fishermen
Increase
sedimentation
Increase siltation
Alteration of river
morphology
Increase pollution
Loss of water and
wet area
Loss of habitat
Erosion of
biodiversity
Barring fish
migration
Increase water
speed
Reduction of
siltation
Increase diversity
Increase of wet
areas and of water
availability
Drivers
recognized by
the fishermen
Vegetables
farming
Rain fed
agriculture
Deforestation
Vegetables
farming
Rain fed
agriculture
Deforestation
Vegetables
farming
Sand mining
Vegetables
farming
Rain-fed
agriculture
Cattle breeding
Water
abstraction
Deforestation
Deforestation,
Water
abstraction
Cattle breeding
Fishing
Damming
Sand mining
Drivers cited in the
IWRM strategy
paper
Yes
No
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
Sand mining
Impoundment
Impoundment
X
X
X
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
45
Some fish species were said to have increased while others decreased and some have been
extinct. Four species were unanimously reported to have vanished: Gymnarchus niloticus,
Heterobranchus sp., Heterotis niloticus and Labeo sp. (table 4.3). One respondent reported
that Tetraodon fahaka disappeared. Some species such as Hemisynodontis membranaceus
were seen to have re-appeared because the downstream dams of Segda and of Pelle were
disrupted and were still unrepaired.
The fishermen have regularly transferred fish species within the study area, mainly from
Arzoum Baongo and Naba Zana, the two largest reservoirs located next to the mouth of the
study area, but also from segments of brook bellow dams. We recorded 16 cases of transfers
that were undertaken between 1991 and 2007, but only one seems successful. Nine species are
targeted but Lates niloticus is preferred as it was transferred 5 times. The number of fishes
varied from 3 to 100 per transfer case and their size 50-200 g depending on the species (See
appendix 8.2 for details).
We also found that Koubri fishermen indicated that they collectively destroyed the gears of a
Malian fisherman who was completely barring the main river below the study area. During
the study period, the fishermen of Kagamzinse considered building a fish pass on their own
initiative, but this was impossible for technical reasons. The riverside people of Badnogo have
set exclusive rights of access to the fishery, meaning that no allochton fisherman is accepted;
in addition they forbid fishing from July to February approximately.
46
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
Table 4.3: A report of historic qualitative changes in fish species diversity (Note: PK25 is out
of but contiguous to the study area, it is also known and fished by the fishermen)
Reservoirs
Decreased species
Increased species
Gymnarchus niloticus, Hemisynodontis
B. nurse, Bagrus sp., D.
membranaceus, Mormyrus rume, Labeo
rostratus, H.
sp., Polypterus sp., Auchenoglanis
membranaceus (all after
Arzoum
occidentalis, Heterotis niloticus, Tetraoton the disruption of
Baongo
fahaka, Heterobranchus sp., Bagrus sp.,
downriver Pelle & Segda
Brycinus nurse, Lates niloticus,
dams), Alestes baremoze,
Hydrocinus sp., Synodontis sp., Clarias
family Cichlidae, Schilbe
gariepinus, Chrysychthys sp.
sp.
Badnogo
B. nurse, Brienomyrus sp.
Gonse
A. occidentalis, S. galilaeus
D. rostratus, Bagrus sp., Polypterus sp, L.
niloticus, H. niloticus, Bagrus sp, C.
Kagamzinse
nigrodigitatus, B. nurse, G. niloticus, A.
occidentalis, family Cichlidae, C.
gariepinus
Kogse
family Schilbeidae
A. occidentalis, L. niloticus
H. membranaceus (came
G. niloticus, H. membranaceus, M. rume,
Labeo sp., Polypterus sp., A. occidentalis, after the disruption of
H. niloticus, T. fahaka, Alestes sp., L.,
downstream dams of
Naba Zana
Bagrus sp., M. rume, Protopterus
Pelle and Segda)
annectens, Heterobranchus sp.,
Hydrocinus sp, D. rostratus (all more than
25 years ago)
family Cichlidae
A. occidentalis, L. niloticus, Mormyrops
Napagbtenga
sp, M. Rume
L. niloticus, G. niloticus
PK25
A. occidentalis, Mormyrus rume,
C. gariepinus, A.
Poedogo
Mormyrops sp., L. niloticus (but came
baremoze, D. rostratus
back in 2008)
H. membranaceus,
Segda
Bagrus sp., A. baremoze
Brienomyrus, C.
Tanvi
gariepinus
P. annectens, Alestes sp., Brycinus sp., H.
Toyoko
membranaceus
L. niloticus, H. niloticus, Mormyrops sp., D. rostratus, H.
A. occidentalis, Alestes sp. or Brycinus sp. membranaceus, L.
Wedbila
niloticus, family
Mormyridae
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
47
4.6- Fishing and livelihoods
On average, the fishermen were 36.7 years old and had been fishing for a relatively long time
of 15.5 years. Most (75.5%) were married and they migrated considerably both within and
outside of the study area. The majority were fishing or have fished in more than 5 water
bodies, and only 7 were relatively attached to a single reservoir fishery. The most mobile
fisherman declared to have frequented about 45 reservoir and river fisheries in 36 years, but
could remember the names of only 25.
The most used gear was the cast net, followed by the gill nets and the long-lines. The
fishermen were usually multi-gear users. During the rainy season, they tend to use passive
fishing gears and during the dry season, the active gears are mostly used. No fish species was
particularly targeted, although baited long-lines tend to capture carnivorous species like Lates
niloticus and Clarias gariepinus.
Fig. 4.6: Typical livelihood sources of a fisherman
Based on 300 working days a year on average a fisherman lands 1276.8 kg of fish (SD
850.83) yearly. Therefore the 15 reservoirs fisheries that we targeted produce 95.7 to 127.7
tons of fish per year. The fish price varies from 300 to 2000 FCFA/kg according to species
and fish size. From fishing, an average fisherman earns 446900 FCFA (SD 283297), i.e. € 681
which is equally allocated to personal needs, family expenses and support for other economic
activities at 35.8%, 34.6% and 29.6% respectively.
48
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
Almost all fishermen run three other economic activities: rain-fed agriculture, cattle breeding
and irrigated vegetables farming. Typically, a fisherman earns 40.3% of his livelihoods from
fishing, 33.1% from rain-fed agriculture, 13.4 % from cattle breeding, 11.7 % from irrigated
vegetables farming and 1.4 % from other activities (fig. 4.6).
4.7- Discussion and conclusions on the ecological awareness
As local languages are limited in scientific words, then, our understanding of the
interviewees’ declarations could be different than they intended to mean, which could have
partially affected our results. For example, the word ‘biodiversity’ does not exist in more;
then the fishermen had to explain a lot before we understand that they were probably talking
about biodiversity.
One objective of our study was to underline the understandings of the fishermen on the
anthropogenic threats to aquatic ecosystems in Burkina Faso. Our results show that the
knowledge of Koubri fishermen is accurate. High environmental awareness was also fund
among tourists from Germany, Turkish and Russia (Bays an, 2001). Many other studies in the
sphere of natural resources conservation and societies like Moller et al. (2004), Duala (2005),
Fraser et al. (2006), and Leopold et al. (2008) pointed out that resource users are highly
sensitive to the degradation of resources. Of special interest Level & Bouamrane (2008)
investigated the ecological awareness of many kinds of stakeholders in natural resources
(fishermen, livestock breeders, farmers, hunters, women, managers and social & natural
scientists) in four West African biosphere reserves, including the Mare aux Hippopotames
(i.e. the Hippopotamus Pond) in Burkina Faso. In their methodology, they organized a
workshop where, among themselves, the stakeholders discussed anthropogenic impacts on
that water. A key result was that individual types of resource users never cited their own
activities as source threat. They always pointed the finger at other activities, which illustrates
conflicts in multiple uses of common pool resources in West Africa (Williams, 1998) which
confirms the importance of stakeholder analysis in such studies (Kammi, 1999). In our case,
however, the fishermen recognized that fishing poses a threat to waters. Our results tend to
confirm that natural resources users are getting more and more aware of environmental
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
49
problems associated with their livelihoods like Mccann et al. (1997) found among American
farmers.
Most of our interviewees (75%) believed that reservoirs development is favorable to fish.
Although this conforms to Jackson et al. (1988) and Huenneke & Noble (1996) who believe
that in arid zones like Burkina Faso, reservoirs are spots of wet areas that create habitat
variability and support a great biodiversity, many other studies argued that dams adversely
impact biodiversity (Gourène et al., 1999; Larinier, 2000; Marmulla, 2001). Conforming to
the second viewpoint, the water management law (Assemblée Nationale, 2001) requires
migratory devices to be incorporated into dams to allow the migration of fish. The Décret
N°2006-590/PRES/PM/MAHRH/MECV/MRA du 6 décembre 2006 banns any activity that
irreversibly affects the diversity of aquatic ecosystems.
Actually, the fishermen were hardly able to separate the impacts of damming that impounds
rivers and the benefits of the resulting reservoir to people. Despite it is much argued that fish
production decreases as a result of dams building (World Commission on Dams, 2000), in
waterless zones, the immediate development of a fishery following reservoir creation (after
Downing et al. 1990) on intermittent brooks masks the long-term effects of blocked fish
migration and the following decrease in fish production. Roads and traffic have less direct
links with waters. Therefore most of the interviewees (2/3) had no idea on their impacts to
aquatic environment.
By stating the reappearance of species after the break of downstream dams, the fishermen of
Koubri, like their colleagues in Mali (Kassibo, 1994) know that fish migrate and that
migration has to be allowed. Indeed, based on their experience local people and resource users
have a great knowledge in fisheries (GTZ, 2002). Our results show that current fishermen are
aware of the shifts in fish species despite this appears clearly subjective. A fisherman can
declare a species decreasing and increasing depending on how frequent he catches it even this
trend is not observed by his colleagues. But Leopold et al. (2008) stated that information
provided by elderly people is more informative than that provided by younger persons. We
had a 65-year old fisherman among out our interviewees. But the results of Leopold et al.
(2008) prompted us to briefly discuss this issue with two other old, retired fishermen from the
area: they confirmed the disappearance of these species. Our informants were able to monitor
the fish community, at least in a qualitative way but Moller et al. (2004) went beyond. By
50
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
compiling many sources, this source demonstrated that in many parts of the world, fishermen
are able to quantitatively monitor fish populations. We note that from the political angle, the
lungfish Protopterus annectens is said to be endangered in Burkina Faso (BF, 1999), which
the fishermen did not state. Actually, that fish continues to be landed in considerable numbers
in many parts of the country such as Koubri as shown by our experimental sampling, in
Damage (Schwann, 2005) and, from our visual observations in Dory and Lake Bam. One
explanation for this discrepancy is that this species is not preferred by consumers and has a
slightly sacred status, which together tend to keep it out of fish shops. Actually we believe
that no prior study showed that the species is endangered. This poses the problem of the
reliability of data in policies formulation (McIntyre et al., 2009).
Another objective of the study was to find out if the fishermen undertake any activity to
reduce the threats to aquatic ecosystems. As we did not interview all of the fishermen of
Koubri, and as the species transfers were done by individual fishermen rather than
collectively, the number of such transfers is probably higher than reported. Furthermore, some
transfers probably took place before present fishermen started fishing. These mitigation
measures have direct connections to fish diversity. But no direct connections might prevail
between the fishermen being aware and the initiating of mitigation measures (Leopold et al.,
2008). They also run rain fed agriculture and cattle breeding but they did not point out any
undertaking that targets the externalities of these activities to the waters. Probably we would
have found different results if they were interviewed as farmers or cattle breeders. But this
does not infer that cultivators and cattle breeders are aware of the externalities of their
activities against the waters.
The transfers that the fishermen run in addition to be supposed to buy fishing licenses are
comparable to the innovative techniques that African farmers adapt for forests, soil and water
conservation (Mazzucato & Niemeijer, undated; Dialla, 2005; Sawadogo et al., 2008), to the
keenness of the tourists to disburse additional cash for the environment preservation (Baysan,
2001) and to the American farmers to shift from conventional farming practices to the organic
ones (Mccann et al., 1997). From our working experience, we know that in many parts of the
country, species transfers are initiated by the fishermen but unfortunately this is rarely
reported. Regrettably, such procedures are never accompanied by preliminary studies or
subsequent monitoring. Consequently, and as reported by our interviewees, they usual failed.
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
51
We note that fishing is a seasonal, secondary and alternative activity in the fishermen
livelihoods as also indicated by Baijot et al. (1994) but it contributes a lot to livelihoods as
Béné & Russel (2007) also found. Actually we should look at fishing as additional and
alternative activity for farmers. As indicated in the policy review at national and local levels
(cf. chapter 2), commercial fishing was ignored due to the lack of natural waters. In Koubri,
no natural and long time lasting water exists. As additional results we found that the area of
Koubri produces ten times more fish then the official statistics given by Commune Koubri
(2005) which undertook no prior survey.
As commercial fishing was recently introduced in Burkina Faso 3 decades ago, local
knowledge in species naming is limited. When a species appears in an area, local people often
copy its name from other languages. For illustration we took advantage of our work in Bam to
learn that Barbus sp. appeared in Lake Bam half a century that was during the French
colonization period. Hence in this area that species is called goujon, referring to the French
name of the gudgeon fish.
4.8- Implications for capacity building and education
The fishermen of Koubri have accurate understanding on the impacts of human activities on
waters. They attempt to reduce the threats to aquatic environment but they endeavors usually
fail. Their awareness is a very good asset for water preservation and rehabilitation. Their
concerns for environmental sustainability must be addressed by appropriate policies and
strategies.
Our study is an entry point for further investigations in natural sciences and human sciences
in fisheries. There is a growing inclination to amalgamate alertness of resource users and
scientific knowledge to work out conservation strategies (Hawley et al., 2004; Moller et al.,
2004; Fraser et al., 2006). In this line, the high ecological awareness among the fishermen of
Koubri could be put into contribution to preserve aquatic ecosystem. But we keep in mind the
limitations of the knowledge of resource users that are linked to their cultural and religious
backgrounds (Leopold et al., 2008; Sarfo-Mensah & Oduro, 2007). In Burkina many
fishermen believe that fish drop from sky with rains, as revealed in October 2008 in Koubri
during a training session on fisheries and aquaculture. On the Internet this phenomenon is
52
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
reported – with scientific background – from many parts of the world like in Greece in 2002
and in Australia in 2004. Some people of Burkina take this as proof that fish is a God-given
gift, so fish resources can never be exhausted. Hence, we need to improve the ecological
knowledge of the fishermen.
As we found that Koubri produced 10 times more fish than the official estimates, more
consideration must be allocated to fish in the formulation of local development plans in
Koubri.
Fish species introductions demand considerable attention because of potential damage to
biodiversity (Lévêque, 1997; Balirwa et al., 2003). Many other simple but effective
techniques of fisheries enhancement are available (GTZ, 2002; Lorenzen, 2008) and could be
introduced thanks to appropriate strategies.
It is worldwide known that dams are source of threat to biodiversity, to fish and to fisheries.
However, we need more research to understand the scale at which this holds true in dry areas.
Looking at only one direction seems simplistic (Arthington et al., 2006; Nogueira et al.,
2010).
The fishermen of Koubri understand that water-bodies and fish resources must be
safeguarded, but they do not observe the fishing rules (Commune Koubri, 2005). This should
be analyzed under the management systems.
The implementation of research programme may require the contribution of local fishermen;
in this framework the fishermen could be asked to identify species by themselves. Then
appropriate measures should be taken to build their capacity in species identification.
Alternatively, adjusting the level of taxonomy to the fishermen capacity could be appropriate.
The fishermen pointed out the disappearance of species and the re-appearance of species due
to the disruption of downstream dams that allow them to migrate; which call for biological
investigations in the area. Their attempt to build fish migratory devices is an appeal for more
consideration to fish migration when building dams. More generally the information provided
by the fishermen pleaded for further studies to link fish community traits to anthropogenic
threats, which is the next step of the research.
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
53
5- Results of the first observations on fish
communities with regard to the level of water
impacts
5.1- Fish species composition and their names in local language
In total, we took 256 experimental samples and observed the landings of 36 commercial
fishermen. Our experimental landings yielded 35 species dominated by the small size Barbus
sp. (63%) followed by the tilapia group (Sarotherodon galilaeus, Tilapia zillii and O.
niloticus, 20% together).
The commercial species all appeared in the experimental landings. All species that appeared
in commercial landings have a name in local language. However, as rare species seldom
appear in commercial landings, they were given the names of comparable species that
frequently appeared. Similar species are usually regrouped under a same generic name. For
example the term Pinre indicates the group of tilapia, Tidga the Schileidae family, and
Yalguenfo the Mormyridae family. Species are named following several criteria. Some are
named by analogy to other biota. For instance, Auchenoglanis occidentalis is called
Kuildeogo meaning ‘aquatic phacocera’. External anatomic pieces are also used to name
species. Marcusenius senegalensis is named Yalgen-lemgondgo, meaning the mormyrid fish
with twisted chin, and Pin-miugu the red-colored tilapia (fig. 5.1). Other names refer to the
ecology of the species. Yingr-pinre means the pelagic tilapia and Tingr-pinre or Borbore the
benthic one. Onomatopoeia is also used to name species. Kuilkienka or Konkon both refer to
the noise that the species often makes once out of water. The composition of fish species and
their names in local language are given in table 5.1.
54
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
Fig. 5.1: Naming fish species in
moré, a national language of
Burkina Faso: using external
anatomic features (right hand side
picture) and using the color of the
fish (picture bellow)
M. senegalensis is named Yalgen-lemgondgo,
i.e. mormyrid with twisted chin
Confusing tilapia names: the frequent Tilapia zillii (left) is called red-colored tilapia
but the rare Hemichromis fasciatus (right) is more red colored. H. fasciatus has no
specific name and is also called red-colored tilapia.
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
55
Table 5.1: Fish species of Koubri: Frequencies of species in experimental landings and their
names in more the local language. Because we searched the commercial landings for large
size fishes, species frequency would be inaccurate.
Type of landing
Commercial
Experimental (%)
Name in moré (local
language)
1
Barbus ablabes
X
43.44
Wuudu
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
13
14
15
16
17
18
19
20
21
22
23
24
25
26
27
28
29
30
21
32
33
34
35
Barbus macrops
Sarotherodon galilaeus
Tilapia zillii
Oreochromis niloticus
Clarias gariepinus
Hemichromis fasciatus
Schilbe intermedius
Brycinus nurse
Chelaethiops bibie
Siluranodon auritus
Hemichromis letourneauxi
Synodontis punctifer
Hippopotamyrus pictus
Schilbe mystus
Lates niloticus
Chrysichthys nigrodigitatus
Alestes baremoze
Hyperopisus bebe
Hemisynodontis membranaceus
Ctenopoma kingsleyae
Protopterus annectens
Marcusenius senegalensis
Synodontis schall
Petrocephalus bovei
Pollimyrus isidori
Bagrus docmak
Ctenopoma petcherici
Mormyrus rume
Hydrocinus forskalii
Auchenoglanis occidentalis
Brienomyrus niger
Malapterurus electricus
Mormyrops anguilloides
Polypterus senegalus
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
19.37
9.34
6.70
4.32
2.50
1.85
1.54
1.47
1.39
1.20
1.18
0.92
0.68
0.52
0.51
0.49
0.36
0.33
0.31
0.26
0.26
0.21
0.21
0.18
0.14
0.07
0.07
0.06
0.04
0.02
0.02
0.01
0.01
0.01
Wuudu
Yingr-pinre, lalanga
Pin-raaga, Pin-miugu
Tingr-pinre, borbore
Saale
Pin-raaga
Tidga
Tantanre
Wuudu
Tidga
Pin-raaga
Kuilkienka, konkon
Yalgnfo, Yalgm-sablga
Tidga
Zangre
Banguende
Tantanre
Yalgnfo, Yalgm-sablga
Kwakwa, Pugbetiim
Pinre
Reologo
Yalgnfo, Yalgn-lemgondgo
Kuilkienka, konkon
Yalgnfo, Yalgm-no-puugu
Yalgnfo
Kuilsiugou
Pinre
Yalgnfo, Tulubri
Basoaka
Kuildeogo
Yalgmfo, Yalgum-no-puugu
Zesgo
Yalgnfo, yemdele
Kwil-waafo
Scientific names
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
56
5.2- Fish ecology
5.2.1- Fish association to habitat
Fish association to dominating substrate
In the three areas together, 62% of the fishing sites had their substrate dominated by mud, 11
% by fine sand and 8% by big stones. The muddy fishing sites generated 48% of the
specimens, corresponding to 45 species, the stony sites 16% of the specimens, corresponding
to 42 species and those dominated by fine sand 14 % of the specimens, corresponding to 31
species (Fig. 5.2).
Fine sand + Rock continuous
Fine sand Cement
Gravel
Continuous rock
Rude sand
Small stones
Fine sand + mud
Fine sand
Big stones
Mud
Dominating substrate
Number of species
Frequency of specimens (%)
Frequency of sites (%)
0
10
20
30
40
50
60
Frequency
Fig. 5.2: Catches per type of dominating substrate: Relative frequencies (%) of dominating
substrates (N=479), of specimens (N= 20,117) and number of species
Fish in lotic and lentic waters
We excluded Nazinga in this comparison because nearly all the brooks were out of water
when we sampled in this area. In Bam and Koubri together we took 43 samples from the
running waters and 301 from the non running ones. Together, they yielded 17140 specimens,
38.65% from the lotic waters and 61.35% from the lentic ones. The lotic waters exhibited 35
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
57
species against 31 from the lentic ones. We did not meet P. isidori, B. docmak, C. petcherici
and H. forskalii in the lentic waters (table 5.2).
Table 5.2: Fish species composition (%) in the lotic and lentic waters of Bam and Koubri
Species
Running waters
Non running waters
Total
Barbus ablabes
17.03
21.04
38.07
Barbus macrops
6.63
9.47
16.11
Sarotherodon galilaeus
2.43
10.05
12.48
Tilapia zillii
1.66
6.48
8.14
Oreochromis niloticus
0.65
4.45
5.10
Clarias gariepinus
1.65
1.80
3.44
Chelaethiops bibie
1.28
0.77
2.05
Hemichromis fasciatus
0.54
1.43
1.97
Hemichromis letourneauxi
0.30
1.24
1.53
Siluranodon auritus
0.88
0.57
1.45
Schilbe intermedius
1.21
0.20
1.42
Brycinus nurse
0.57
0.81
1.37
Lates niloticus
0.34
0.70
1.04
Synodontis punctifer
0.69
0.20
0.89
Synodontis schall
0.11
0.50
0.61
Hippopotamyrus pictus
0.41
0.13
0.54
Petrocephalus bovei
0.26
0.27
0.53
Alestes baremoze
0.45
0.04
0.49
Schilbe mystus
0.20
0.20
0.41
Chrysichthys nigrodigitatus
0.38
0.01
0.39
Marcusenius senegalensis
0.06
0.32
0.38
Hyperopisus bebe
0.19
0.08
0.26
Protopterus annectens
0.03
0.23
0.26
Hemisynodontis membranaceus
0.23
0.01
0.25
Ctenopoma kingsleyae
0.15
0.06
0.20
Auchenoglanis occidentalis
0.01
0.13
0.14
Pollimyrus isidori
0.11
Mormyrus rume
0.05
Bagrus docmak
0.05
0.05
Ctenopoma petcherici
0.05
0.05
Malapterurus electricus
0.01
0.05
0.05
Mormyrops anguilloides
0.01
0.05
0.05
Hydrocynus forskalii
0.04
Polypterus senegalus
0.01
0.02
0.04
Brienomyrus niger
0.01
0.01
0.02
Specimens (%)
38.65
61.35
100.00
Number of specimens
6625
10515
17140
Number of species
35
31
35
0.11
0.02
0.06
0.04
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
58
5.2.2- Species assemblages as assessed with different gears
We recorded 16 fish families of which 13 were caught with CN and 12 with EF. GN and LL
caught 12 and 7 families respectively (table 5.3). CN caught 46 species and EF 41. The mean
lengths of fishes caught with EF and with traditional gears remained similar (Mann-Whitney
test, p < 0.05).
Table 5.3: Number of fishes per family caught per gear (CN: Cast net; EF: Electric fishing,
GN: Gill net, LL: Long lines; CF: Commercial fishermen, Fish M.: fish monger)
Families
Cyprinidae
Cichlidae
Characidae
Clariidae
Schilbeidae
Mormyridae
Mochokidae
Bagridae
Centropomidae
Protopteridae
Anabantidae
Polypteridae
Osteoglossidae
Malapteruridae
Citharinidae
Distichodontidae
Number of fishes
Number of families
Number of species
CN
CN
(CF)
4973 5651 19
2495 2561 18
616 314 32
113 471 19
565 164 9
241 269 65
102 258 8
51
101 57
46
74
10
20
11
32
1
32
2
EF
2
6
4
9236 9928 249
13
12
12
46
41
26
Fish M. GN
1
12
1
1
4
98
436
61
72
34
13
25
31
13
11
1
1
1
3
1
23
7
8
796
12
26
GN
(CF)
4
691
45
137
25
39
58
42
111
9
LL
LL
(CF)
6
53
2
1
6
9
2
4
4
74
7
10
13
2
2
2
19
7
1
1190
14
30
Total
10746
6207
1080
875
799
629
457
286
260
44
44
36
19
12
10
5
21509
16
56
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
59
5.2.3- Spatial and temporal shifts in Koubri
Spatial changes of fish species assemblage
All gears together we took 19 samples from section 1, 54 from section 2, 59 from section 3
and 158 from section 4. They yielded 4214, 4626, 2226 and 3541 specimens respectively. The
species richness decreased from 32 in section 1 to 25 in section 2 and to 23 in section 3.
However it was 28 in section 4. In any section Barbus ablabes and Barbus macrops
dominated with 35 and 14 % of the specimens respectively. The tilapia group (Sarotherodon
galilaeus, Tilapia zillii and Oreochromis niloticus) and Clarias gariepinus were abundant.
Schilbe sp., Bagrus docmak, C. petcherici, H. fasciatus, and M. rume were more frequent in
section 1 than in any other section. H. forskalii was caught only in section 1 and H.
membranaceus and P. bovei in sections 1 & 2 only. But Protopterus annectens was nearly 1%
in section 4 but absent anywhere else (table 5.4).
Seasonal variation in fish species assemblages
All gears together, we caught 6516 fishes for 33 samples when the dry season was starting,
3792 fishes for 172 samples during the rainy season and 3177 fishes for 53 samples during the
end of the dry season. They were regrouped respectively in 30, 28 and 16 species
respectively, 35 species in total (table 5.5). Basically during the end of the dry season we
missed H. membranaceus, P. annectens, 3 of the 8 mormyrid, all schilbeid, all charachid and
all bagrid fishes. They appeared during the rainy season.
60
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
Table 5.4: Species composition (%) in the four sections of Koubri
Species
Barbus ablabes
Barbus macrops
Sarotherodon galilaeus
Tilapia zillii
Clarias gariepinus
Schilbe intermedius
Siluranodon auritus
Synodontis punctifer
Hemichromis fasciatus
Brycinus nurse
Oreochromis niloticus
Chelaethiops bibie
Chrysichthys nigrodigitatus
Lates niloticus
Hemichromis letourneauxi
Hippopotamyrus pictus
Alestes baremoze
Hemisynodontis membranaceus
Schilbe mystus
Hyperopisus bebe
Ctenopoma kingsleyae
Synodontis schall
Bagrus docmak
Ctenopoma petcherici
Petrocephalus bovei
Mormyrus rume
Hydrocinus forskalii
Marcusenius senegalensis
Auchenoglanis occidentalis
Polypterus senegalus
Malapterurus electricus
Mormyrops anguilloides
Brienomyrus niger
Pollimyrus isidori
Protopterus annectens
Total (%)
Total number of fishes
Number of species
Section 1
Section 4
Section 2 (Arzoum Section 3 (Naba
(free flowing) (tributaries) Baongo reservoir) Zana reservoir)
34.65
37.18
51.12
43.55
14.4
19.28
16.71
20.93
9.23
12.69
4.49
8.44
6.26
13.6
5.26
8.08
5.77
3.76
0.99
1.41
4.84
0.58
0.04
3.56
0.26
0.03
2.75
0.04
0.4
0.37
2.18
0.02
4.85
1.38
2.02
0.82
0.4
2.65
1.9
5.84
8.31
6.5
1.57
1.1
0.58
1.64
1.47
0.06
0.04
0.03
1.38
0.06
4.36
0.56
1.21
0.86
1.92
1.19
0.63
0.37
0.97
0.09
0.22
0.03
0.95
0.09
0.83
0.76
0.76
0.09
0.25
0.57
0.22
0.04
0.33
0.06
0.58
1.04
0.21
0.21
0.19
0.72
0.19
0.09
0.03
0.14
0.12
0.45
0.09
0.42
0.05
0.28
0.05
0.09
0.02
0.02
0.09
0.14
0.02
0.02
0.27
0.03
0.04
0.04
0.41
0.76
0.09
0.2
100
100
100
100
4214
3958
1933
3958
32
28
25
23
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
61
Table 5.5: Seasonal fish species assemblage in Koubri
Species
Barbus ablabes
Barbus macrops
Sarotherodon galilaeus
Tilapia zillii
Oreochromis niloticus
Clarias gariepinus
Hemichromis fasciatus
Schilbe intermedius
Brycinus nurse
Chelaethiops bibie
Siluranodon auritus
Hemichromis letourneauxi
Synodontis punctifer
Hippopotamyrus pictus
Schilbe mystus
Lates niloticus
Chrysichthys nigrodigitatus
Alestes baremoze
Hyperopisus bebe
Hemisynodontis membranaceus
Protopterus annectens
Ctenopoma kingsleyae
Marcusenius senegalensis
Synodontis schall
Petrocephalus bovei
Pollimyrus isidori
Bagrus docmak
Ctenopoma petcherici
Mormyrus rume
Hydrocinus forskalii
Brienomyrus niger
Auchenoglanis occidentalis
Malapterurus electricus
Polypterus senegalus
Mormyrops anguilloides
Total (%)
Number of specimens
Number of species
Start dry season Rainy season End dry season
44.6
18.91
7.73
4.34
3.33
3.93
1.47
2.81
1.73
0.68
2.3
1.15
1.73
0.95
0.08
0.95
0.97
0.25
0.61
0.21
0.38
0.31
0.14
0.14
0.12
0.08
0
0.03
0.02
0.03
0.02
100
6516
30
50.32
26.87
5.8
2.51
3.38
1.74
0.03
0.66
1.27
0
0.32
0
0.29
0.74
1.71
0.08
0.08
0.87
0.03
0.74
0.92
0.26
0.16
0.42
0.16
0.5
32.86
11.36
16.87
16.53
7.46
0.47
4.82
1.16
4.53
2.64
0.06
0.13
0.09
0.06
0.38
0.57
0.03
0.08
0.03
0.03
100
3792
28
100
3177
16
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
62
Seasonal variation of fish length
On average a fish was 66.49 mm long (SD 47.08) during the rainy season, 61.39 (SD 35.29)
at the beginning of the dry season and 50.17 (SD 24.52) at the end of the dry season. The
mean length was significantly higher during the rain period than and the start of the dry
season, significantly higher at the start of the dry season and also significantly higher when
the dry season starts than at the end of the dry season (Mann-Whitney test, p < 0.05 for the
three comparisons).
This seasonal change is confirmed by the box plot comparing the seasonal size of fish (fig.
5.3); but it is more visible in fig. 5.4 that shows the length frequency distribution in seasons.
Large size fishes are less abundant at the end of the dry season than at the start of the rainy
season and also less abundant during the rainy period than when the dry season starts. But
small size fishes appeared at the end of the dry season and at its start more than during the
rainy season. Fig. 5.3: Box plot comparing the seasonal sizes of the fish community in
Koubri
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
63
Fig. 5.4: Seasonal length frequency distribution of fish community in Koubri; fishes of more
than 340 mm long are excluded
At population level, the box plots of fish length show that the length of some species tended
to increase from the end of the dry season to the rainy one and to decrease from that season to
the start of the dry period. The frequency distribution of species length shows that for most
species, small size individuals were infrequent in any season. However they were more
frequent at the start of the dry season for C. gariepinus and S. galilaeus at the end of the dry
season for T. zillii (fig. 5.5).
64
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
Fig. 5.5: Seasonal changes in fish size: box plots (left hand side column) and length frequency (right
hand side column) distribution of major species of fish in Koubri
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
Fig. 5.5 (continued): Seasonal changes in fish size: box plots (left hand side column) and length
frequency (right hand side column) distribution of major species of fish in Koubri
65
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
66
The size of many species like T. zillii, S. galilaeus, B. ablabes and C. gariepinus was
significantly lower at the end of the dry season than during the rainy period and also
significantly lower at the beginning of the dry season than at its ending time. For the species
(except for the first) it was also significantly lower during the rainy season than when the dry
season starts. But the seasonal variation of the length of a few species (e.g.: L. niloticus) does
not follow this trend as detailed in table 5.6.
Table 5.6: Comparison of the length of major species between seasons in Koubri: mean total
length and values of p (Mann-Whitney test); SD: Standard deviation, E.: End, S.: start
Species
End dry season
Rainy season
Start dry season
N
N
N
Mean (SD)
Mean (SD)
Values of p
Mean (SD)
E. dry vs. rainy
Tilapia zillii
525
Sarotherodon
536
galilaeus
Barbus
ablabes
Clarias
gariepinus
Lates
niloticus
45.10 (21.47) 95
94.19 (29.82) 283
94.58 (33.39) Rainy vs. S.dry
S. dry vs. E. dry
E. dry vs. rainy
62.00 (22.00) 220
80.31 (27.26) 504
98.39 (47.41) Rainy vs. S.dry
S. dry vs. E. dry
E. dry vs. rainy
1044 40.31 (12.57) 1908
15
4
152.60
(69.19)
96.50 (6.35)
66
3
46.97 (11.08) 2906 45.76 (11.62) Rainy vs. S.dry
S. dry vs. E. dry
254.66
(61.55)
256
77.33 (47.61) 62
100.37
(92.48)
103 (34.95)
< 0.05
> 0.05
< 0.05
< 0.05 < 0.05 < 0.05 < 0.05 < 0.05 < 0.05 E. dry vs. rainy
< 0.05 Rainy vs. S.dry
< 0.05 S. dry vs. E. dry
< 0.05 E. dry vs. rainy
> 0.05 Rainy vs. S.dry
> 0.05 S. dry vs. E. dry
> 0.05 Seasonal variation of catches
GN and LL are excluded in this comparison because they are much selective and we needed a
large range of mesh sizes to make suitable comparison. We took CN 24 samples at the end of
the dry season, 111 during the rainy season and 19 when the dry season was starting. We took
EF 16 samples at the end of the dry season and 12 at the beginning of the dry season. The
number and the biomass of fishes caught per unit of fishing effort decreased from the end of
the dry season to the rainy season, then increased when the dry season starts (table 5.7).
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
67
The mean abundance was 6.21 fishes (SD 7.19) per CN throw when the dry season takes end,
3.68 (SD 9.52) during the rainy season and 12.36 (SD 12.85) at the beginning of the dry
season. It was significantly lower during the rainy season than at the start of the dry one. It
was significantly higher at the end of the dry season than during the rainy season,
significantly lower during the rainy period than when the dry season starts and significantly
higher during start of the dry season than when the dry season takes end.
The mean biomass of fish for a CN throw was 232.00 g (SD 178.96) at the end of the dry
season, 175.79 g (SD 347.87) during the rainy season and 566.63 g (SD 1058) at the
beginning of the dry season. It was significantly higher at the end of the dry season than
during the rainy season, significantly lower during the rainy season than during the start of the
dry season. It was not significantly lower during the start of the dry season than when that
season takes end.
The mean abundance of fish per hectare of water E-fished was 1971.44 fishes (SD 1414) at
the end of the dry season and 2393.50 (SD 1543) when the dry season starts. However it was
not significant difference between the two seasons.
The mean biomass of fish was 3.38 kg/ha of water fished (SD 2.09) at the end of the dry
season and 14.08 (SD 24.81) at its starts. No significant difference was found.
Table 5.7: Comparison of seasonal catches: mean catches and values of p (Mann-Whitney
test); SD: Standard deviation, E: End, S: start; NB: we did not E-fished during the rainy
season
End dry season
N Mean (SD)
Rainy season
N
Mean (SD)
Start dry season
N
Mean (SD)
Number of
fishes/CN
throw
24
6.21 (7.19)
111
3.68 (9.52)
19
12.36
(12.85)
g/CN throw
24
232.00
(178.96)
111
175.79
(347.87)
19
566.63
(1058)
Number of
fishes/ha of
water fished
with EF
16
1971.44
(1414)
---
---
12
2393.50
(1543)
Kg/ha of water
fished with EF
16
3.38 (2.09)
---
---
12
14.08
(24.81)
Values of p
E. dry vs. rainy
Rainy vs. S. dry
E. dry vs. S. dry
E. dry vs. rainy
Rainy vs. S. dry
E. dry vs. S. dry
E. dry vs. rainy
Rainy vs. S. dry
E. dry vs. S. dry
< 0.05 < 0.05 < 0.05 < 0.05 < 0.05 > 0.05
----> 0.05
E. dry vs. rainy
Rainy vs. S. dry
E. dry vs. S. dry
----> 0.05
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
68
5.2.4- Fish species assemblages in the three areas of study
In Bam we caught 2533 fishes in 52 samples, in Koubri 13485 fishes in 256 samples and in
Nazinga 4016 fishes in 88 samples. In total, we landed 20034 fishes in the three areas. In Bam
we were catching more species and larger fishes than that the commercial fishermen were
doing; therefore we ignored the commercial landings. But in Koubri, we collected data on
1122 fishes from 36 commercial landings and in Nazinga 353 fishes from 7 commercial
landings, total 1475 fishes.
The list of species met of the three areas given in the appendix 8.3 is drawn from the total
number of fishes that we observed experimental and commercial landings together. Our
landings are detailed in appendixes 8.4 to 8.7. In the three areas together, in total we recorded
16 families of fish distributed in 56 species (experimental and commercial landing together).
Nazinga exhibited 48 species, Koubri 35 and Bam 20 (fig. 5.6). In the commercial landings,
we found one species (Heterotis niloticus) that we did not catch, that was at Nazinga. Fig. 5.6: Frequency of species in Bam, Koubri and Nazinga, experimental
and commercial landings together (for relative frequency: N = 56 that is the
number of species of the 3 areas together ; Ki = Section i of Koubri, Koubri:
35 species in total)
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
69
Details on the fish community composition in the three areas are given in table 5.8. The
cichlids were nearly twice more abundant in Bam (45 %) than in Koubri (26 %) or in Nazinga
(27 %). The cyprinids were less common in Nazinga (25.29%) than in Bam (38.05%) or in
Koubri (59.15%).
In Bam two species represented together more than 50% of the community: Sarotherodon
galilaeus, 30.2 % and Barbus ablabes, 26.3%. They were followed in order of decreasing
importance by Chelaethiops bibie (6.5%), Barbus macrops (5.9%), and Oreochromis
niloticus, Clarias gariepinus, Tilapia zillii and Hemichromis letourneauxi (nearly 4% each).
The remaining 12 species together formed 15%.
In Koubri, two species dominated: B. ablabes (40.1%) and B. macrops (17.9%). They were
followed in order of decreasing importance by S. galilaeus (9.4%), T. zillii (8.9%), O.
niloticus (5.2%), and C. gariepinus (3.4%). The remaining 29 species together formed 15.1%.
In Nazinga no species emerged as much predominant. The most frequent species were S.
galilaeus (12.4%), Brycinus nurse (11%), and B. macrops (10.8%). They were followed in
order of decreasing importance by O. niloticus (7.6%), B. ablabes (7.2%). C. gariepinus and
T. zillii were 5.5% each. The remaining 41 species formed together 40%.
The number of emergent species (> 1%) was 12 in Bam, 9 in Koubri, and 20 in Nazinga. The
pygmy species that were Barbus sp. and C. bibie represented 39% of the fish community in
Bam, 59 in Koubri and 22 in Nazinga. On the opposite the large size and piscivorous species
(C. gariepinus, L. niloticus, Hydrocynus sp., Heterobranchus sp., and Bagrus sp.) represented
together 4% in Bam, 5% in Koubri and 10% in Nazinga.
70
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
Table 5.8: Relative frequency (%) of fish species in Nazinga, sections in Koubri and Bam (K1 free flowing, K4
tributaries, K2 reservoir downstream, K3 reservoir upstream)
Species
Sarotherodon galilaeus
Brycinus nurse
Barbus macrops
Oreochromis niloticus
Barbus ablabes
Clarias gariepinus
Tilapia zillii
Chelaethiops bibie
Auchenoglanis occidentalis
Schilbe intermedius
Labeo senegalensis
Alestes dentex
Synodontis schall
Schilbe mystus
Marcusenius senegalensis
Lates niloticus
Petrocephalus bovei
Hemichromis fasciatus
Mormyrus rume
Alestes baremoze
Hydrocinus forskalii
Heterobranchus bidorsalis
Polypterus endlicheri
Labeo coubie
Brycinus macrolepidotus
Synodontis punctifer
Hyperopisus bebe
Synodontis clarias
Bagrus bajad
Heterotis niloticus
Brienomyrus niger
Bagrus docmak
Citharinus citharus
Hemichromis letourneauxi
Mormyrus hasselquistii
Hippopotamyrus paugyi
Labeo niloticus
Distichodus rostratus
Synodontis velifer
Hydrocinus vittatus
Malapterurus electricus
Micralestes elongates
Hemisynodontis membranaceus
Synodontis comoensis
Synodontis filamentosus
Synodontis vermiculatus
Heterobranchus longifilis
Mormyrops anguilloides
Hippopotamyrus pictus
Siluranodon auritus
Chrysichthys nigrodigitatus
Ctenopoma petcherici
Ctenopoma kingsleyae
Pollimyrus isidori
Polypterus senegalus
Protopterus annectens
Total (%)
Total number of fishes
Number of species
Nazinga K1
K4
K2
K3
Bam Together
12.45 9.23 12.7 4.49 8.44 30.2
12.47
10.99 2.02 0.82
0.4 2.65 0.36
3.32
10.8 14.4 19.3 16.7 20.9 5.88
15.03
7.6
1.9 5.84 8.31
6.5
4.3
5.61
7.23 34.7 37.2 51.1 43.6 26.3
31.81
5.58 5.77 3.76 0.99 1.41 3.99
3.88
5.47 6.26 13.6 5.26 8.08 3.91
7.6
3.57 1.57
1.1 0.58 1.64 6.47
2.36
3.46 0.05 0.28
0.36
0.81
3.39 4.84 0.58 0.04
0.43
1.82
2.93
0.6
2.82
0.57
2.17 0.33 0.06 0.58 1.04
1.5
0.93
2.04 0.83 0.76
0.74
1.97 0.12 0.45 0.09 0.42 0.87
0.7
1.88 1.38 0.06 4.36 0.56
1.21
1.83 0.19
0.72
2.65
0.8
1.74 2.18 0.02 4.85 1.38 3.43
1.92
1.67 0.19
0.09 0.03
0.39
1.56 0.97 0.09 0.22 0.03
1.3
0.71
1.12 0.14
0.26
0.92
0.19
0.69
0.14
0.69
0.14
0.66
0.13
0.64 2.75 0.04
0.4 0.37 0.51
0.84
0.57 0.76 0.09
0.25
0.33
0.55
0.11
0.5
0.1
0.43
0.09
0.34
0.04 0.04
0.08
0.3 0.21
0.1
0.23
0.05
0.18 1.21 0.86
1.92 4.11
1.26
0.16
0.03
0.14
0.03
0.14
0.03
0.11
0.02
0.09
0.02
0.09
0.02
0.07 0.02 0.02 0.09 0.14
0.06
0.05
0.01
0.05 0.95
0.09
0.2
0.05
0.01
0.02
0
0.02
0
0.02
0
0.02 0.02 0.02 0.27 0.03
0.05
1.19 0.63
0.37 0.04
0.43
3.56 0.26
0.03
3.4
1.16
1.47 0.06 0.04 0.03
0.31
0.21
0.04
0.57 0.22 0.04
0.16
0.41
0.09
0.05
0.09
0.08
0.03
0.76 0.09
0.2
0.2
100
100
100
100
100
100
100
4369 4214 4626 2226 3541 2533
21509
48
32
28
25
23
20
56
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
71
Fish size in Bam and in Koubri
We caught 2533 fishes in Bam and 3177 in Koubri. At community level (i.e. all species
together), the mean length of the fish was 56.16 mm in Bam (SD 35.08) and 50.17 mm in
Koubri (SD 24.52). It was significantly higher in Bam than in Koubri (p < 0.05, fig. 5.7). The
length frequency distributions of fish community in Bam and in Koubri (fig. 5.8) were similar
in general. Nearly all lengths ranged from 20 to 140 mm in both areas. However large fishes
appeared somehow frequent in Bam and infrequent in Koubri.
Fig. 5.7: Box plot comparing the length of fish communities in Bam and
in Koubri
72
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
Fig. 5.8: Frequency distribution of fish communities in Bam and in Koubri; fishes of more
than 300 mm long are excluded
Table 5.9: Comparison of fish size in Bam and Koubri: mean total length (TL in mm) of
major species and values of p (Mann-Whitney test)
Species
Area
N
Mean TL
SD
Value of p
Bam
764
31.27
13.56
< 0.05 S. galilaeus
Koubri
536
62.00
22.00
Bam
665
37.49
9.72
< 0.05 B. ablabes
Koubri
1044
40.32
12.57
Bam
87
38.22
4.07
< 0.05 H. fasciatus
Koubri
153
45.63
9.28
Bam
109
81.13
38.37
> 0.05
O. niloticus
Koubri
237
79.01
31.37
Bam
101
184.15
46.15
< 0.05 C. gariepinus
Koubri
15
152.60
69.20
Bam
9
68.11
13.43
< 0.05 B. nurse
Koubri
37
111.41
44.15
Bam
99
71.95
26.27
< 0.05 T. zillii
Koubri
525
45.13
21.47
Bam
149
49.19
11.98
< 0.05 B. macrops
Koubri
361
42.37
12.12
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
73
At population level, the mean length of most species was significantly lower in Bam than in
Koubri (table 5.9). For instance, the mean length of S. galilaeus was 51.27 mm in Bam but
62 mm in Koubri and the one of B. ablabes 37.49 mm in Bam but 40.32 mm in Koubri. But
for O. niloticus was significantly larger in Bam than in Koubri, where it was 81.13 and 79 mm
respectively.
In general there was a trend to have less length classes, less small size fishes and less large
individuals in Bam than in Koubri. The species length frequency distribution (fig. 5.9) shows
that for most species (e.g. B. ablabes, B. nurse, C. gariepinus and H. fasciatus) juvenile
individuals appeared less in Bam than in Koubri. Large size fishes were infrequent in Bam but
frequent in Koubri. However in both areas in general, juvenile individuals were not much
frequent. Also in general the number of length classes in Bam was similar to that in Koubri.
However, small size fishes were much recorded neither in Bam nor in Koubri.
74
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
Fig. 5.9: Box plots (left hand side column) and length frequency distribution (right hand side
column) of major species in Bam and in Koubri
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
Fig. 5.9 (continued): Box plots (left hand side column) and length frequency distribution
(right hand side column) of major species in Bam and in Koubri
75
76
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
Fish size in Koubri and in Nazinga
We caught 6516 fishes in Koubri and 4016 in Nazinga. All species together, the mean length
of fish was 61.41 mm in Koubri (SD 35.28) and 112.66 mm in Nazinga (SD 77.45). It was
significantly lower Koubri than in Nazinga (p < 0.05, fig. 5.10). The length frequency
distribution of fish communities of Koubri and Nazinga (fig. 5.11) exhibited some
dissimilarity. While 40-80 mm long fishes were much numerous in Koubri, they were less in
Nazinga. Also very small size fishes (< 40 mm) were more frequent in Koubri, and infrequent
in Nazinga. Very large fishes were not recorded in Koubri but were in Nazinga.
Fig. 5.10: Box plot comparing the length of fish communities in Koubri
and in Nazinga
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
77
Fig. 5.11: Length frequency distribution of fish communities in Koubri and
in Nazinga; fishes of more than 600 mm long are excluded
At population level, the mean length of most all species was significantly smaller in Koubri
than in Nazinga. For example, the mean length of L. niloticus was 103.10 mm in Koubri but
189.32 mm in Nazinga and the one of C. gariepinus 100.92 mm in Koubri but 226.28 mm in
Nazinga. But for a few species it was similar in Koubri than in Nazinga. That was the cases of
T. zillii that was 94.58 mm long in Koubri and 94.44 mm in Nazinga and S. intermedius that
was 105.49 mm long in Koubri and 108 mm in Nazinga. Table 5.10 gives the mean length of
major species in the two areas and the values of p.
78
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
Table 5.10: Comparison of fish size in Koubri and Nazinga: mean total length (TL, mm) of
major species and values of p (Mann-Whitney test)
Species
Area
N
Mean TL
SD
Value of p
Koubri
62
103.10
34.95
< 0.05 L. niloticus
Nazinga
66
189.32
72.52
Koubri
504
98.42
47.42
< 0.05 S. galilaeus
Nazinga
531
113.73
37.91
Koubri
256
100.92
92.05
< 0.05 C. gariepinus
Nazinga
233
226.28
105.80
Koubri
96
49.72
10.61
< 0.05 H. fasciatus
Nazinga
76
99.12
25.37
Koubri
5
59.00
22.19
< 0.05 H. forskalli
Nazinga
31
247.74
71.97
Koubri
1232
52.11
10.58
< 0.05 B. macrops
Nazinga
472
51.19
14.23
Koubri
113
71.64
18.20
< 0.05 B. nurse
Nazinga
476
108.22
27.33
Koubri
283
94.58
33 .39
> 0.05 T. zillii
Nazinga
239
94.44
32.05
Koubri
183
105.49
39.27
> 0.05 S. intermedius
Nazinga
146
108.41
55.43
The length frequency distribution of major species in Koubri and Nazinga (fig. 5.12) shows
that for a many species like S. galilaeus, C. gariepinus, B. nurse, L. niloticus and H. fasciatus
juvenile individuals appeared in Koubri but not Nazinga. But for all species very large size
fishes are infrequent in Koubri but frequent in Nazinga. However in both areas in general,
juvenile individuals were infrequent. Also there were fewer classes in Koubri than in
Nazinga, excepted for S. galilaeus.
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
Fig. 5.12: Box plots (left hand side column) and length frequency distribution (right hand
side column) of major species in Koubri and in Nazinga
79
80
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
Fig. 5.12 (continued): Box plots (left hand side column) and length frequency distribution
(right hand side column) of major species in Koubri and in Nazinga
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
81
5.2.5- Fish abundance and biomass in the three areas of study
Abundance and biomass of fish in Bam and in Koubri
With CN we took 19 samples of fish in Bam and 24 in Koubri. On average a CN throw
yielded 5.24 fishes (SD 6.45) in Bam and 6.21 fishes (SD 7.19) in Koubri. The number of
fishes per throw was not significantly lower in Bam than in Koubri (p > 0.05). On average a
CN throw yielded 18.26 g (SD 13.99) in Bam and 28.50 g (SD 22.41) in Koubri. The biomass
per throw was not significantly lower in Bam than in Koubri (p > 0.05).
We took 11 EF samples in Bam and 16 in Koubri. The mean number of fish per ha of water
was 1754.00 (SD 966.92) in Bam and 1971.44 (SD 1414) in Koubri. It was not significantly
lower in Bam than in Koubri (p > 0.05). The mean biomass per hectare of water fished was
9.44 kg (SD 9.01) was in Bam and 3.81 kg (SD 1.98) in Koubri. It was not significantly
higher in Bam than in Koubri (p < 0.05).
Abundance and biomass in Koubri and Nazinga
With CN we took 19 samples in Koubri and 27 in Nazinga. The mean number of fishes per
CN throw was 12.72 fishes (SD 12.88) in Koubri and 7.08 (SD 9.05) in Nazinga. It was not
significantly higher in Koubri than in Nazinga (p > 0.05). The mean biomass per CN throw
was 70.90 g (SD 132.25) in Koubri and 278.32 g (SD 461.35) in Nazinga. It was not
significantly lower in Koubri than in Nazinga (p > 0.05).
We took 12 EF samples in Koubri and 11 in Nazinga. The mean number of fish per hectare of
water was 3107.42 (SD 2646) in Koubri and 4177.69 (SD 3559.96) in Nazinga. However it
was not significantly lower in Koubri than in Nazinga (p > 0.05). The mean biomass per
hectare of water was 15 kg (SD 24.47) in Koubri and 42.90 kg (SD 39.64) in Nazinga. It was
not significantly lower in Koubri than in Nazinga (p > 0.05).
82
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
5.2.6- Discussion on fish ecology
Electric fishing and traditional gears
It appeared easier and more efficient to sample with CN than with any of the three other
gears. EF and CN caught fish indiscriminately, which was not the case of GN and LL due to
the limited sizes of the mesh for GN and of hooks for LL. But, EF was suitable for stony sites,
shallow waters and very small transversal size waters (brooks) where CN, GN & LL could not
be properly used. On the opposite and to some extent, the traditional gears could be used
where EF could not, that was in waters with much covering vegetation (Eldon, 1968), in
deeper and offshore waters because we were wading. Penczak et al. (1998) found that EF was
more effective than nets (gill nets and seines) and considered that 1-run e-fishing is better for
estimating the fish density than the species diversity and that the nets should be used as
complementary gears. If so, we might have missed some species as we run once in each EF
sampling site. In our case however, CN and EF tended to have similar efficiency both for
number of fish specimens and for fish species. Therefore, it is much important to consider the
effects of fishing techniques on assessing fish assemblages (Lawrence et al. 1997; Medeiros
et al., 2010) and in fisheries management (Jawad, 2006). The advantages and the
disadvantages of using CN, EF, GN and LL in the context of Burkina Faso as we
experimented are illustrated by fig. 5.13 and detailed in table 5.11.
Use of traditional gears in deep waters
A fall into a hole, with the generator on the
back
Fig. 5.13: With the traditional fishing gears it was possible to sample in relatively deep waters.
It was risky to wade and sample with electric fishing.
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
83
Table 5.11: Advantages and disadvantages of using CN, EF, GN and LL as we experimented
Gears
CN
EF
GN
LL
Investment cost (in Burkina and in €)*
60
15,000
60
60
Number of operators needed
1
3
1
1
Running costs (per day, in €)
15
50
15
15
Type
Active
Active
Passive
Passive
Very low Very low
Sophistication
Very low Very high
Risks to operators
Low
High
Low
Low
Adverse effects of wind
Moderate Low
High
High
Adverse effects of water current
Moderate Low
High
High
Adverse effects of vegetation
High
High
Moderate Low
Selectivity to fish
Low
Low
Very high Very high
Ability to fish in deep water
High
Low
High
High
Ability to fish in small water cross section Moderate High
Low
Low
Ability to fish in large water cross section High
Low
High
High
Ability to fish in stony sites
Low
High
High
High
Risks to the environment
Low
High
Low
Low
Nighttime sampling risks to operators
High
High
Low
Low
Availability in Burkina Faso
Available Not available Available Available
Very high Very high
Low
Low
Number of specimens exhibited
Very
high
Very
high
Low
Low
Number of species exhibited
*The EF equipment is not available in Burkina Faso and the fisheries department is not allowed to purchase it
directely from Europ; a middleman is required, he will travel to Europ, and will pay costum duty taxes and VAT
in Burkina Faso.
Spatial and temporal variations in fish community in Koubri
The decrease in species richness from section 1 to section 2 and from section 2 to section 3
suggests that the migration of fish is impeded by the dams. But for many reasons, section 4
exhibited more species than expected. Firstly, that section comprised running and non running
waters, which was not the case of any other section. Secondly as shown in paragraph 2.3.2riverside people have protected the fish resources of some reservoirs in that portion, say
closed season and exclusive right of access to fish resources. Thirdly the accidental frequent
breaks of dams in that section have allowed exchange of fish with sections 2 and 3; they are
comparable to the intentional removal of dams in developed countries (Hart et al., 2002;
Kocovsky et al., 2009). Fifthly, the ravines and the lateral type of spillway may not act as
complete barriers to fish migration. Finally, the fishermen have transferred species from
sections 1, 2 and 3 to section 4, 16 cases of transfers between 1991 and 2007 as explained in
paragraph 2.3.2-
84
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
Despite dams and impoundment are commonly known to have negative impacts on fish
species diversity (Gourène et al. 1999), some authors pointed out that fish increase in
diversity and in abundance, especially in seasonal rivers (Lévêque et al., 1988) and in arid
areas (after Huenneke & Noble, 1996) after the development of reservoirs. Therefore, one
could expect less species in section 1 than in the others. As our results show the contrary but
that section is the mouth of the area; and as we visually witnessed, its hydrology is altered by
upstream reservoirs in a way that looks profitable to fish (Van Oel, 2009). Besides, there was
no water in that section from the end of the middle of the dry season (April-May) to 25 July
as this was the spill-over date of Arzoum Baongo. Therefore the relative good healthy status
of this section should be moderate. In fact, the hydrobiology of the small size SoudanoSahelian reservoirs remains poorly understood, which made Cecchi et al. (2009) appealed for
research in that domain.
The archives of the Fish Resources Department, Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Fish
Resources showed that some years ago the two largest reservoirs were restocked with tilapia
(O. niloticus, S. galilaeus, and T. zillii). All species together Arzoum Baongo received 5,000
fishes 06/11/1999 and Naba Zana 2,800 fishes 06/10/2000. But we believe that this could not
affect our results since the restocking rates were very low, 9-12 fishes/ha, and no measure was
implemented to protect the fish resources after the restocking took place; besides, chapter 4
described the species shift as seen by the fishermen; they did not mentioned any important
historical change of those species in these waters. We should keep in mind that no fish survey
was undertaken before the restocking; therefore, it was not prove that the restocking was
biologically necessary.
The small size species like Barbus sp. and C. bibie take advantage of the asperities and the
vegetation for protection against the water current when migrating (Lévêque et al.. 1988),
which the large size species cannot do (fig. 5.14). Therefore the pygmy species are abundant
in any section of Koubri and the large and migratory species like C. gariepinus, L. niloticus,
the Schilbeidae and the Mormyridae more abundant in Section 1 than in any other section.
The extremely large number of C. gariepinus that was caught is a particularity. We caught
them in a particular site and in a particular period of time. They were the 0+ fishes that
inhabited the dissipation basins of Arzoum Baongo in October-December. This is in line with
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
85
Offem et al. (2010) that found that the African catfish has a peak breeding period in during
the rainy season and abundance peak soon later. That source also found that the catfish is
more abundance in the upper reaches than in the lower ones and is nocturne. This suggests
that the 0+ Clarias migrated from the upper sections (Lévêque, 2006b) and daytime they were
hiding between the blocks of concrete of the basins.
Fig. 5.14: Barbus sp. attempting to surmount the dam of
Wedbila. Barbus sp. is a small size fish species: total length of
2.5 cm
Our findings on the seasonal shifts of fish species diversity confirm previous studies. Fish
species diversity and assemblage are known to seasonally change in the temperate waters
(Carpentier et al., 2004: Deudero et al., 1999) as well in the tropical ones (Rueda & Defeo,
2003; Dansoko et al., 1976; Laë, 1992; Pont, 1994; Garcia et al., 2003) in close relation with
the flood periodicity and the availability of habitat and food items (Winemiller & Jepsen,
1998; Oueda et al., 2008). All species virtually look for flooded areas that they use as
spawning grounds and nursery habitat (Winemiller & Jepsen, 1998). Then, they can be easily
caught during the rainy season. Also as the brooks contain water only during rainy season,
that period was the most productive one in terms of species diversity (Taylor et al. 2006),
associated with abundance of migratory species like H. membranaceus, C. gariepinus and
families like the Mormyridae and the Schilbeidae. Under tropical environment like in
Burkina, fish tend to migrate a lot and to migrate as soon as possible, that is very early in the
rainy season in order to colonize newly flooded areas (Quensière, et al. 1994b). In Lake Chad
they migrate shortly after the first rains of the year to leave the stressful parts of the water
86
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
Bénech & Quensière (1987). Although this applies to nearly all species, it was more
applicable to the mormyrid, which confirms our trend to record these species more frequently
during the rainy season than during the dry one.
The season of reproduction depends on the species biology and ecology and on the
hydrological regime. While T. zillii spawn at the end of the dry season (El-Sayed &
Moharram, 2007), the African catfish breeds during the rainy period (Offem, et al. 2010). S.
galilaeus and O. niloticus spawn anytime but in larger quantities during the rainy season
(Bénech & Quensière, 1985). Therefore the seasonal frequency of juveniles followed this
trend with a little temporary shift.
During the falling-water period the fishes were concentrated in a small volume of water;
during the rainy season, the quantity of water increased, and the fishes were therefore diluted
and the abundance decreased (Winemiller & Jepsen, 1998; Arfi, 2005). But as in general the
peak of breeding occurs during that period then, the abundance of fishes increased at the end
of the rainy season that is also the beginning of the dry season one; during this period, the
juveniles were abundant, the case of C. gariepinus (Offem, et al. 2010) being expressive.
When the density of fishes is high during the dry season (Lévêque, 2006b) piscivorous
species such as L. niloticus and C. gariepinus do not spend much energy to find preys.
Therefore, they tend to be large by that period. But as the density of fish decreases during the
rainy season, preys become less available and consequently the growth of these species
decreases. On the opposite for primary consumers like S. galilaeus and O. niloticus
(Villanueva et al., 2005), the availability of food items is reduced during the dry season but
increases during the rainy one (Arfi, 2005; Oueda, 2008); their size is affected accordingly.
Fish communities in Bam, Koubri and Nazinga
In Burkina the most referred fish species list was provided by Roman (1966). We recorded
46.3% of the 121 species mentioned by that source and 38.1% of the 147 species in the Volta
River (Hugueny, 1989). In this part section, in addition to discuss the results of the study, we
tried to trace the historical shifts in the fish species composition. To do so, we rely on the
literature; but as data are missing, we discussed with the fishermen.
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
87
Fish species association to habitat
Muddy and muddy-to- sandy sites yielded more specimens and species than the other sites
because they were much more numerous than the others due to the high rates sedimentation in
Burkina waters. The second most productive type of site was the stony one, including the
blocks of concrete of Arzoum Baongo dissipation basins. The stones were used to build some
reservoirs’ dikes and spillways, especially in Nazinga. Some were moved downstream by the
water flow (fig. 5.15); then, they created refuges for large number of fishes and species whose
upstream migration was blocked. Consequently, these sites were more productive. The
cemented sites were the dissipation basins of 3 reservoirs of Koubri (1 basin / reservoir). They
were adjacent to the dikes and could be expected to host fishes which migration was also
blocked. However they were much fished by local people, usually kids using domestic
mosquito nets or hooks. Accordingly they exhibited a considerable number of species that the
kids could catch but not a significant number of specimens.
Fig. 5.15: Sampling in a stony site in Nazinga. The stones on the
operators right hand side are still in the dike; those on their left
hand side and those behind them were transported downstream by
the water flow
Due to the hydrological conditions, to the inclination of fish to migrate and the barriers to
their migration, our study did not show any preference of fish to specific habitat, neither for
88
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
lentic or lotic waters, nor for type of dominating substrate. But this does not contradict the
findings of Goldstein & Meador (2004) and Chatzinikolaou et al. (2008) that associated fish
to environmental variables. At least, we showed that all species migrate a lot in Burkina. Even
P. annectens that is reputed as sedentary species (Quensière et al., 1994a; Orator, 2009)
migrates if we assume that all fishes caught in the brooks were migrating. When migrating,
they can be caught any place that they do not usually frequent. As in our three study areas the
rivers are not large the fishes could be caught there more easily than in the lentic waters. This
could explain why we caught more species in the running waters than we did in the non
running ones.
The migration of fish is highly important for breeding, for diversity conservation and for
fisheries development. Therefore the longitudinal connectivity of the brooks has to be
preserved when building dams or restored for the already built dams (Jos et al. 2008;
Arthington et al. 2006), which confirms the relevance of the legal requirement to incorporate
migratory devices in dams in Burkina Faso (Assemblée Nationale, 2001).
Fish community in Bam
Our literature search brought no results of previous scientific survey of fish community in
Bam. The present work is probably the first scientific study on fish species assemblage in the
lake. Our discussions with the fishermen revealed that we missed 4 species (Heterobranchus
sp., M. electricus, M. rume and H. niloticus) that also appear very occasionally in commercial
landings. Therefore, the total number of fish would be 24 in Bam. The fishermen stated that
two decades ago, C. gariepinus and H. niloticus were dominating, Polypterus sp., Synodontis
sp., P. annectens and the tilapias were frequent, Alestes sp. and Brycinus sp. moderately
frequent and Barbus sp. rare. The Mormyridae family, Hydrocynus sp., Heterobranchus sp.
and M. electricus appeared about 30 years ago. L. niloticus was twice introduced 30-40 years
ago but disappeared a decade later. Pelvicachromis humilis (or a similar species) identified by
the fishermen in Lévêque et al. (1992) was said to have been extinct. They also pointed out
that nearly every year, fish mortality occurs at the end of the dry season. Another source of
data is a report of a fishery survey that the United Nations Food and Agriculture Organization
undertook in Bam in December 1987. Twenty one species of 11 families were recorded in the
commercial landings but the total number was estimated at about 30 (Coenen, 1988). We can
conclude that 5 species have disappeared in 2 decades.
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
89
Coenen (1988) declared that in 1987 S. galilaeus was dominant (39.1%). It was followed by
O. niloticus (16.3%), B. nurse (9.9%), M. senegalensis (9.1%), S. mystus (8.9%), A.
occidentalis (5.6%) and S. schall (4.2%). The others species together were 6.9% of the
landings. Today there is no shift of S. galilaeus frequency. However, the frequency of O.
niloticus decreased to 4.3%, ranking it as the fourth most frequent species instead of the
second as it was two decades ago. Over time the frequency of the other major species also
decreased to a maximum of 0.87% that is for M. senegalensis. We did not find Brycinus letus
(and/or leuciscus), Hyperopisus bebe occidentalis, Micralates elongates and Pellonula miri
that Coenen (1988) recorded. But C. bibie, H. fasciatus, H. letourneauxi and A. baremoze
appeared. Also over the two decades there is a general cut of species weight. For instance the
mean weight of S. galilaeus dropped from 23 g to 3.3. But more details will be given in the
next chapter.
Today species of small size (the Cyprinids) and tolerant species (the tilapia and C. gariepinus)
dominate. In our results, the intolerant Mormyridae (Bénech & Quensière, 1987; Hugueny et
al., 1996; and Froese & Pauly, 2010) look frequent because they are highly migratory and we
sampled much in the upstream brooks very shortly (2-8 hours) after a rain. Actually in Chad,
these species remain concentrated at the brooks mouths and leave the area as soon it rains
(Bénech & Quensière, 1987). The migratory C. gariepinus was also much caught in these
brooks. The high rates of sedimentation and deforestation in Bam tend to homogenize the lake
bed structure and reduce the habitat diversity, which in turn, results in the erosion of species
diversity (Jungwirth et al. 1993). Likely, S. galilaeus which reproduction strategy and feeding
habits cope with these conditions dominates (Paugy, 2002; Hambright et al., 2002). Actually
Baijot et al. (1994) found that in Burkina the mean length at first reproduction of that species
was 135 mm in small reservoirs. However in Bam, no individual of that species has reached
that size today; the largest fish is 120 mm long. This infers that S. galilaeus has a high
capacity to adapt its breeding strategy for the species to survive in highly impacted waters.
But they have to spend much energy in reproduction to the extent that they do not grow. Also,
the fishermen tend to catch the largest fishes. As small size and highly predatory species,
Hemichromis sp. takes advantage of the fish eggs and larvae of the abundant other cichlids as
food items (Lemasson, 1960). For this reason it is abundant today.
90
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
Fish community in Koubri
In Koubri we recorded more many species than I expected before the study. Actually they
migrated from the largest reservoir of Burkina that is Bagré, 25,000 ha large, created in 1992
on the main Nakanbe River for irrigation and hydropower production purposes. They reached
Koubri after covering 100 km (estimated from Google Earth) and taking advantage of the
disrupted downstream dams of Pelle (created in 1950, and Segda) to pursue their migration.
However, Villanueva et al. (2006) stated the existence of Gymnarchus niloticus and Labeo sp.
in Bagré but we found them neither in experimental landings nor in the commercial ones. In
fact they disappeared from Koubri some decades ago (see chapter 4). The first species was
recorded by Baijot et al. (1994) in the reservoir of Nagbangré that is contiguous to and
located above our study area and that is also called PK25 in fig. 2.5. Therefore in addition to
the dams being barriers to the migration of these species, we should consider additional
sources of threats like fishing and agriculture pressures and practices. Actually, a fisherman
used to set his fishing gears completely across the river section (chapter 2), which is forbidden
by the fisheries law. Also the increasing abstraction of water and the climatic change that
resulted in the loss of inundated area where these species spawn could be considered
(Quensière, 1994; Lévêque et al., 2006; Mustapha, 2009). Today, top predatory species (L.
niloticus) and intolerant species such as H. membranaceus, and the Mormyrid (Bénech &
Quensière, 1987; Lévêque & Paugy, 2006b; Hugueny et al., 1996; and Froese & Pauly, 2010)
are moderately met in Koubri. The dominance of small size (Barbus sp.) is common in
Burkina Faso (Baijot et al., 1994) and in tropical inland waters in general (Lévêque et al.,
1988).
Fish community in Nazinga
Twenty years ago, 26 species of 12 families were recorded by Ouedraogo (1987) in Zerbo
(pers. com., 2010)2. They were dominated by S. galilaeus and Clarias sp. followed by O.
niloticus, A. occidentalis, Alestes nurse currently named B. nurse, L. senegalensis, and B.
niger. Additionally Yigo (1989) cited by SOFRECO (2003) recorded 32 species of fish, but
no detail is given on the species composition. Four species might be added to our results as
2
Mr. Zerbo is the current director for capture fisheries; he sent me an email 15/01/2010. Our attempt to access
the main document of Mr Ouedraogo, the author of the study failed.
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
91
Vermeulen & Portier (2001)3 stated that of Clarias anguilaris, P. annectens, Barbus
bawknensis, and Hepsetus odoe were present. However C. gariepinus that we recorded might
be confused with C. anguilaris as they are much alike (Lévêque et al., 1992). Therefore, the
number of species in Nazinga would be 51-52 today, meaning a likely improvement over
time.
Today the fish species assemblage is quite similar than two decades ago and no species
dominates extremely. Predatory species such as the Nile perch L. niloticus and the tiger fish
Hydrocinus sp. are frequent and of large in size. Many intolerant and vulnerable species like
A. occidentalis, H. membranaceus, Labeo sp. Synodontis sp. and the mormyrid are met
abundantly. Small size species are abundant but not dominant, and large fishes frequent.
Fish community: Bam vs. Koubri vs. Nazinga
In any of the three areas, one would expect the classes of young fishes to be obviously greater
than the ones of the adult classes (King, 1999), which was not the case. Maïga et al. (2007)
found the similar in length frequency of the entire fish community in Niger River that they
attributed to the high fishing intensity, which is the case in Bam and Koubri. In addition to
possible bias in the sampling, some other explanations could be evoked. In Bam, the yearly
mortality of fish might probably affect the juveniles more than the adults. That statement
applies also to Koubri where, after the fishermen who were member of the sampling team,
fish mortality often occurs. It particularly happened in 2008 in PK25 reservoir (see fig. 2.5)
following the first rain of the year. Actually the first rains of year often carry high biological
oxygen demand that reduces the oxygen concentration in the water and the resulting hypoxic
conditions can cause the death of fishes (Townsend & Edwards, 2003), particularly the
juveniles. From our working experience, we know that this event is frequent in Burkina Faso
as for instance we witnessed in 1998 on the reservoir No3 of Ouagadougou. We must also
consider the instability of the hydrology in association that can affect the success of the
reproduction. Under the tropics, the process of fish reproduction is more complex than the one
of their growth. Many species spawn less or even refrain from spawning if the hydrological
regime does not fit their ecological requirements (Muzigwa & Diemby, 1993; Quensière et
al., 1994a; Muzigwa et al. 2009). Although information on the hydrology of the three areas of
the year preceding the sampling period are missing, in Burkina the filling of water bodies can
3
Poster developed by using data extracted from Ouedraogo (1987).
92
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
last a very short to a very long period of time. For instance and as shown in fig. 1.1 in 1990
the small reservoir No3 of Ouagadougou city (50 ha large, located 100 km far from Bam, only
25 km from Koubri and 150 km from Nazinga) needed 3 months to be filled late in August
that is very late in the rainy season; but in1990 it was filled only in one night in May that was
very early in the rainy season (Baijot, 1994). Such filling and seasonality are not suitable to
the success of fish reproduction (Paugy, 2002). Likely a very short period of filling does not
make much spawning grounds available but gradual filling rate does. Very early and very late
filling dates do not meet the fish spawning ecology. In our study area of Koubri, one would
expect any upstream reservoir to spill over before any downstream one, which was not the
case.
We expected the size of the fish community to be significantly smaller in Bam than in Koubri,
which was not the case. S. galilaeus that dominated in Bam (30%) is not a pygmy species on
the opposite of Barbus sp. that dominated in Koubri (44% at the end of the dry season).
Furthermore adult fishes and migratory and siluriform species were abundant in the major
brooks (Hocutt, 1989; Winemiller & Kelso-Winemiller, 1996), or confined in their mouth
areas (Bénech & Quensière, 1987) that we E-fished much in Bam. For this reason C.
gariepinus that is a large size species were much more frequent in Bam (4%) than in Koubri
where it was 8 times less frequent (0.5%). Therefore, the mean length of fish was affected and
consequently it was not significantly smaller in Bam than in Koubri.
We expected the size of the fish community to be significantly lower in Koubri than in
Nazinga; which was not the case. The vegetation was much denser in Nazinga than in Koubri,
making EF (Eldon, 1968) and CN not much efficient. But the use of GN and LL was not
much affected. However the crocodiles that were abundant used to take fishes caught by the
GN and LL which was not the case in Koubri (fig. 5.16). The EF sites areas were much
smaller in Nazinga than in Koubri. Therefore in Nazinga large fishes probably escaped when
we were setting the net prior the E-Fishing sessions took place. Furthermore, the hydrology of
the downstream parts of Koubri and Nazinga differed much, due to the difference in the
quantity of water stocked in upstream reservoirs. When we were sampling in Koubri the size
of these reservoirs was about 720 ha, meaning the contiguous two reservoirs of Arzoum
Baongo and Naba Zana (to which we should add the size of PK25 reservoir); in Nazinga it
was only 24 ha (i.e. the reservoir of Boudjoro). Consequently, much more water was running
in the free flowing section of Koubri than in the one of Nazinga, which could contributed to
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
93
the difference in fish communities size (Winemiller & Jepsen, 1998). Nevertheless, intolerant,
vulnerable and un-resilient species like L. niloticus, Labeo sp., Heterobranchus sp.,
Citharinus citharus (Lévêque et al., 1988; Bénech & Quensière, 1987; Lévêque & Paugy
2006b; Hugueny et al., 1996; and Froese & Pauly, 2010) were more frequent in Nazinga than
in Koubri.
Fig. 5.16: Crocodiles in Nazinga: in photo No 1, the head of the crocodile is visible on
the left hand side. The crocodile was going to our gill net which floating part appears in
white color on the right hand side. Photo No 2 shows fishes eaten by crocodiles that
also destroyed the gill net; the remaining head of a fish is shown in the circle
The trend to have less length classes, less small size fishes and less large individuals in Bam
than in Koubri and in Koubri than in Nazinga reflects the difference in the reproduction
success, the dissimilarity in habitat availability for all life history stages and the rate of
mortality (Jaiswar et al., 2001), confirming the ranking of the health of the three areas.
The water area is twice larger in Bam than in Koubri and 11 times larger than Nazinga, and 7
times larger in Koubri than in Nazinga. But the species diversity is lower in Bam than in
Koubri and lower in Koubri than in Nazinga. Referring to Moyle et al. (1998) suggesting that
the more a water-body is impacted, the less species it hosts and the less tolerant species it
hosts, we conclude that Nazinga is healthier than Koubri, and Koubri healthier than Bam.
However this could be moderated by the river continuum concept as reasoned by Vannote et
al. (1980) even if this is marked less in tropical waters than in the temperate ones (Hugueny,
1990). Bam is located in the near upstream part of the Nakanbe River, Koubri in the middle
part and Nazinga in the bellow one.
94
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
Abundance of fish Bam vs. Koubri vs. Nazinga
Abundance of fish in Bam and in Koubri
As pygmy species dominated much less in Bam than in Koubri, the fish abundance was not
significantly lower in Bam than in Koubri. This is corroborating with Welcomme (2001) that
stated the density of fishes may increase with the impacts that the water experience.
Abundance of fish in Koubri and in Nazinga
Because minuscule species dominated the fish community in Koubri but were less frequent in
Nazinga, the abundance of fish for CN tended to be higher in Koubri than in Nazinga. But for
EF it tended to be higher in Nazinga where the shoreline profuse vegetation provides
juveniles with abundant nursery habitat (Winemiller & Jepsen, 1998) where we tended to
sample. However, as expected for any gear, the biomass per unit of fishing effort remained
lower in Koubri than in Nazinga.
CN was used in deeper and more offshore and the EF in the water margins, which probably
affected the results as adult fishes tend to live offshore (Pont, 1994; Tito de Morais & Tito de
Morais, 1994, Winemiller & Jepsen, 1998). The contrast in catches per unit of fishing effort is
illustrated by fig. 5.17.
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
Koubri: a cast net throw that
yielded more than 300 small
size Barbus sp. totaling 250 g
95
Nazinga: a cast net throw that yielded
about 15 African catfishes totaling 25
kg.
Fig. 5.17: Contrasting catches per unit of fishing effort according to
the level of impact of waters: in terms of number of fishes, an
impacted water can be more productive than an un-impacted one. But
this could be the opposite for the biomass of fish
5.2.7- Conclusions
The use of fish to classify the level of impact of the three waters was appropriate. The more
an area is anthropized, the more typical its fish community attributes is supported by the
literature: less taxa, confinement to small size species, less large fishes and limited intolerant,
vulnerable and poorly resilient species and more abundance of fish in terms of number of
individuals, but less fish biomass. Bam is more impacted than Koubri and Koubri more than
Nazinga. We would probably found more significant difference in fish community between
the three areas with more suitable seasonal division in the sampling period, for instance in the
months of September, February and June that are respectively the end of the rainy season, the
middle of the dry season and the end of the dry season.
96
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
Fish migrate a lot but their migration is impeded by dams. The re-construction of the dam of
Pelle, located bellow our study area of Koubri is being planned. In case it is re-built with no
migratory appliances, the species richness is expected to decrease later. This is an appeal for
the designing of prototypes of migratory devices that fit the ecological, hydrological,
economic and sociological contexts of Burkina Faso. But for now, we suggest the
construction of series of dissipation basin and lateral type of spill way as alternative to usual
fish ladders. They would function as nature-like fish ways (Calles and Greenberg, 2007).
In Burkina Faso the nets mesh size is limited to 70 mm, stretched size, but the abundant small
size species escape. If the rule is observed, this is a direct loss of food and cash in a country
where the famine is recurrent, the proteins availability limited and the poverty endemic.
Therefore some adjustments are necessary.
5.2.8- Proposition of sentinel species
In the Sub-Saharan Africa area, some species of our records are mentioned in the IUCN-Red
list. S. galilaeus is said to be vulnerable in Lake Ejagham, Cameroon (Stiassny, 1996) and S.
mystus also vulnerable in three waters in Uganda (Twongo, 2006). This is an incentive to
suggest sentinel species for the Burkinabe waters. The principle is to use the frequency of
these species as indicating the state of impairment of waters (Beeby, 2001). The decrease of a
sentinel species frequency indicates increase impairment of the water.
To fit the contexts as revealed by the results on the ecological awareness and the fish ecology,
two criteria for a species to be sentinel can be suggested. The first type is relevant to the
threats to aquatic ecosystems. A sentinel species should be intolerant to poor quality of water,
vulnerable to fishing and lowly resilient. The second criterion aims to support the
effectiveness of the implementation of survey programmes. Research in fish and fisheries is
weak in Burkina and there is little means of improvement in the next future. For that reason
we put into contribution the fishermen ecological awareness (chapter 2) as this could be a
useful tool for research and conservation programmes (Ticheler et al., 1998; Garibaldi &
Turner, 2004). Therefore a sentinel species should be also commercial for the fishermen to
give reliable information on the status of their occurrence. We regroup similar species into
‘.sp’ to adjust to the local knowledge in fish taxonomy as the fishermen hardly distinguish
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
97
analogous species. We suggest H. niloticus, Heterobranchus sp., H. membranaceus, M. rume,
L. niloticus, Labeo sp., Polypterus sp., Hydrocynus sp., and Citharinus sp. as sentinel species
in connection with their frequencies in the three areas of study as detailed in table 5.12.
Table 5.12: Species proposed as sentinels and their occurrence in the 3 areas of study
Species
Bam
Koubri
Nazinga
Heterotis
niloticus
Very rare
Extinct
Rare
Very rare
Extinct
Rare
Absent
Re-appearing
Moderately rare
Might have existed in Bam
Rare
Moderately
rare
Labeo sp.
Absent
Disappeared
Moderately rare
Moderately
frequent
Moderately
frequent
Might existed in Bam
Lates niloticus
Absent
Disappeare
d
Heterobranchus
sp.
H.
membranaceus
Mormyrus rume
Polypterus sp.
Rare
Rare
Moderately rare
Hydrocynus sp.
Citharinus sp.
Absent
Absent
Re-appearing
Absent
Moderately rare
Moderately rare
Important remarks
Absent in Bam and Nazinga
experimental landings, was
abundant in Bam 3-4 decades
ago and present in commercial
landings in Nazinga
Absent in Bam experimental
landings
Was introduced twice in Bam
Might existed in Bam
Was abundant in Bam and
Koubri, not met in
experimental landings of
Nazinga.
Might existed in Bam
Might existed in Bam
The mean length at first reproduction of S. galilaeus is 135 mm (Baijot et al. 1994). At that
size the species has 50% of chance to be caught with a GN which stretched mesh size is 70
mm (Oginni et al., 2006). In the populations of that species, individuals longer than that size
were 0 % in Bam, 5% in Koubri and 20% in Nazinga. These figures suggest that the fishery of
S. galilaeus is biological depleted in Bam, damaged in Koubri and better in Nazinga. From
the management prospective that fishery should have been closed long time ago in Bam, must
currently be controlled severely in Koubri and moderately in Nazinga. The same statement is
accurate for O. niloticus that is similar to S. gariepinus in size and in ecology. But closing that
fishery might create more problems than it solves if appropriate supplementary measures are
not implemented. The problem of reduction of water quality could be solved by directing
appropriate measures on the watershed human activities including agricultural better practices
to reduce nutrient, pollutants and sediments loads into the waters and to reduce the abstraction
of water (Mustapha, 2009). The multipurpose of small waters (development) in Africa in
general but in Burkina in particular poses a big challenge of their management. To undertake
98
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
the journey towards sustainability, people, institutions and the nature should be addressed at
the same time (Hilhorst, 2008), which is the topic of the next chapter.
5.2.9- Contribution to the development of a fish-based assessment method for the
ecological integrity of Burkina waters
Background
The theory of the use of fish to assess the biotic integrity of waters as developed by Karr
(1981) is being widely used. However the approach requires adaptations to local conditions
and adequate knowledge on fish (Oberdorff et al., 2000; Virbickas & Kesminas, 2007). The
adaptations developed so far are conceptualized for permanent rivers and typically compare
the present status of the river to what it was in the past, which entails the use of historical data
that in some cases have to be reconstructed (Noble et al., 2007). Alternatively the status of the
river that is being studied is compared to the one of un-disturbed or least disturbed rivers.
However, the Burkinabe rivers are all seasonal. Two rivers are said to be permanent: the
Mouhoun that is the most important river of the country and the Comoe. The catchment of the
Mouhoun is 91036 km² large and one of the Comoe 17590 km² (GIRE-BF, 2004). However
their status of permanent is questionable. The debit of the Mouhoun was nil in April 2010
(DGRE, 2010). Because of the periodicity of the rivers, the common principle of the use of
aquatic biota to assess their health has to be modified.
Another important element to consider is the representativity of rivers in Burkina waters. The
Burkinabe waters are at 85% stocked in the 1400 reservoirs. Therefore it looks more relevant
to target reservoirs than rivers. If the procedure would still consist to compare the current and
the past biotic status of the water, one should keep in mind that the river was containing water
only occasionally. The case of the reservoir of Feneguene that I visited many times is
illustrative. It is located in the territorial department of Nasséré, 20 km far from Lake Bam (in
the eastern direction). In the Water Resources Department database, that reservoir is supposed
to be built in 1972, 6 ha large and located at the coordinates 01/20/31W (longitude) and
13/16/57N (latitude). But actually it was not built, or more properly it was attempted to be
built. From October to June, the site is continuously dry; from July to September, it is flooded
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
99
for only 1-8 hours after a rain (fig. 5.18). As currently there is no water, obviously no fish live
in the area. However the dam will be actually built with the contribution of the Association
Montevillers-Nasséré (Association Montevillers-Nasséré, 2010). The future reservoir could be
permanent and is expected to be colonized by fish. To use them as bio-indicator the first step
of the common approach is to characterize the original water (Schmutz et al. 2000) but in our
case there was no water. To short the past status of fish is known but the comparison of the
water present to past status is not appropriate and the comparison to similar water not perfect.
Fig. 5.18: The site of the
reservoir of Feneguene is out
of water during the dry
season and often flooded
during the rainy period: the
presumed dam is surrounded
with white dashed line. I took
the pictures from the bellow
area of the dam. The first
picture was taken 27/11/2006
(dry season) and the second
05/08/2007 (rainy season)
Possible adaptations
The principle of the methods developed so far is the use of the reference condition (TejerinaGarro et al. 2005). The adapted principle that is suggested would be to analyze how far fish
have to make effort to live in the new water. Following the observation of Holzer (2008),
Oberdorff et al., (2000) and Virbickas & Kesminas, 2007, in order to define the features or
the guilds of fish, the description of local conditions is a prerequisite.
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
100
i-
The stream on which the reservoir is built is intermittent and out of water most often
of the time. The area is rarely flooded. Then, to colonize the new body of water, fish
have to migrate and pass any obstacle. If the reservoir is seasonal, which is the case of
60-70 % of the artificial lakes, then it has to be re-colonized every year. Species that
tend to be sedentary or not ready to migrate as soon as it rains may not be able to reach
the reservoir. Those that tend to migrate, to migrate shortly after a rain or to cover long
distances are favored and the others not.
ii-
Even if the reservoir is not seasonal, there will be not much water during the dry
season and the physical and chemical conditions will be stressful. Then, fish species
that can afford these conditions are favored and the others may disappear.
iii-
During the dry season, the availability of food preys is limited and the feeding habits
of fish have to be compatible to these conditions. Having large spectrum of food preys,
or flexible diet, or being primary consumer is advantageous. Species of high trophic
level or restricted diet are disadvantaged.
iv-
Due to the high hydrological fluctuations, the availability of spawning grounds and
nursery areas will probably be missing from time to time. Species that spawn any time,
those which spawning grounds are generally available are favored and the others
disfavored.
In addition to these ecological guilds, some other traits of fish should be considered.
v-
The pressure of fishing will be high. Then, the less vulnerable to fishing a species is,
the more likely it will remain in the water.
vi-
Unpredictable and harmful events such as occasional pollution will take place. After
these events, the population of fish has to recover. Being resilient is an advantage.
vii-
Finally the abundance of fish (biomass and number of fishes) could be included and is
expected to vary seasonally.
The concept of self sustaining population and the age structure as understood from Schmutz et
al. (2000) are considered under the seasonal fluctuations of physico-chemical conditions,
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
101
reproduction strategy, feeding habits and vulnerability to fishing. Community metrics should
then be built in order to provide good indicators of changes in fish community structure and it
should not take long time to provide useful information for managers (Nicholson & Jennings,
2004). To assess a quality of a water, the first step is to show the fish species composition in
the water. The second step is to rank the ability of each species to establish in the water,
according to the guilds and characteristics mentioned above and based on the available
literature. A combination of this grade with the species frequency and the abundance and size
of fish would indicate the effort that the fish community has to develop in its attempt to
overcome the aquatic environment hostility to fish. The higher the effort is, the higher the
enmity of the water to fish is.
However, the approach that is proposed requires standardization mainly in the procedure of
fish sampling (fishing method and gear, sampling season) and the ranking process but also an
appropriate water typology.
5.2.9- Field observations on fish migration in Burkina Faso, explained in pictures
The objective of this section is to point out obstacles to fish migration and some solutions in
order to guide future development of strategy for mitigation.
It is politically recognized that dams block fish migration, which our study confirmed.
However, the incorporation of migratory devices into dams is often subject to controversy. To
take an example, the large dam of Ziga in Burkina Faso was built in 2000 thanks to the
financial assistance of 12 institutions such as the African Development Bank, the Kuwait
Fund for Arad Economic Development, the Islamic Development Bank, the Arab Bank for
Economic Development in Africa, the West African Development Bank, the European Union,
and Belgium). Despite a reliable fish survey was not done the preliminary environmental
impact assessment recommended the construction of fish pass structures; but this was
completely disregarded. Today the migration of fishes from the downstream reservoir of
Bagre (the largest one in Burkina, 25000 ha, 150 km bellow Ziga) is blocked. At the
beginning of the fishery of Ziga, a few fish species were caught by the fishermen and released
above the dam. But today, the immediate downstream area of the Ziga is much fished for
commercial purpose in September-October.
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
102
Reproduction is an important purpose for fish migration. Although some species like O.
niloticus and S. galilaeus may not cover long distance to find suitable spawning grounds, they
still need to migrate (fig. 5.19). After spending 3 hours on observing fishes attempting to pass
a 3m-high dam, I remarked that because of their small size, only pigmy fish species might be
able to succeed (fig. 5.14). To do so they take advantage of asperities and vegetation to be
protected against the water. But this requires much physical effort and their migration is
delayed; that is to say that their reproduction is aloe.
Fig. 5.19: A spawning nest of Oreochromis
niloticus or Sarotherodon galilaeus in Naba
Zana reservoir, June 2009
Barriers to fish migration
Technical matters, different types of dams
Most of the dams likely bar the migration of fish in Burkina Faso. Every year in SeptemberOctober, the area located immediately bellow the dam of Ziga attracts many fishermen. I
counted 25 canoes, i.e. 50 fishermen 05/10/2006 in this area that is 4-6 ha large. They were
catching fishes which migration was hindered by the dam (fig. 5.20). The fishes migrated
from the reservoir of Bagre (25000 ha large), located 150 km downstream. The dam of Naba
Zana (fig. 5.21) is 2 m high and its slope very straight; thus it is not surmountable by fishes.
Fig. 5.22 and 5.25 show some of the different shapes of dams in Burkina.
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
103
Fig. 5.20: The dam of Ziga Fig. 5.21: The dam of Arzoum Baongo
Fig. 5.22: The dam of Yacouta is high but
the slope is not much abrupt
Fig. 5.23: Another type of dike. It is not
common
Sociological matters
During the rainy season professional fishermen usually fish the brooks located bellow and
above the lotic waters. Fig 5.23 shows a professional fisherman fishing in the major route of
migration of fishes in the bellow part of Lake Bam; the main lake is located just 5 m behind
him. In Yacouta in the catchment of River Niger the fishermen see the downstream migration
of fish as a loss because the upstream migration from the Nigerien part of the brook is
impeded. Hence, they used to set their gears completely across the below section of the river
(fig. 5.26). Furthermore, they repeatedly considered building a device to block the
downstream migration of fish.
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
104
Fig. 5.24: A professional fisherman Fig. 5.26: Fishing gears across a river at
fishing a migration route of fishes
Yacouta dam. The dam is located 200
m on the left hand side
Migrating fishes are often targeted by kids. Fig. 5.27 shows a fishing session that took place
bellow Lake Dem a few hours after a rain, 08/08/2005, and fig 2.28, children catching the
fishes which migration was blocked by the dam of Naba Zana.
Fig. 5.27: A fishing session in Lake Dem a Fig. 5.28: Kids fishing bellow the dam of
few hours after a rain. The main lake is Naba Zana
located 400 m on the right hand side
Although they are less and less in use, some traditional fishing methods are harmful to the
fish ecology. The gear shown in fig. 5.29 was set 2-3 km bellow the reservoir of Louda.
Two to three traps were placed in the bottom of the river; all fishes were directed to the
traps by paths made with nets.
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
105
Fig. 5.29: A traditional fishing method
Legislative matters on the way for solutions
The Code Forestier (1997) is the main legislative foundation of fisheries in Burkina.
Additionally, some other laws strongly deal with fish resources. Particularly, one can cite the
Code de l’Environnement (1997), the Réorganisation Agraire et Foncière (1996) and Loi
d’Orientation Relative à la Gestion de l’Eau (2001).
The Code Forestier sets the fundamental principles for the sustainable management of forest,
wildlife and fish resources. The ministry in charge of fish resources is allowed to set closed
season and closed areas. In this sense, fishing is banned in the migration routes. Any other
measure aiming to protect fish resources can be taken (Article 173). Prior authorization is needed
for any undertaking that can negatively affect the feeding, spawning, nurseries and migration
ecology of fish (Article 229). Damming, derivation of water, abstraction of water and pollution
are cited as affecting the ecology of fish (Article 230). Fishing methods that harm the ecology of
fish such as dazing, poisoning and fishing in the spawning grounds and in the nurseries are
prohibited (Articles 169 & 170).
The migration of fish is particularly dressed by Article 219: the migration of fish should not be
impeded by any undertaking, including aquaculture. A ministerial diktat derived from the Code
Forestier bans the setting of fishing gears over the entire transversal section of rivers. A
minimum of half the section should be free for fish to migrate.
The Code de l’Environnement has set environment education (Art. 15 & 16) and environmental
impacts assessment (Articles 17-24). Basically, we are required to educate people on the need to
106
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
protect environment. We also have to assess the social and environmental impacts of dams
before their construction. Articles 49-56 prevent the pollution of aquatic ecosystems.
The Loi d’Orientation Relative à la Gestion de l’Eau: Articles 24-28 and 40-42 are related to
the usages of water and undertakings on water resources that could impair aquatic ecosystems
and all living aquatic organisms. Basically, it is not allowed to greatly alter the rivers ecology,
unless prior authorization is granted. To do so, Article 39 requires assessment of environment
impacts for such works. Article 40 explicitly protects the migration of fish. Dams should keep
the minimum water debit water required to guaranty good quality of aquatic life. They should
also integrate migratory infrastructures.
Attempts to incorporate migratory devices in dams
Before the legislative requirements of not obstructing the migration of fish were formulated, a
very few attempts to incorporate fish ladders in dams took place. But their performance is
questionable
The dam of Naba Zana and its ladders were built in 1972 when after the reservoirs data of the
Water Resources Department, only 163 reservoirs were created. By this time, the environment
impacts of dams were disregarded. Nevertheless, fish ladders were built on Naba Zana by
Brother Adrien SAINT BENOIT of the Monastery of Koubri. Therefore, these fish pass
devices were probably the first to be introduced in Burkina (fig. 5.30). On the left hand side
he was explaining why he built them. The right hand side picture is another view of the
ladders. Br. Adrien created more than 110 reservoirs, mainly in Burkina Faso but some in
Mali and Niger.
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
107
Fig. 5.30: The fish ladders of Naba Zana: in the left hand side picture, Br. Adrien
St Benoït explaining why he built the fish ladders; the right hand side picture is a
lateral view of the same ladders
Another set of fish ladders could be observed in the Ranch of Nazinga. In this area, two dams
have incorporated ladders. They were reported to have been built on the requirement of the
European funder of the dam construction. Views of ladders of Talanga, built in 1984, are
given in fig. 5.31.
Fig 5.31: The fish pass of Talanga viewed in two angles (left, descending;
right, lateral and descending)
Dams with central type of spill way are usually provided with a dissipation basin. The
intention of the basins construction is to delay the degradation of the dam by the water flow.
When the number of basins is enough to reduce the slope and the water velocity, the basins
work like migratory devices during the rainy season (fig. 5.32). But series of dissipation
basins are probably associated with the lateral type of spillway.
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
108
Fig. 5.32: Dissipation basins at Arzoum Baongo reservoir during the rainy season
on the left and during the dry one on the right.
Additionally the design of some dikes does not block the migration of fish. This is the case of
the lateral type of spillway. Here again the aim is not to allow the migration of fish. However
this type of dike diverts the water flow from its natural course, which creates a new brook.
Then, the area of junction of the new river reach to the natural one turns into ravines that can
impede or delay the migration of fishes. An example in Koubri is the dam of Gonse (fig.
5.33). The spillway is only 5-25 cm high. Therefore it probably does not obstruct the
migration of fish. Because that type of spill way is not located on the main water course on
which the dam is built, it diverts the waterflow. This creates a new brook which junction with
the main stream turns into ravines and falls. The ravines can be deep enough to prevent or
delay the migration of fish; actually a considerable number of fish were caught around the
falls area (fig. 5.34 and 5.35).
Fig. 5.33: The spillway of Gonse dam is 2-25 cm high.
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
Fig. 5.34: Gonse: the new water course
resulting from the lateral type of spill way
and the falls on the back
109
Fig. 5.35: 2m-deep ravines resulting from
lateral spill way of Mogtedo reservoir,
Koubri
Another type of dam that may not completely block the migration of fish is illustrated by fig.
5.36: the dam is made with big stones between which the fishes can move upstream.
Additionally as the slope is slow the water current may be affordable by many up migrating
fishes.
Fig. 5.36: A particular dam in Nazinga. The
reservoir is on the left.
However, from the legal requirement on the migratory device, still dams’ developments do
not pay any attention to mitigating the blockage of fish migration, probably because the
existence of the rule is ignored. But also no prototype of device for fish migration is proposed.
In many areas of the country, the fishermen often help a few species pass the reservoirs dike,
but this is not general. Actually they usually do so the first few years after the development of
the dam.
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
110
The protection of fish migration in other African countries
During my studies I considered to develop a questionnaire on fish migration to ‘interview’
fisheries managers, dams’ developers and environmentalists in Africa. But it was somehow
risky because most of them might not respond. Therefore I gave up.
Republic of Cameroun
In Cameroon, in July 2005 the environment impact assessment of the dam of Lom Pangar
recommended to pay much attention to the migration of fishes. To do so, they only considered
setting closed areas and the banning of some fishing methods. Particularly they recommended
further investigation on fish migration in the hope that fish ladders may be built later (Magnet
& Pouomogne, 2005).
Republic of Niger
It was considered to build fish ladders on the hydropower dam of Kandadji on River Niger
(Haut Commissariat à l’Aménagement de la Vallée du Niger, 2006). But we do not know the
outcome of this. Autorité pour l’Aménagement de Taoussa (2009) pointed out that the
environmental impacts assessment of Taoism dam detected impacts to fish migration but
failed to consider it in the mitigation measures despite such infrastructures were required by
law; actually, no model of fish pass was available.
Republic of Ghana
In Ghana the environmental impact assessment of the Bui Dam in January 2007 (ERM, 2007)
noticed the impacts of the dam on fish in these words:
“Interruption of the flow regime of the river will have a negative impact on fish
species migrating through the downstream sections of the river. ….The relative
importance of specific migratory cues to individual species in the Black Volta has not
been studied, but river flow has been shown to have a significant effect on the
movements of fish in other African systems. …… The dam will block upstream
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
111
movements of potadromous fish such as Alestes (characid) and Labeo (cyprinid),
disrupting spawning activities and ultimately leading to a possible decrease in gene
flow and genetic variation between isolated populations in the river”.
However, the same report continues as it follows:
“Note: measures to facilitate fish passage around dams are often considered in
temperate conditions, so that large migratory species such as salmon can move upriver to spawn. These can include fish ladders, elevators, trap-and truck elevators.
Such mitigation measures have not been considered for the Bui Project, as they are not
considered suitable for the conditions, and fish species, in the project area”.
From these pictures accompanied with short explanation, it comes out that addressing the
problem of barriers to migration in Africa is not a simple matter of techniques or law. We
need to understand the ecology of fish migration, the techniques that fit the hydrological
system, the financial cost but also and sociological facet
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
112
6- The driving forces that have led to the decline of
Lake Bam: a case study for applied water
management
Studies on the ecological responsiveness and the fish communities concluded that accurate
management of waters has to be permanently adaptive. It must not be restricted to the water
as part of the nature but has to be extended to the resource users and the administration that is
in place. Actually the collapse of natural resource can be explained in part by development
policies with conceptual foundations that are narrowed on economic or political or
engineering criteria proved (Beier et al., 2009). This chapter is an interdisciplinary assessment
of the decline of Lake Bam. It analyses the circumstances of the increasing vulnerability of
the system of the lake that lead to its depletion and opens a window on the system of
Kompienga reservoir. The analysis is viewed mostly from the fish and fisheries sides and
offers insights for sustainable conservation.
Adopting Ericksen (2008) viewpoint, we defined the vulnerability of a water system as the set
of its weaknesses or incapacities to prevent risks and to cope with crisis and damages and we
view it in its social, bio-physical and institutional components. Like many African countries,
especially where fishing is a major source of food and revenues (Hlohowskyj et al., 1996)
Burkina Faso needs to develop a guidance to vulnerability assessment of waters and fisheries
in order to prevent loss of biodiversity, to reduce poverty, to strengthen food security and
increase other goods and services that they provide. But inland fisheries utilize various natural
resources such as water, fish stock, land, wood and other resources located across the river
catchment (Frissell & Bayles, 1996; GTZ, 2002). Therefore, the analysis undertaken here is
not limited to the lake fish resources. It rather attempts to cover the spatial unit of catchment
and any natural resource that has major connections to the water, its biota and its ecology.
This chapter was designed to:
-
Show that fish and fisheries can be used as suitable tools for the assessment and the
management of waters;
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
-
113
Show that sustainable management of waters calls for consideration of institutional,
social and ecological dimensions;
-
Understand the history of the miss-management of water and fish resources of Burkina
Faso,
-
Indicate possible areas of further research to enable adaptive management of water and
fish resources.
6.1- The approach used to study water and fisheries management
Numerous methods have been devised to analyze or develop activities in the rural domain.
Some like the Policies-Institutions-Process approach are centered on policies, strategies,
legislations and processes (Turton, 2000; Zerbo et al. in Kabre & Magnini, 2002; Monaldi et
al., 2006), others like the ecosystem approach (Plagányi, 2007) on natural environment, and
others like the sustainable livelihoods approach (Turton, 2000; Beck & Nesmith, 2001,
Knutsson, 2006; Béné & Russell, 2007; Scoones, 2009) and the collective action approach
that was used in Burkina by McCarthy et al. (2002) are people-centered. Finally, a fourth type
of approaches regroups fuzzy methods. For illustration Sangare (2006) used the StrengthWeaknesses-Opportunities-Threats approach to analyze the impacts of loans allocated to the
fishermen of Kompienga and Bagre reservoirs in Burkina. Many of these approaches could be
criticized for having entry point that is narrowed to one of the three components of a fishery
system referred as ‘Profit, People and Planet’ by Kambewa (2007). However, fisheries
managers are getting increasingly familiar with the idea that holistic approaches are needed
for sustainable fisheries (Berkes et al. 2001). In a diagnosis of Volta basin fisheries, Béné &
Russell (2007) pointed out that the contribution of fishing to household livelihoods must not
be seen as a simple function of labor investment but as a combination of fishing assets
(including the aquatic ecosystem status), rules & institutions and social mechanisms. Then we
understand that in a fishery system the following three sub-systems have to be allocated equal
importance: the natural component (biophysical settings), the human component (individual
fishermen, socio-cultural and economic environments) and the fishery management
component (policy, management, development and research) (Charles, 2001). Therefore,
assessing a fishery’s vulnerability crosses multiple disciplines, including human sciences like
anthropology, sociology, human ecology and economy, natural sciences like natural ecology,
geography, climatology, biology and management sciences (after Clay & Olson, 2008).
114
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
Accordingly, in applying the ‘cooperation, collective action & natural resources management’
approach in pastures management in the northern part of Burkina Faso, McCarthy et al.
(2002) concluded that there is a need to regard things from multiple angles and consider the
development of more realistic and rigorous models. Our approach is similar to the one
followed by Fraser (2007) to analyze the vulnerability of some food systems to climate
change. It is based on existing theories on ecosystem sciences, people livelihoods and natural
resources policy.
6.1.1- The aquatic ecosystem resilience
The links between humanity and nature have long been recognized. The idea that human
behavior affects the weather and the quantity and quality of freshwater can be traced back to
antiquity (Gerten, 2008). People have historically benefited from goods and services supplied
by aquatic ecosystems (Millennium Ecosystem Assessment, 2005a). However, the supply of
these goods and services can be suddenly and severely interrupted, sometimes irreversibly
within the human political time frame. Freshwater ecosystems, such as shallow lakes have
abruptly shifted from healthy to degraded states and such bifurcations can be catastrophic
(Scheffer et al., 2009). After Short & Wyllie-Echeverria (1996), these alterations can take
root from the nature, but also from people. For instance fish species may be affected by
floods, drought and temperature, all related to climate (Welcomme, 2001; Canadell et al.,
2007).
However, nature driven and people driven factors overlap with complexity (Charles, 2001),
and current trends in policies and research center attention on the people as factor of the
degradation of the nature. Therefore this work gives more to the human pressures than to the
natural factors.
We know that human settlement, agriculture, deforestation, fishing, grazing, damming,
abstraction of water, mining, roads construction, introduction of species and other activities
threat freshwater. The resulting impairments are pollution, sedimentation, siltation, loss of
water, loss of habitat, fish diseases and decrease in biodiversity (Mumeka, 1986; Horrigan et
al., 2002; Jorde & Schneider, 2004; Benavides & Veenstra, 2005; Hoorman & McCutcheon,
2006; Awomeso et al. 2010). Fresh water ecosystems are among the most endangered units
and the most complex environments on the planet (after Millennium Ecosystem Assessment,
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
115
2005b). However they have a certain degree of resilience that is their ability to absorb,
withstand or recover from perturbations (Charles, 2001; Millennium Ecosystem Assessment
Board, 2003).
When an aquatic ecosystem faces a shock, it is expected that it recovers and becomes as
productive as it was before the shock event (Parasiewicz, 2007), at least from the fish side. It
is believed that a healthy aquatic ecosystem resists and recovers more quickly than a damaged
one but biological resistance to and recuperation from impairments depends upon the biota’
experience with historical, natural spatiotemporal variability and processes (Poff & Ward,
1990; Peterson et al., 1998).
This part of the study examines the possibility of the ecosystem of Bam to recover, viewed
from the extent of the damages it is facing. To do so, we use fish to qualitatively assess the
lake likely ability to reorganize itself in a stable way (Peterson et al. 1998). Karr (1981) and
other sources explained that fish communities report disturbances that the ecosystem
experienced. In one word Moyle et al. (1998), Welcomme (2001), Karr (2006) and Lobo‘NCervia (2009) demonstrated in impacted waters, large species and fishes decrease and are
replaced by small size species and fishes, intolerant species are infrequent and tolerant species
frequent. The species richness, the catches per unit of fishing effort also decline. We assume
that drastic and long lasting changes affect the ecosystem ability to recover from alteration
(Charles, 2001; Millennium Ecosystem Assessment Board, 2003).
6.1.2- The fishermen livelihoods
Scoones (2009) details the principles, insights, limitations and challenges of livelihoods
perspectives, an approach that has been used to analyze rural development in the past decade.
The approach describes the stakes and the constraints in people strategies to their means of
living (Witteveen & Ruedin, 2008) and was used in the Burkinabe fisheries some years ago
by the Sustainable Fisheries Livelihoods Programme in West Africa. In an over-exploited
fishery, reducing the effort would help the fishery recuperate. To do so, many types of
regulations can be used: fishing time restrictions, closed seasons, limiting technology, catch
quotas, total allowable catch and limiting the number of fishermen (Berkes, et al., 2001;
Plagányi, 2007). In this study, we assume that if the fishermen leave the fishery for other
116
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
economic activities, then the fishery remains productive or recovers fast in case it was
damaged.
6.1.3- Institutions in fisheries
The management of a fishery has the general goal of ensuring the sustainable use of fish
resources and the specific objectives of preventing biological and economical extinction and
of optimising benefits over an indefinite period of time (Berkes, et al., 2001; King, 1995).
Therefore, the management sub-system guides the overall fishery system to achieve the
society’s objectives (Charles, 2001). Good management schemes take into consideration
policy, planning, development, research, education, monitoring, legislation, institutions,
participation and funding regimes. In this study, ‘institutions’ is understood as the customs,
rules, laws and organizational bodies (Ellis & Allison, 2004). This part of the work criticizes
the institutions ability to prevent damages to lake and to the fishery and to implement
appropriate measures towards the system recuperation is case of shocks events.
To summarize the approach, the fishery vulnerability is function of its three components: (i)
the aquatic ecosystem health or its capacity to remain fish-productive, (ii) the institutions
strength and (iii) the fishermen’ livelihood options. We use narratives to describe the waters
systems. And to do like Fraser (2007) did, the systems will be placed in a 3-dimension chart
where each component is an axis. Then, a likely trajectory would describe the fishery system
overtime.
6.2- Collection of data on the management of Lake Bam and
Kompienga reservoir
After sampling fish in Bam, a workshop was held 14 August 2009 with the fishermen in order
to collect fishery data such as the number of fishermen, landings, alternative activities,
revenues and institutions bodies. Then we interviewed key resource persons mostly identified
by the workshop. They were staff of governmental services involved in natural resources like
the Bam Provincial Directorates of (i) Agriculture, Water and Fish Resources, (ii) Animal
Resources and (iii) Environment and Life Settings. We also discussed with some NGOs and
associations working on natural resources: the Association des Jeunes pour la Protection de
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
117
l’Environnement et d’Elevage (AJPEE), the Association pour la Protection du Lac Bam and
the Association Relwinde (a women association). The workshop also indicated that the
traditional authority is an important stakeholder in the exploitation and conservation of Lake
Bam. It also identified the most important leading persons in the indigenous authority that
would be interviewed. Therefore, I interviewed His Majesty Naba Tigre, chief of the Canton
of Ratinga, His Majesty Naba Kougri, Chief of Kongoussi city and His Majesty Naba BelemWende, Chief of Bam-village. The progress in the data collection led to traditional leaders
that particularly in charge of natural resources. Thus we also questioned two of them, the ones
who the workshop and the chiefs mentioned as the most important in the spatial traditional
administration of the lake surroundings; they were the one of Bango (in Kongoussi city) and
the one of Bam village.
As aged people are more informative than the youth (Leopold et al. (2008), we also conversed
with an aged and ‘retired’ fisher to collect additional historical information. The retired
fisherman who we interviewed was Mr. Rassiryan François OUEDRAOGO, 80 years old, the
first president of the fishermen association; he fished Bam for 60 years.
Finally we discussed with the head of Lake Bam recuperation project. Our own knowledge is
additionally put into contribution. I took advantage of my 20-year working experience in
fisheries in Burkina Faso and my private experience as I am much attached to the county of
Bam that is my area of origin and that I have visited frequently.
In Kompienga, the data and information were collected in January 2010 thanks to debates
with His Majesty Fimba, Chief of Pama, with the staff of the Sahelian Integrated Lowland
Ecosystems Management project, and the staff of the Kompienga fishery management
services and the head of the union of fishermen associations who was assisted by three other
fishermen. Visual observations of the water-body and commercial fish landings closed the
data collection in the area of Kompienga.
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
118
6.3- Description of pressures on Bam and Kompienga waters
6.3.1- Human settlements and food security
The population of the entire Province of Bam live in 244 villages (CINTECH, 2008 a) and
has important connections to the lake catchment area. The province population grew from
187367 people in 1997 to 287244 in 2008. Within the lake catchment area, the population has
grown from 178241 in 2006 to 182875 in 2007 and to 187629 in 2008. Today the density of
the population is more than 72 inhabitants/km2. The workshop showed that there 36 villages
located on the banks of the lake; the biggest human settlement is the city of Kongoussi with
72431 inhabitants in 2008. Data from the local agriculture services attest that food shortage is
frequent as the local production of cereals that form the key source of food seldom meet of
the needs. From 1997 to 2007, the production of cereals was able to cover the need of food
only in 1998. The trends of the population size in Bam province and the food shortage from
350000
120
300000
100
250000
80
200000
60
150000
40
100000
Human population
Coverage of cereals needs
50000
20
Coverage of needs (%)
Population size
1997 to 2007 are illustrated in fig. 6.1.
0
0
2007
2006
2005
2004
2003
2002
2001
2000
1999
1998
1997
Years
Fig. 6.1: Population size and coverage of food (cereals) need in
Bam province from 1997 to 2007 (Data provided by the provincial
agriculture administration services)
The population of the Province of Kompienga is distributed in only 39 villages of which a
few 12 are close to the water-body; it grew from 54530 habitants in 2004 (Zampaligre,
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
119
2004) to 85941 in 2009 (INSD, 2009). The density of the population is 10.9 inhabitants/km2
(Ouedraogo & Ripama, 2009). Food shortage rarely occurs in Kompienga area. From 2001 to
2005, on average the production of cereals in Kompienga was 122% of the needs (Anon.
2005).
6.3.2- Agriculture
In 2007, the province of Bam agriculture yielded 31921 t of cereals, 1073 t of ground nuts and
many other products. The cotton production dropped from 1564 t grown on 1671 ha of land in
1998-1999 to 315 t (345 ha) in 2006-2007, which fits the needs of people and the biophysical
settings as cotton culture particularly accelerates deforestation (Togola, 2001), uses much
fertilizers and pesticides, and likely increases the malaria occurrence after the mosquitoes
have developed resistance to insecticides (CIRAD, 2008). Besides promoting cotton culture
may lead to infantine malnutrition as in Mali (Mesplé-Somps et al. 2008) and might not
necessary reduce poverty as in the case of the area of Sikasso in Mali (Delarue et al., 2009).
The irrigated farming of vegetables on the lake banks was initiated in 1921 by the Catholic
Church assisted by Germany (Ouedraogo, 1993). The vegetables production of Bam increased
from 2633.5 t in 1995-1996 to 23850 t in 2006-2007 (fig. 6.2). Nowadays during the dry
season several thousands of people grow vegetables on the banks. Some are organized in
associations and others in three companies (or cooperatives): SCOBAM (Société Coopérative
du Lac Bam), COMAKO (Coopérative Maraîchère de Kongoussi) and Zim-Import-Export.
To give an idea of the cooperatives size, in 2008, Zim-Import-Export that is own by His
Majesty Naba Tigre who we interviewed ‘employed’ more than 1000 people, paid more than
50 million FCFA (i.e. 76,230 Euros) for salaries, farmed 70 ha of niebe, 45 ha of onion, 40 ha
of green beans of which 200 t all sold in France, 20 ha of ground nuts, 2 ha of tomatoes, etc
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
120
Production (t)
25000
Production
1200
Area
1000
20000
800
Area (ha)
1400
30000
15000
600
10000
400
5000
200
0
0
2006
2005
2004
2003
2002
2001
2000
1999
1998
1996
1995
Years Fig. 6.2: Vegetables production on the banks of Bam (Data
provided by the provincial agriculture administration services)
The vegetables of Bam are sold in the local and national markets, but also in Europe. The
vegetables farmers do not observe the prescriptions on the use of fertilizers and of pesticides,
partly because the pesticides market is now liberalized, these inputs are no longer controlled.
They do not observe the prescription of keeping farms 200 m distant from the highest level of
water. During the rainy season, the irrigated vegetables farms are converted into rain fed
farms that also occupy most of the area of the catchment.
In the area of Kompienga, after Anon. (2005), people mainly grow cereals (12988 t in 2005).
But they also produce cotton (5037 t in 2005), yam, potatoes and vegetables. The agriculture
productions are more varied than in Bam. But like in Bam, the agriculture system is extensive.
Anti-erosive practices are not common.
6.3.3- Cattle breeding
The Sahelian zone, including Bam is reputed for its extensive cattle breeding. In Bam the total
number of all types of domestic animals living in the lake basin kept increasing from 812520
in 2006 to 836643 in 2007 and to 860652 in 2008. In addition, Lake Bam is a transitional
point of large size of cattle populations migrating from the North to the South (Doulkoum,
2000). Pouyaud (1975) noticed that overgrazing on the lake banks started in 1973-74 when
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
121
important size of cattle reached the lake. As this was a severe drought period we assume that
cattle came to Bam in search for water.
The Province of Kompienga hosts 208029 domestic animals, all together (Anon., 2005), that
is 4 times less than in Bam. It is a transitional area for cattle migrating to the neighbor
countries of Togo and Benin.
6.3.4- Deforestation and desertification
After the elderly of Bam the first real deforestation actions on the lake banks was meaningless
to them. It was carried out by the first French colonial administrators of the county who
cleaned the riparian and aquatic vegetation for leisure purpose, i. e. beach, canoeing and
swimming. We did not access any data to estimate the deforestation in the area, but there is a
consensus on the high rate of deforestation.
In Kompienga catchment, the vegetal cover faces increasing pressures resulting from
immigration, overgrazing and un-adapted agricultural system, but nearly natural vegetation
covers still exist (Anon., 2005). A very large protected area borders Kompienga on the left
hand size. Apart from wildlife and cynegetic activities, nobody, no cattle and no other activity
is allowed (fig. 2.8).
6.3.5- Climate change
In this paper we perceive climate change in terms of rain fall historical trends, which directly
impacts the hydrology of the lake. We found a general decline of rainfall from 878 mm in
1927 to 572.6 mm in 2008 and a great yearly variation (fig. 6.3).
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
122
1200
Rain fall (mm)
1000
800
600
400
200
2007
2004
2001
1998
1995
1992
1979
1976
1973
1970
1967
1964
1961
1958
1955
1952
1949
1946
1943
1940
1933
1930
1927
0
Years
Fig. 6.3: Rain fall trends in Bam area from 1927 to 2008 (some data
were extracted from Pouyaud (1986) and others provided by the
agriculture services in Bam)
On the opposite, with a rain fall of 9000-1000 mm / year (Anon. 2005), Kompienga is one of
the most watered areas of Burkina. That source revealed a decreasing tendency in the last
decade.
6.3.6- Damming
As Bam area is arid and much populated, local people historically used to dig small ponds to
stock water. Later on, many larger reservoirs were created in the lake basin. Data from the
Water resources department; Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Fish Resources state the
existence of about 40 size reservoirs which size vary from 0 (when they dry during the dry
season) to 2020000 m3 (during the rainy season) . On the opposite, because the area of
Kompienga is less inhabited and wetter, it is less dammed. A very few small pounds were
built in the wildlife zones and some others may be later built to supply cattle with water.
6.3.7- Mining of sand and gold
Artisanal mining of gold and sand has taken place within Bam catchment for some decades.
But it was unfortunately impossible to estimate the volume of gold and sand extracted in the
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
123
catchment (fig. 6.4). A few years ago, the mining of granite took place in the city of Pama,
the main human settlement of Kompienga area. But its impacts on the reservoir are probably
insignificant, at least for now.
Fig. 6.4: Artisanal mining of gold in the catchment of
Bam
In one word, the area of Bam is much impacted as no nearly ‘natural’ land longer exists on
the opposite of the one Kompienga where it is still abundant (fig. 6.6).
Bam
Human settlement
0%
Kompienga
Human settlement
0%
Water
14%
Low land
6%
Agriculture
34%
Forest
46%
Water
14%
Low land
6%
Agriculture
34%
Forest
46%
Fig. 6.6: Space occupation in the areas of Bam (Data source: after CINTECH, 2008a) and
Kompienga (Data source: after Anon., 2005)
124
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
6.4- Impacts to the aquatic ecosystems
6.4.1- Historical changes in the fisheries
The fishery of Lake Bam
In the past local people were fishing Bam lake with traditional gears (wooden traps, harpoons,
machetes, fish ‘holes’ and cooking pots), usually collectively. They were fishing for food, for
rituals and social cohesion. The commercial fishing started in 1952 (or 1954) when the
colonial administrator named Mr. Berte invited a professional bozo fisherman from the
Republic of Mali to set in Bam. The number of bozo culminated to 30 some decades later.
They introduced cast nets, long lines and gill nets in Bam. In doing so, they ‘passively’
trained Bam people in the use of these gears. Then they all left Bam because local fishermen
excluded them from the fishery. The reason evoked by elder fishermen is that the Bozo did
not observe the local community rules. But at that time, a bozo was landing 80 kg/day against
less than less than 50 kg for a Burkinabe fisher, which could be a source of jealousy and
which in turn have contribute to the sacking of these foreign fishermen.
According to aged people, the fishermen’ population was 100 maximum some 50 years ago,
which was 0.05 fishermen per hectare of water. However, the workshop indicated that there
are currently 620 regular fishermen distributed over the 36 villages surrounding the lake. But,
this figure is undersized because it excludes the occasional fishermen and therefore, the total
number of fishermen could be 700. Today the density of fishermen would be 0.3 fishermen
per hectare of water during the rainy season and 1.5 during the dry period due to the seasonal
variation of the water size.
Some fishermen have a canoe and fish with cast nets, gill nets, long lines and traps.
Detrimental and prohibited methods like small mesh size and beach seines (with mosquito
nets) are very commonly used. When the lake spills over, the immediate bellow area is
excessively fished; the same fishing pressure was observed in upstream water courses when
we were sampling fish. This jeopardizes the migration of fish into and from the lake.
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
125
Historical catches per unit of fishing effort (per fisherman and per day)
Currently the landings of fish are not monitored. In the absence of historical records of
landings we rely on the fishermen’ estimation and other fragmented data. The retired
fishermen were landing 50-80 kg of fish per person and per day 60-50 years ago. A fishery
survey undertaken by the United Nations Food and Agriculture revealed that in 1987 a
fisherman was landing 2.3 kg of fish per day, which was already seen as less than expected
(Coenen, 1988). The workshop estimated the current landings at 0.5 kg/fisher/year 20 years
ago, 0.325 kg 10 years ago and 0.250 kg today and CINTECH (2008a) approximation is 0.50.6 kg/pers./day.
Historical yearly total landings of the lake
Baijot et al., (1994) found that in Burkina Faso, reservoirs which size is similar to the one of
Bam can produce 80-100 kg of fish /ha/year. Assuming that this would be 90 kg/ha/year in
Bam, the lake potential could be 180 tons/year. The fishermen and CINTECH (2008a)
estimated the lake total annual landings at 175 t/yr 20 years ago, 150 t/yr 10 years ago and
less than 100 t nowadays. Some years ago the landings were recorded and in 2002 I extracted
Catches /fisherman/day (kg)
15
Catches/fisherman/day
Actual yearly production
Estimated yearly potential
1500
10
1000
5
500
0
0
1955
1987
1989
1999
2001
2002
Yearly potential and actual production (t)
data from the fishermen association archives.
2009
Years
Fig. 6.7: Historical trends in Lake Bam fishery (Data extracted from the
archives of the fishermen association and Coenen, 1988)
126
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
The lake produced 36082 kg of fish in 1999, 58052 kg in 2000 and 88079 in 2001; however,
these figures are only indicative as the landings of many fishermen were un-recorded.
For these historical records, the decline in the landings per fisherman and the total landing of
the lake is obvious (fig. 6.7). From 1987, the total landings has remained less than what the
lake is supposed to be able to produce, inferring that the lake fishery is seriously damaged to
the extent that it is not likely to recover in the next coming years.
The reservoir fishery of Kompienga
Kompienga is currently fished by 450 persons. The fishing gears in use are the cast nets, gill
nets, long lines and traps. More than 90% of the fishermen immigrated from the Republics of
Mali and Niger and from elsewhere in Burkina and less than 10% are autochthons. But at the
beginning of the fishery where I worked from 1991 to 1995, no autochthon person was
involved in the fishery. As it still attracts foreign professional fishermen, we believe that
Kompienga is currently one of the most fisheries in Burkina and maybe in West Africa.
Today the density of fishermen is 0.025 per hectare of water, which is 60 times less than in
Bam.
From 1990 to about 1996, the production of Kompienga was so productive that the landings
were officially exported to the Republic of Niger at the rate of nearly 100 tons/year. The
landings of Kompienga dropped from 2000 t of fish in 1998 (Sawadogo, 2002) to 500 t/y
toady. The catch per landing decreased from 18.0 kg/fisher/day in 1993 to about 5
kg/fisher/day in 2001 (Zampaligre, 2004). However, the figures of the decline are debatable
for the reason that the catches of a large number of fishermen are no longer recorded and no
alternative monitoring system is in place.
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
127
6.4.2- Historical shifts in fish species assemblage in Bam and in Kompienga
Historical shifts in fish species assemblage in Bam
After the retired fisherman, 30-50 years ago the fish species were much dominated by Clarias
gariepinus and Heterotis niloticus (probably 50 % together). Polypterus sp., Synodontis sp.,
Auchenoglanis occidentalis, Protopterus annectens, the cichlid (tilapia) were frequent (40 %)
Alestes sp. and Brycinus sp. were moderately frequent and Barbus sp. rare (10 %). The last
species appeared in the lake half a century ago.
At the workshop, the fishermen stated that two decades years ago, C. gariepinus and H.
niloticus were still dominating (25 % each), Polypterus sp., Synodontis sp., P. annectens and
the tilapias were frequent (50 % together), Alestes sp. and Brycinus sp. moderately frequent
(20 % together) and Barbus sp. rare (5%). The Mormyridae family, Hydrocynus sp.,
Heterobranchus sp. and M. electricus appeared about 30 years ago. L. niloticus was twice
introduced 30-40 years ago but disappeared a decade later. Pelvicachromis humilis (or a
similar species, fig. 6.8) identified by the fishermen in Lévêque et al. (1992) was said to be
extinct. They also pointed out that nearly every year, fish mortality occurs at the end of the dry
season.
Fig. 6.8: Identification of a fish species that the
fishermen reported to have disappeared from Bam
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PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
Coenen (1988) affirmed that two decades ago, there were about 30 fish species regrouped in
11 families. In 1987 Sarotherodon galilaeus was dominant (39.1%). It was followed by
Oreochromis niloticus (16.3%), Brycinus nurse (9.9%), Marcusenius senegalensis (9.1%),
Schilbe mystus (8.9%), Auchenoglanis occidentalis (5.6%) and Synodontis schall (4.2%). The
others species together were contributing to 6.9% of the landings.
Our experimental fishing showed that today 20 species are occurring. Two species
represented together more than 50% of the community: Sarotherodon galilaeus, 30.2 % and
Barbus ablabes, 26.3%. They were followed in order of decreasing importance by
Chelaethiops bibie (6.5%), Barbus macrops (5.9%), and Oreochromis niloticus, Clarias
gariepinus, Tilapia zillii and Hemichromis letourneauxi (nearly 4% each). The remaining 11
species together formed 15%. The maximum total length was 119 mm for S. galilaeus, 85 for
B. ablabes, 310 for C. gariepinus and 160 for O. niloticus.
Table 6.1: Maximum total length (mm) of major fish species of Bam, number of fishes having
reached that size and maximum length observed elsewhere mainly in West Africa (Sources:
Lévêque et al., 1990 and 1992; *Southeast Ecological Science Center, 2009), (SL= Standard
length, TL= Total length)
Species
Maximum total
Maximum length
length in Bam
elsewhere in west Africa
119
340 (SL)
Sarotherodon galilaeus
85
96 (SL)
Barbus ablabes
49
43 (SL)
Chelaethiops bibie
75
70 (SL)
Barbus macrops
160
395 (SL)
Oreochromis niloticus
310
700 (TL)
Clarias gariepinus
90
218 (SL)
Brycinus nurse
125
210 (SL)
Tilapia zillii
65
120 (SL)*
Hemichromis letourneauxi
50
204 (SL)
Hemichromis fasciatus
120
321 (SL)
Marcusenius senegalensis
90
500 (SL)
Schilbe intermedius
111
140 (SL)
Siluranodon auritus
111
260 (TL)
Synodontis punctifer
110
490 (TL)
Synodontis schall
A comparison between the data from Coenen (1988) and our experimental fishing showed
Today there is no shift of S. galilaeus frequency. However, the frequency of O. niloticus
decreased from 13.3 to 4.3%, ranking it as the fourth most frequent species instead of the
second as it was two decades ago. However from 1987 to 2009 the mean weight of S.
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
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galilaeus, the dominant species dropped from 23 to 3.3 g, the one of O. niloticus, an abundant
species from 16.3 to 14.8 g, and the one of S. mystus, an infrequent species from 9.9 to 3.9 g.
Today the maximum total length of fishes in Bam is much lower than the standard one
observed in other waters of West Africa (table 6.1).
Overtime, the fish species richness and size of the fish decreased. Large size species,
intolerant species, vulnerable and non resilient species such as Heterotis niloticus,
Auchenoglanis occidentalis and Heterobranchus sp. are replaced by small size like Barbus
sp., tolerant species, i.e. C. gariepinus and the tilapia group to which S. galilaeus belongs
(Bénech & Quensière, 1987; Lévêque et al., 1988; Hugueny et al., 1996; Lévêque & Paugy,
2006; Froese & Pauly, 2010). Some ecological traits of the dominant S. galilaeus explain its
high capacity to remain and proliferate in the lake. As primary consumer it feeds on plankton
(Hambright, 2002; Villanueva et al. 2005) and has a very high ability to adapt its reproduction
(Fishelson & Hilzerman, 2002), and particularly in seasonal waters where environmental
conditions are sharply contrasted and the variation amplitude of hydrological and
physicochemical traits is high (Paugy, 2002). The important quantity of sand that the lake is
receiving is ecologically important for the spawning of that species; in addition, sandy
substrates appear important for the survival of juveniles as their ingest sand that is helpful in
food maceration (Amisah & Agbo, 2008). Additional information on the ability of S.
galilaeus to adapt its reproduction strategy is given in section 3.4.4; but to summarize, its
probably tends to reproduce early in its life span.
Historical changes in fish species assemblage in Kompienga
No information on the fish species composition of Kompienga prior to the development of the
reservoir is unfortunately missing. It was studied by Prof. Dr. W. Tobias of Germany but our
attempts to get his results failed as the report was said to be only for internal use.
The Nile perch was introduced firstly in 1989-90 (140 individuals of 0.25-1 kg each, from the
next Pendjari River) and secondly in November 2008 (50 fishes). Today this species is much
landed and individuals of large size (more than 10 kg) are frequent. Heterotis niloticus was
introduced 15 years ago and is now landed. Tilapia zillii, Gymnarchus niloticus, Labeo sp,
Hydrocynus sp., Heterobranchus sp. and Hemisynodontis membranaceus are said to be
decreasing. From Bazega area (probably from a fish farm) about 8300 tilapias were
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PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
transferred into Kompienga in August 2008, but the opportunity of this undertaking is
questionable since these species were abundant. Some 5 kg of shrimps originating Lorgho
region (Burkina) were also introduced 2 years ago.
From many fragmented sources, Zampaligre (2004) compiled a list of 34 species that
were met in Kompienga commercial fish landings about 8 years ago. Oreochromis
niloticus and Sarotherodon galilaeus were representing 78% (probably in terms of biomass),
Lates niloticus 6%, Clarias sp. 5%, Brycinus sp., Alestes sp. and Hydrocynus forskalii 3%
together and the Mormyridae family, Malapterurus electricus and Gymnarchus niloticus 3%
together also.
From our field observations, not less than 50 fishermen are currently especially targeting the
Mormyridae that are landed much. This family is known to be intolerant to poor quality of
water and of habitat, highly vulnerable to fishing and lowly resilient (Hugueny et al. 1996,
Froese & Pauly, 2010). Top trophic level species like the Nile perch and the Tiger fish are
abundant. The vulnerable and lowly resilient species like Gymnarchus niloticus and Heterotis
niloticus (Froese & Pauly, 2010) are still present. Large size individuals like
Sarotherodon galilaeus and Oreochromis niloticus (≥1 kg), Lates niloticus (≥ 10 kg),
are common. The abundance of large size species, large size fishes, top predatory
species, intolerant and vulnerable species in Kompienga suggests that the water is
healthier, at least more than the Bam one.
The fish of Bam are so small that they are consumed only locally. The capital city of
Ouagadougou is only 100 away from Bam and 360 km from Kompienga. But the size
and the size of Kompienga fish are attractive and the fishmongers are quarrelling to
get access to the landings that they bring to Ouagadougou (fig. 6.9).
6.4.3- Sedimentation and siltation
In Bam, Pouyaud (1986) noticed that important quantities of sediments were already
deposited on the bottom of the lake in 1963, resulting in the lake breaking up into a series of
pools in which river biota concentrate. Davies (2005) revealed that 500.000 m3 of sediment
are accumulated every year and the sediment layer is 1.3 m high. For this reason the lake
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
131
tends to loose its small branches (Capo et al. 2006). In 25 years, Lake Bam will be a simple
river (fig. 6.10).
Bam: in the market of Kongoussi
15 fish cost 0.23 €. The mean
weight of the tilapia 3.3 g
Kompienga: Fish of more than 250 g
are common. Brought in
Ouagadougou, 1 fish costs 1.5 € at
least
Fig. 6.9: The marketable size of the tilapia fishes of the two
waters, the most common fishes in both areas
Fig. 6.10: Sediments transportation into Lake Dem located 40 km far from
Lake Bam (adapted from Google Earth, 31 May 2010)
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
132
The reservoir of Kompienga is facing sedimentation and siltation as stated by Anon. (2005)
and Zampaligre (2004). However, these rates are less worrying in Kompienga than in Bam
due to the difference in the level of protection of the area.
6.4.5- Important loss of water: evaporation, abstraction and siltation
In Bam area, the evaporation is very high, with a mean rate of 6.42 mm/day in 1966-1976
(Pouyaud, 1986). Nowadays, it culminates to more than 2700 mm/yr; but the lake is 2-5 m
deep (Davies, 2005). On average in Burkina, one hectare of vegetables farm consumes 8,000
m3 of water per year (GIRE-BF, 2001b). Then, Lake Bam lost 10.5 million m3 of water in
2006-2007 for 1302 ha of vegetables. It was not possible to quantify the water abstracted by
cattle and for domestic uses. In 2000, the volume of water fluctuated between about 11 and 45
million m3 (GIRE-BF 2001b), meaning that the lake lost 78 % of its water (fig. 6.11).
Depth: 3 m
Volume: 1,200,000 m3
Water surface: 2200 ha Depth: < 1 m
Volume
153,850 m3
Water surface: 600 ha
August‐September:towards the end of the rainy season
April‐June: towards the end of the dry season
Fig. 6.11: Seasonal variation of Lake Bam size (after Davies,
2005)
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
133
The evaporation rate at Kompienga is also high, 2000 mm/year (Anon., 2005). The
production of hydropower releases 700 million m3 of water per year. The minimum quantity
of water that remains in the reservoir is 400 million m3 (GIRE-BF, 2001b). If the surface of
water is 16000 ha at this period, then the water would be 2.5 m deep, which is still favorable
to fish, compared to Lake Bam that is 1 m deep by the same season.
6.4.6- Homogenization of habitat
Following to the clearing of terrestrial, riparian and aquatic vegetation and to the high rates of
sedimentation, the aquatic habitat of Bam has lost variability and is now almost homogenized.
In Kompienga the banks are still green, emerging dead wood and grass are remarkable, the
siltation is not advanced, so that the habitat is more varied.
6.4.7- Pollution by pesticides and fertilizers
GIRE-BF (2001a) stated that the level Bam pollution is high but not worrying. But more
reliably, Cecchi et al. (2005) pointed out a low diversity of zooplankton in the Nakanbe River
catchment waters that are highly exploited for irrigated vegetables gardening like Bam. Many
other sources pointed out that the rate of pollution in the Nakanbe River is worrying (Brail,
1995; GIRE-BF, 2000c).
Many sources like Zampaligre (2004) and Anon. (2005) estimated that the Kompienga
reservoir is facing pollution, but no study reporting that statement is available. Assuming that
the vegetables farming is the main source of pollution by fertilizers and pesticides, the
degrees of pollution seem not worrying yet. Actually, results of studies undertaken over the
whole national territory did not cite Kompienga as a highly polluted environment. In fact, an
analysis undertaken by a German institute in 1994 showed a water quality favorable to fish
(Zampaligre, 2004).
6.4.8- Disconnection to other bodies of water
Pouyaud (1975) revealed the historical episodic trait of Bam. Periodically, much sediment
was deposited at the below edge of the lake, which then functions like a dam that used to
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PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
break after important flood events. Then the lake could dry out. This source pointed out that
the lake completely dried out six times from 1932 to 1971 that was before the high human
pressures event. Following a drought it takes much time for the lake to be filled and spill over,
so that the migration of fish from downstream waters can be delayed. Pouyaud (1986)
observed that from 1944 to 1956, only four important flood events could have allowed
exchange of fish between the lake and nearby water-bodies. But the aged people said that the
lake seems more frequently connected to the downstream area but for shorter lengths of time.
The reservoirs database of the water Resources Department indicates the existence of more
than 40 small size reservoirs in the lake catchment.
Kompienga is disconnected to downstream waters due to the hydropower production
infrastructures. The water that is released runs into the Republics of Togo that is only 9 km
far. About 10 reservoirs might exist in the catchment of Kompienga.
Summary of the appraisal of Bam and Kompienga ecosystems resilience
Human induced and natural pressures are high and harmful to Bam ecosystem. The resulting
pollution, soil erosion, sedimentation, siltation, loss of habitat, and excessive fishing
emphasized the water-body seasonality in its abiotic and biotic components, to the extent that
fish die almost every year in May-June that is the end of the dry season. The water is
disconnected to other waters and the fish characteristic infer a high level of ecosystem
impairment. The ecosystem of Bam Lake has biologically died and virtually its resilience is
very low. On the opposite, the area of Kompienga is much less populated and less impacted.
There is always relatively enough water for the ecosystem well-being.
This conforms with GIRE-BF (2000b) that qualitatively ranked the vulnerability of wet lands
in Burkina Faso on the basis of three parameters: the loss of bio-diversity (focusing on
remarkable species), the economic (production of goods) and the touristic interests: 1 for less
vulnerable ecosystems that do require no protection, 2 for wet lands that are currently not
vulnerable but that require attention and monitoring system, 3 for those that are vulnerable
and require protection, 4 for those that are highly vulnerable and require immediate protection
and partial restoration and 5 for those that are highly vulnerable and require immediate and
drastic protection and restoration. In this frame, Lake Bam was ranked 4 but we believe that it
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
135
should have been ranked 5 if the touristic interest was not a scoring criterion. Neither this
source nor any other one cited Kompienga as much damaged.
6.5- The fishermen livelihoods
6.5.1- The fishermen’ livelihoods alternatives in Lake Bam
In Bam, less than 50 persons rely almost exclusively on fishing to live. The fishermen mainly
rely on rain fed agriculture, irrigated gardening and cattle breeding as economic activities, and
fishing as an additional but not alternative one. During the rainy season (June-October) they
devote much time to rain fed agriculture, so fishing slows down a little. Livestock breeding
takes place throughout the year with no fluctuation. The total revenue gained by a fisher
household is generated at 40% by agriculture, 30% by cattle breeding and 30 % by fishing.
The fishing revenue is used firstly to meet family needs, secondly for personal needs, thirdly
to invest in other activities and fourthly for socio-cultural needs. The fishermen tend to fish
more when they have to meet urgent needs of cash in the domains of health, children
education, and socio-cultural events like weddings and funerals and in case of famine. In
doing so, the fishermen save their crops and cattle that would have been sold if they could not
fish. At the launching of Kompienga fishery about 5 fishermen left Bam for Kompienga but
they went back partly because they were not allowed to grow vegetables at Kompienga.
Since fishing is an additional in Bam one would expect the fishermen to afford deserting the
lake for its recovery. This would be too simplistic because many issues render this
problematical:
i)
As fishing is less and less productive, it is expected that the number of fishermen
gradually decrease even if no regulation is implemented. On contrary, the fishermen’
population is still increasing, and the fishing pressures also.
ii) If the fishermen leave the fishery, then they will rely only on agriculture, cattle breeding,
and maybe gold mining that is emerging and the selling of wood all run within the lake
catchment. This will result in higher damages to the lake.
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
136
iii) There is less and less land for agriculture and people have to migrate. Based on Boutillier
et al. (1985) calculations, 25-30 % of the area of Bam people migrated to Côte d’Ivoire,
Ghana, Togo and Benin and to the southern parts of Burkina.
iv) However, the fishermen of Lake Bam do not migrate much, probably because of the
substantial and additional returns that they still earn from fishing. This increases the
vulnerability of lake fisheries to a probable collapse (Carpenter & Brock, 2004).
v) Leaving the fishery requires collective action from the fishermen initiative, offers of
alternative livelihoods and appropriate institutional measures.
vi) Some years ago a fisherman of Bam village declared: ‘juvenile fishes will never live free
in the lake while my children suffer’, meaning that he rely very much on fishing and will
probably fish until the last fish is caught. The vegetables farmers are by law, required to
keep their farms at least 200 m far from the water highest level but they never obeyed. In
the same manner the fishermen are not ready to leave the fishery.
Though many NGOs (like Association des Junes pour la Protection de l’Environnement et
l’Elevage, Zood-Nooma, and SOS-Sahel International) and governmental projects are active
in strengthening all economic activities in Bam area, the demand is much higher than the
offer.
6.5.2- The fishermen’ livelihoods alternatives in Kompienga
As it rains much in Kompienga and arable lands are available, cultivation is productive so that
local people do not rely on fishing. At the beginning of the fishery, immigrated fishermen
were exclusively involved in fishing. But as agriculture and cattle breeding are the traditional
economic activities all over their country, the Burkinabe fishermen started running these
activities on they own initiative a few 3-5 years later, but not the foreign fishermen from Mali
and Niger. Nowadays, many development projects have assisted people in alternative
economic activities. For instance, the PACAFA (Projet Appui à la Coordination des Activités
de la Filière Aquacole au Burkina Faso, 3-year long that took end in 2008 assisted the
fishermen in cage fish farming development. Currently the Sahelian Integrated Lowland
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
137
Ecosystems Management (SILEM) that is a 15-year long programme started in 2005, the
Programme d’Appui au Développement de l’Agriculture au Burkina Faso (PADAB) that lasts
from 2006 to 2011, the Programme Fonds de Développement Local / Kompienga,
Kouritenga, Koulpelgo (PFDL3K) that is a 9-year programme funded by the Austrian
Cooperation and the Projet de Gestion Durable des Ressources Forestières (PROGEREF) are
supporting rural people (including the fishermen) in forestry, agriculture, wildlife
management, fisheries and other revenues generator activities.
Summary of the livelihoods in fisheries in Bam and in Kompienga
In Burkina Faso in general the fishermen run many economic activities (fig. 6.12). In Bam,
the fishermen will probably not leave the fishery very soon. In case they do, then the activities
that they will run are like harmful for the water. On the opposite, the fishermen of Kompienga
still have relatively more options in their livelihoods.
Fig. 6.12: Diversification of activities in the fishermen livelihoods strategy:
agriculture, fishing and cattle breeding
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
138
6.6- Institutions
The workshop and discussions with the fishermen revealed that the natural resources
management scheme the republican institutions and the traditional ones coexist in Bam and in
Kompienga. But they also co-exist in the whole country (Ouedraogo, 2006) and in Africa
(Blaikie, 2006). We will concentrate more on the traditional institutions because in Burkina
they are less studied than they republican ones, at least in the field of fisheries.
6.6.1- The traditional institutions in Bam
To understand the settings of indigenous institutions in the lake, we begin with two anecdotes:
the first is about the creation of the lake and second the origin of the fish.
Once upon a time, an old lady of the ‘forgeron’ clan paid a visit to the chief of Bam
village. After telling him that she was a reputed sorcerer and that she wanted to live
on the hills of the surrounding Pouni village, she required enough food and
consideration for Pouni village to be honored. But she was denied due to her clan and
her advanced aged that both prevented her to be espoused by the chief. Nevertheless
she set on the hills, assembled all occult forces she could control and generated a
deluge. Then, much sediment came down from the hills and made a dam and much
water was stocked to the extent that next and upstream villages were flooded. The
greatest chief of the Canton of Ratenga in Zimtanga village calmed her down and
offered her many presents. She promised that Zimtanga will never be flooded (Oral
tradition from Zimtanga and Bam, reported by Pouyaud, 1986).
“Long time ago, an important Chief came to our ancestors to look for a water-body
that was full of fish. Our ancestor Yaale who was the first inhabitant of the area was
famous for his mystic power. After he offered sacrifices and did some rituals it rained
immediately and very much. He also made large quantities of fish come from the caves
of the nearby hills of Zimtanga and Bam villages. ...... When dying he sank himself on
the shore area of the lake; today that place is holy. As he bequeathed his power to us,
we are the sentinels of the lake and its resources” (Oral tradition, told by Yam-Pa-
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
139
Legde Pierre SAWADOGO, doyen of the Nioniosse clan of Bam Village,
16/08/2009).
According to these ‘anthropological’ stories, a group of people of Bam village is leading the
traditional scheme of management of Lake Bam; and from the workshop and our interviews,
this holds true. Actually the village chiefs who we interviewed referred us to them.
The catchment of Lake Bam is inhabited by the Mossi ethnic group and is shared by the two
traditional cantons of Riziam and Ratinga (or Datinga). Among the 36 riversides villages, 4
belong to Riziam and 32 to Ratinga (fig. 6.13).
Fig. 6.13: The distribution of the villages and the population of fishermen around the lake: a
result of the workshop with the fishermen
Two centers of decision, religion and natural resources
In Bam and among the Mossi people, traditional communities have two major centers of
decision making in the sphere of natural resources. The most important one is the Teng-soba
of the Nioniosse clan who is an administrative position, chairing the management of any kind
of any kind of management of natural resources. ‘Teng-soba’ literally means ‘land owner’ or
more properly ‘land chief’. He is followed by the ‘Teng-Naba’, shorted as ‘Naba’ or village
chief who is a political position in charge of the management of people). To understand the
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PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
history of the two centers of decision in general we shortly recall the history of the Mossi
Empire as taught in schools. The Nioniosse were the first inhabitants of the area. In the 10th
Century the Mossi came from the south and colonized the area but they shared the power with
the Nioniosse. The management of natural resources was allocated to the Nioniosse group that
is led by the Tengsoba and the management of the community to the invader Mossi. The two
groups and many others that play different roles in the community have lived together in good
relationship and have together formed the current Mossi ethnic group. In the area of Bam the
most common family name of the Nioniosse people is Sawadogo, meaning Cloud, in the
sense that they are able to control natural forces like rain and wind. The position of the village
chief is usually disputed but not the one of the land manager because it is connected with
religion.
The Teng-soba Yaale (of Bam village, canton of Ratinga) leads the management of the lake,
but he cooperates closely with all Teng-soba of riverside villages. From time to time, they
offer sacrifices, usually comprising black bullock, black goat, black hen, donkey, dog and
horse (that replaces human being), traditional beer, sesame and bean cakes in order to prevent
risks such as drowning, diseases, and floods and to ensure fruitful usages of the resources and
for the wealth of the community. More than 12 holy sites exist in the lake and in the shore
area, and many more in the remaining area of the catchment. If a group of people ask for
sacrifices, then they have to bring the required inputs. But there was a ‘council of wise
people’ who is said to be able to foresee the future and to advice for sacrifices for the benefit
of the entire community. In this case, the Tengsoba reports to the Chief of Ratinga who then
allows catching the required animals of anybody for the sacrifice and requires people to come
to the sacrifice ceremony. This was usually done on the basis of a 3-year period in the two
cantons bordering the lake.
Natural resources management
Local people could all have access to a piece of land. Any foreigner seeking a piece of land
must go firstly to the village chief because he must comply with the community management
rules. Then he must report to the Teng-soba because he had to observe the natural resources
management rules. The Teng-soba is free to allocate him a portion of land. The land was
never sold but only ‘rented’. The foreigner yearly gives a small quantity of crops or the
equivalent amount of money. Usually he was not allowed to plant trees because this would be
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
141
a sign of ownership. From time to time, he could be relocated elsewhere to remind him that he
was not the land owner. If he failed to meet the rules of management of people or of natural
resources, then he could be charged, blamed or even sacked, depending on the seriousness
and/or the recurrence of his transgressions.
Clearing large covers of vegetation for agriculture required prior agreement of the Teng-soba.
Medicinal trees, trees producing edible fruits and holy forests were always severely protected.
Every year, when the Karite trees hold fruits, sacrifices and rituals were done in the bush.
Then for some months nobody was allowed to cut any living trees; only dead wood could be
picked up. Even the fruits could not be brought home, but only eaten in situ. Except snakes,
no wildlife animal could be killed because they were thought to be pregnant by that period. If
anybody kills a wildlife animal, he is reproached by passing-by people and strongly
reprimanded by the hunters’ group before the intervention of the Teng-soba and the chief in
case he must be rigorously penalized.
Fishing was not an economic but a subsistence activity and its pressures were very low. As
the economy was not money-oriented, natural resources were exploited generally for food,
household utilities, games, medicines and cultural needs. In normal period there were almost
no fishing restrictions such as closed season, closed area, and restriction on fishing methods.
Fishing was never closed but the ‘fishing season’ used to be opened with sacrifices
ceremonies. The opening ceremony used to take end with collective fishing operations which
landings were shared between the village chiefs, the Teng-soba and the population. Every
year in the past, the fishermen used to ask for sacrifices for safe and productive fishing. When
the lake was about to dry, fishing and hunting for crocodiles were strictly forbidden; which is
obviously protective to aquatic biodiversity. It was (and is still) believed that the Nioniosse
people are able to render fishing unfruitful or hazardous when there were serious and/or
repeated disobediences or miss behaviors.
Access to water was free and unlimited. However, when the lake broke into pools before
drying out, then the chiefs and the Teng-soba decide to keep some pools for cattle drinking
and some for domestic uses.
It was though that land, bush, water bodies, forest, some fish, some crocodiles and some wild
animals were the abode of spirits and must be treated with due respect. Thus they were
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PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
exploited and managed with special care within the guidance of the Teng-soba, comparable to
the priest in a church.
Everybody participates in the effectiveness of the rules. But a group of people was paying
special attention to the monitoring, surveillance and control of the bush, the lake and its
surrounding environments. But any offending action was denounced by anybody like passingby people and the lawbreaker then searched for. When apprehended, he was brought firstly to
the chief and then to the Teng-soba. The minimum punishment was for him to bring the
animals required for expiation sacrifices. He can be gradually marginalized for repeated or
serious insubordination. Especially for the lake management, any offender who did not
expiate his transgression or who repeatedly transgressed the law was expected to die by
drowning. Searching the water for his dead body could then be very tough and the body
usually not found immediately. Some days later, it could float and could then be found.
Therefore, people knew that the late person did not observe the lake management rules. Hence
he was qualified as ‘donkey’ and could not benefit from decent funerals, which was
dishonorable to his family. This posthumous sentence was exceptionally disliked by people.
The traditional authority leaders recognized that fish resources and landings have steadily
decreased, and added that fishing and crossing the lake are less safe. They believe that the
decrease of fish resources is probably due to the sealing of the caves of the hills some decades
ago and the non observation of indigenous rules. Actually in Burkina many people think that
fish are generated by hill caves and even drop from sky when it rains. As regarded like a gift
provided by God, fish resource is thought not to be exhaustible.
The three riverside major Teng-soba are said to be able to forbid fishing and make people
observe the decision: if they decide to do so, firstly fishing will not be productive because
they will ‘hide’ fishes and fishing will not be safe (risks of drowning and aggression by
crocodiles and snakes). In one way or another people still believe in their power. For
illustration, the day we interviewed the Teng-soba Yaale of Bam village, some vegetables
farmers came to him for sacrifices because their irrigation equipment was stolen. In doing so,
they hoped the thief will be apprehended and condemned with severity and their material
given back to them. Yaale also reported Lake Bam is seen as a place of pilgrimage for foreign
people as he hosted some from the Republic of Ivory Coast. At present, even the fishermen
association often initiates sacrifices. They did it in 1994, 1999 and 2006.
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
143
In the area until today, no foreign person gets access to rural land without the prior approval
of traditional authorities. And the decision making on land tenure and on the use of any
natural resource still involves traditional authority because they are still an important
reference for the community. The approach to resources management was based on social
consent arising from religion, believes and anthropological roots. The property regime
determines the rights of access and the rights of access the responsibilities of stakeholders as
also observed by GTZ (2002) elsewhere in the Sub-Saharan region of Africa.
6.6.2- Traditional institutions in Kompienga.
The area of Kompienga is inhabited by the Gourmatche ethnic group. It is traditionally
organized in 36 villages. Small villages have a chief of village, but in addition to him, large
villages have a ‘Timdano’, who is in charge of natural resources management. They all
depend on the chief of Pama. Here again, the traditional approach to natural resources
management is sprayed with religious believes. Sacrifices were offered to ‘supernatural’
forces for productive and safe exploitation of resources. And the fishermen associations had
them done 3 times that were 1, 2 and 4 years ago.
People used to have extensive returns from agriculture, wild fruits and hunting. Therefore,
fishing was seen as a very risky work, which explains why autochthon people were not
involved in fishing at the beginning of Kompienga fishery. However they used to fish with
rudimentary methods, for rituals and for complementary food, usually during the dry season,
that was before the creation of the reservoir. In Kompienga area the traditional scheme of
natural resources management appeared less elaborated and less restrictive compared to that
in Bam probably because land and other natural resources were abundant and even exceeding
the needs of local people.
6.6.3- The republican institutions in Bam
The republican institutions in Bam in the past
Right of access to fish resources
144
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
This paragraph aims at pointing out the limitations of the republican institutions and current
trends in Bam and Kompienga most often as learn from the interviews. The republican
institutions started under the colonization. Overnight, natural resources were declared to be
the property of the Republic of France, that could then allocate right of access to users
(including local communities) on charge. This principle was not accepted by Bam people
even if they did not protest overtly. Actually they could neither understand it nor afford the
costs it entailed. The cost of the first fishing licenses set in Bam half a century ago was 6,000
FCFA/year, which was equivalent to the price of 4-year 2 bulls or 1-2 bicycles. By this time,
local communities had to pay annual taxes to the French administration. A tax of ‘only’ 15
FCFA was imposed to the city of Kongoussi, which had two quarters. No quarter could solely
pay such amount of money. The two quarters nearly fought to set the contribution of each.
This event shows the extent at which the license fee was exceedingly high for the fishermen.
Consequently, almost no fisher complied with that rule and one could believe that the same
happened in the forest and wildlife domains. The inclination to not paying license for natural
resources still remains in Bam where in 2009 only 6 of the 700 fishermen bought a license
that currently costs about 8500 FCFA/year.
The fishermen organization
The first fishermen association was set 45 years ago. But it was mismanaged mainly due to
the upsetting relationship with government fishery services. For instance when a fisherman
disobeyed the legislation it is the president of the association who was penalized. Until
recently decades ago, the fishermen of Bam could not be organized in association unless a
fishery project told them to do and only if they expected subsides (Coenen, 1988). The
associations used to disappear as soon as the projects took end. This partially explains why
the aquaculture development projects in Bam (about 6 in total) failed.
Other weaknesses in the republican institutions
The republican approach has suffered many weaknesses that are analyzed by several authors
like Ouedraogo & Ouattara (2004), Bagre et al. (2003), GIRE-BF (2003a) and GIRE-BF
(2004). It is extremely centralized and the participation and devolution of responsibilities
overlooked. Over a long run this inhibited local initiatives and resulted in people waiting for
assistance. It was not adapted to the administrative organization of the country. Policies and
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
145
legislations were ambiguous and some discordances and contradictions between sectorial
policies were remarkable. Social, cultural and traditional organizations were completely
ignored. Some detailing regulatory texts are still missing for the republican legislation to be
implemented. For instance, no official list of fish species exists despite it is a legislative
requirement. The institutions are much influenced by international policies, strategies and
legal instruments but lots of them are not adapted to the national contexts. There are more and
more stakeholders in the domain of natural resources (ministries, national and international
NGOs, deconcentrated governmental services, local people, emerged individuals ...) but many
do not observe the legislation. Crucial shortages of human, technical and financial resources
are manifest. Almost no communication channel exists between the government and resources
users as the repression is the rule. Nothing was done to build the capacities of local
communities, so that they cannot adequately take part in local undertakings in the sphere of
natural resources. The deficiencies in monitoring, research and education are obvious, which
explains why data on Bam Lake are suddenly missing.
Lake Bam fishery had never been subject to any management scheme. There is no fishing
season, no closed season, and no limitation of catches but this is common in the Burkinabe
fisheries. Only two main fishing rules exist: the fishermen are required to yearly buy a fishing
license and not to use destructive methods. Actually the licensing system (on fish and forest)
aims not to limit the pressure but to provide the central government with cash.
We would like to mention an important deficit in the republican institutions following a recent
organizational change. The fisheries administration was entrusted to the ministry in charge of
environment, forestry and wildlife. In this frame, fisheries and aquaculture education was
given to the ministry agents in the national school of forestry. On field, these agents were in
charge of all aspects of fisheries. But overnight in 2002, the fisheries administration was
allocated to the ministry in charge of agriculture and water which field staff never attended a
fishery course. In addition, by law, only foresters are allowed to act as fishery police officers
but they feel frustrated from having lost responsibility in fisheries. The consequences are the
loss of technical competences in fisheries and the lack of implementation of fishery
surveillance operations.
In one word, the new owner of natural resources failed to be sufficiently present or to be
actually represented on the lake catchment and manage resources. Property rights and rights
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PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
of management were somehow diluted, which, after Carpenter & Brock (2004), is a major
source of risk and vulnerability. Therefore, with the emerging society and the money-focused
economy where the success of individuals prevails more than the one of the communities and
where people livelihoods are directly based on the direct use of natural resources, the result is
the depletion of the lake and its resources.
Another important point that came out from the interviews is the influence of the Christian
religion that was introduced along with the colonization. It was said to have contributed a lot
to alter the indigenous institutions by changing believes and taboos. In traditional
communities, religion believes are a key support for the scheme of natural resources. The
interviewees all declared that the catholic religion disrupted these links. As less and less
people believe that land, water-bodies, bush, wildlife and fish are inhabited by spirits, then the
traditional approach to natural resources is losing support (Sarch, 2001; Sarfo-Mensah &
Oduro, 2007).
Current trends in the republican institutions at Bam
Today, the fishermen are aware of the necessity to be organized even out of the framework of
a project. In doing so they are organized in 9 officially recognized associations and in some 510 others which have applied for official recognition. The associations are regrouped in a
provincial union. They were initiated by the fishermen themselves and they were able to
identify, formulate, appraise and implement five small size projects of 1750-15250 € of
budget from 2002 to 2005.
The fishery of Bam could soon be ranked legal status that Kompienga fishery has benefiting
from (see paragraph 4.8.3). A workshop was organized in September 2009 to criticize the
practices of concession and aquatic perimeters as set by the Forester Code of 1997. The
fisheries concession stands for allocation of exclusive rights of access to fish resources of
small size water-bodies and the aquatic perimeters the special participatory management of
fish resources of water-bodies of more than 5,000 ha large. The workshop recommended
reducing the size limitation of the aquatic perimeters in order to embrace smaller reservoirs.
In this line, Lake Bam is expected to be managed like Kompienga is.
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
147
The lake water is gradually managed under a participatory approach as required by the law
that orients the management of water resources and the integrated management of water
resources strategy. In this frame, a local water committee was set in Bam. Some preliminary
surveys regarded Lake Bam damaged water that must be a centre of national attention. They
also identified urgent actions on Bam: (i) improve scientific knowledge on the lake (human
and natural sciences), (ii) revise and implement the legislative settings and (iii)
protect/rehabilitate the lake (GIRE-BF, 2003b). CINTECH (2008b) has planned the
rehabilitation and the exploitation of the lake but the biotic aspect, especially the fish one is
disregarded; only irrigated farming of vegetables is considered so far. From the fish angle,
only the list of the fish species and the planning of a participatory management of the fishery
are envisaged. Therefore this work is an important contribution to this progress.
Fig. 6.14: Protection of the Lake:
1: Stony dams built by the fishermen on the small
tributaries of lake Bam. Mr. René SAWADOGO,
President of the union of the fishermen
association is standing on the dam
2: Trees (Eucalyptus sp.) planted by the
fishermen. The guard of the plantation was
showing the limits of the area planted
3: Equipment of the Association pour la
Protection du Lac Bam project that will clean the
city of Kongoussi from domestic waste. Mr.
François SAWADOGO The president of the
association is standing between two other
members
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PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
In the catchment, many projects are introducing improved techniques that are protective for
the environment in agriculture. For instance the fishermen association and the Association des
Jeunes pour la Protection de l’Environnement et l’Elevage have built small tony dikes to
reduce the sedimentation transportation and planted trees on the lake banks to reduce erosion.
Similar activities are implemented across the lake catchment but their main purpose is not the
protection of the lake. Additionally the Association pour la Protection du Lac Bam is
implementing a project to clean the city of Kongoussi in contribution to the lake protection
(fig. 6.14).
6.6.4- The Kompienga fishery management regime
The creation of Kompienga reservoir coasted much money. The reservoir is very important
for the national economy as it produces hydropower and fish both distributed in many parts of
the country. Therefore it is benefiting from a national and international attention. However,
some of the critics mentioned above in the governmental institutions in Bam also apply to
Kompienga.
Little political consideration was given to fisheries as such large reservoir existed. Therefore
Burkina did not experience the management of larger size reservoir fisheries. Actually the
largest reservoir that was built before Kompienga was the one of Loumbila, 1500 ha large.
From our working experience, we know that a lot of fishermen migrated to Kompienga very
shortly after the creation of the reservoir. Therefore in Kompienga no fishery measure was
planned before the massive arrival of the fishermen and it was difficult to (re-) organize the
fishery. The first fishery project was implemented from 1993 to 1994. We (I worked for this
project) attempted to formalize a participatory approach to manage Kompienga fishery in
1993. Unfortunately we failed due to the lack of legislative and political supports. Then,
taking advantage of the formulation of the Forester Code in 1997, this approach was
introduced to deal with major fisheries in the country. In doing so, Kompienga was ranked the
status of PAIE (Périmètre Aquacole d’Intérêt Economique), meaning that the socio-economic
importance of the fishery was recognized. From this political and legislative decision a special
concern is allocated to the fishery.
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
149
For decision making, a fishery management board (MB) was set in July 2005. All kinds of
stakeholders are represented: local and national governmental bodies including the security
services, Nongovernmental Organizations, funders, local rural councils, traditional authority,
fishermen, fish mongers, fish products processors, etc. The fishery primary stakeholders that
are fishermen, fish mongers and fish products processors are highly represented and highly
positioned. They are 34% of the number of members and the deputy chair of the management
board is a fisherman, the one who we interviewed. Attached to the MB, a Technical Unit (TU)
advises it and implements its decisions; the staff of the TU is appointed by the central
government.
A management plan was adopted by the MB, 19 July 2007. Its goal is to contribute to the
improvement of fishing communities’ livelihoods thanks to a responsible and sustainable
management of the body of water and to their integration into the local development
processes (Anon, 2007). It is important to note that the three dimensions of our analysis
scheme (i.e. livelihoods, aquatic ecosystem and institutions) clearly appear in the formulation
of this goal. Later on, a committee of control and surveillance was set to target offenses to the
rules.
From 1992, five fishery projects targeted the three different components of the fishery system.
For instance the Projet d’Urgence Kompienga (1993-1994) and the FEM/ONG project (20002003) projects worked on the ecosystem protection, the Pilot Project No1 of the Sustainable
Fisheries Livelihoods Programme in west Africa on livelihoods and institutional development
and the Centre d’Achat et de Distribution des Produits de Pêche and the Projet d'Appui aux
Activités de la Filière Aquacole projects on training, equipment, fishing technology,
aquaculture and fish products commercialization. The central government allocates a yearly
budget to the fishery but the MB seeks other internal and external sources of funding.
After parts of the vegetation that was supposed to be flooded was intentionally cleared during
the construction of the dam, the protection of the ecosystem started in 1993-1994 with the
delineation of a protective band, the reforestation of the banks and the tracing of paths for
cattle to reach the water for drinking. To ensure the protection of the stock of fish the
minimum size of the nets mesh in Kompienga is set higher than elsewhere in the country, 80
mm stretched size instead of 70 mm with the agreement and the participation of the
fishermen. Furthermore, closed areas as spawning grounds, nurseries and refuges have been
150
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
being set in Kompienga for a decade; the more recent one was set last year by the Sahelian
Integrated Lowland Ecosystems Management project in 2009. Closed periods are gradually
introduced. From February 2009, fishing will be forbidden 1 day/week (Tuesday) but it will
be extended to 45 days/year in one trench from 2010 in addition to the 1 day closing per
week.
Fig. 6.15: The views of the two waters (at differents scales) showing that
Bam is not protected (map from Google Earth) on the opposite of Kompienga
(map provided by the technical service of the Kompienga fishery
management)
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
151
To short, in Bam the institutions have not been able to prevent damages to the water but the
experiences learn from this failure have fuelled better management and protection in
Kompienga (Fig. 6. 15).
6.6.5- Other trends in the republican institutions in Burkina Faso
In Burkina a real decentralization process took place a decade ago and devolution of
responsibility in natural resources is going on. Local collectivities, mainly the rural
communes will have essential stakes in the landscape planning, socioeconomic development,
scientific and exploitation issues in the fields of natural resources including fish. But
Ouedraogo (undated) pointed out some difficulties that the process is facing. They can be
summarized as it follows:
-
Severe lack of local capacity such as illiteracy of members local elected government,
-
Conflict between local and national interests: local people may look for short term
interests while the central government is more interest in long term outcomes,
-
Exclusion of some people such as the allochthon ones,
-
Overlaps and confusion between institutions such as the customary ones, those created
by the central government, those created by donor-funded, and the elected local
government.
We would like to illustrate the last statement of Ouedraogo (undated) with the following
example in which I was personally involved in 2001. Local development projects are
formulated throughout rural rapid appraisals that do not involve experts in fisheries. As rural
people, including the fishermen who are diluted in the entire population are all primarily
farmers and cattle breeders, they seldom cite fisheries as activities of interest. Consequently
fisheries are ignored during the formulation of projects and programmes. Later on the
fishermen complain for not being funded and attempts to catch up may fail. This was the case
of a local development programme of the central part of the country in 2001. In their endeavor
to catch up and without consulting any expert in fisheries, they planned a training project for
candidates to fishing. Then, fishery officers were asked to give the training to about 60
persons and to embrace nearly all fishery topics, mainly canoeing, fishing gears technology
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PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
(cast net, gill net and long lines), fishing operations, fish resources protection and
development, fishery management and rural organizations management within 2-3 days only.
The training took place but the outputs are obviously questionable.
Several other strategies and laws have important connections to natural resources. In
chronological order of their development we can mention the agrarian reform (1996), the
environment code (1997), the mining code (1997), the biodiversity strategy (1999), the
population strategy (2000), the pasture law (2002), the poverty reduction strategy (2004), the
rural development strategy (2004), the action programme for adaptation to climatic changes
(2007), the rural land law (2009), the fisheries strategy (2010), etc. Currently the forestry code
and the fisheries strategy are being revised to incorporate new challenges.
Concluding words on institutions
Two legal frameworks of natural resources management strongly prevail around Lake Bam
and people refer to both or to one of them, depending on the circumstances. Natural resources
were own by the traditional communities who then forged the management approach fitting
their history, culture, beliefs, appreciations of nature, living standards and needs. The
republican approach came later, usurped the ownership but failed to actually managed
resources to fit changes in the society, in the economy and in the population. Therefore, the
policy component (institutional bodies and rules), for Lake Bam exploitation was too poor to
prevent the lake collapse. But today an improvement is observed. The area of Kompienga has
benefited from the miss management experiences of Bam. Added to its national significance a
national political awareness is stirred up to protect the resources it hosts. Therefore and
despite much remain to be done, the institutions and rules that are put into place are stronger
in Kompienga.
6.7- Discussion on water management
The use of fish and fisheries as entry points for the management of waters is much relevant to
policies, biology, livelihoods and public awareness as explained in the following lines.
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
153
6.7.1- Relevance of the study on water management
Relevance to policies
Proper management of fish and fisheries is a plea for improvement of land use within river
catchments (Allan et al. 1997). In other words, properly managed inland fisheries are
normally compatible with and encourage the maintenance of waters at satisfactory quality and
quantity levels for fisheries and for other uses of land (Welcomme, 2001).
The Burkinabe national strategies for biological diversity (BF, 1999), integrated water
resources management (GIRE-BF, 2003a and 2003b), the poverty reduction (IMF, 2005), and
fisheries (DGRH, 2010) all recognize the socio-economic importance of fisheries and
mentioned that the damages to fish diversity will be a loss of inputs to development. The
water law (Assemblée Nationale, 2001), the environmental code (Assemblée des Députés du
Peuple, 1997a) and the forester one (Assemblée des Députés du Peuple, 1997b) protect
aquatic ecosystems. This conforms to international policies like the Code of Conduction for
Responsible Fisheries (FAO, 1995) and the Convention on Biological Diversity and many
others that Burkina Faso agreed with. But Bouda (2002) mentioned that there is no major
change from one fisheries policy paper to another, which is a call for improvement. Indeed
much still remains to do for African fisheries institutions to meet challenges as exposed by the
Millennium Development Goals (Heck et al. 2007).
The national potential production of capture fisheries was estimated at 12,500 tons per year in
2000 but in 2003, exactly 12,500 tons of fish were landed (Kabore et al., 2005). Although this
statistics lack precision, there is a clear trend to over-fishing. However, according to the last
but one national fishery strategy (MAHRH, 2003a) the fish production had to be increased by
15 % from 2003 to 2010. The new fishery strategy paper (DGRH, 2010) has mentioned that it
still has to be increased by the same rate in the next 10 years despite the apparent overfishing.
Therefore we need to collect more data and generate more information on fish and waters. We
believe that this study is a contribution to achieve the objectives that are assigned to waters
and fisheries institutions.
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PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
At international level, Burkina Faso signed many convention is a Contracting Parties to the
Ramsar Convention on Wetlands. Today, 15 Burkinabe wetlands totaling 652,502 hectares of
surface area have been ranked the status Ramsar sites. It is hoped that this will contribute to
their conservation and to the wise use of their resources for the benefit of local, national and
international communities (The Ramsar Convention on Wetlands, 2010). Lake Bam and
Kompienga have been recently this status i.e. 07 October 2009. The research has provided
reliable information that is required for the management of the particular areas.
Relevance to biological sciences
For three decades, biologists are using fish as bio-indicators to assess waters health (FAME
CONSORTIUM, 2004). To summarize the advantages of the approach, we would say that
fish respond to environmental and human induced stresses with or without delay and can keep
the responses over a long period of time (Karr, 1981). Although there are some attempts to
adapt the approach to Africa as Laë et al. (2004) did on a reservoir fishery in Mali, as far as I
know, fish have never been used in such way in Burkina Faso. Therefore we believe that the
present work is catalytic.
Social, economic and public level relevance
Fish are among the most vulnerable living aquatic resources and fisheries among the most
exposed utilizations of waters (Hlohowskyj et al., 1996; Thorpe et al., 2004; Lévêque, 2006a).
Therefore proper management of fish and fisheries is a plea for improvement of land use
within river catchments (Allan et al. 1997). In other words, properly managed inland fisheries
are normally compatible with and encourage the maintenance of waters at satisfactory quality
and quantity levels for fisheries and for other uses of land (Welcomme, 2001). This requires
efficient uses of natural resources such as land, forest and water in river catchment.
The erosion of fish diversity and fisheries will result in a loss of food and employment. In
Burkina, fish have more socio-economic importance than any other living aquatic resource
has. Mollusks, frogs and turtles are consumed in some areas, but they are less and less
appreciated due to the influence of other cultures. The consumption of frogs is a taboo in the
area of Dori (in the north) that we visited in October 2008. In this area frogs are abundant but
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
155
they are not fished. The other aquatic living biotas have less economic, social, anthropological
and cultural importance.
From my working experience, I know that fish is a public indicator of water pollution in
Burkina Faso. Following pollution events that cause fish mortality, passing-by people are
attracted by the floating dead bodies of fish and they often report to fisheries officers.
Furthermore, such events are often reported in newspapers and Ouattara (2006) is an example.
Thus, the use of fish and fisheries as tools of water management will be supported by local
communities.
Adapted from by IAASTD (2009), fig. 6.16 shows some of the many pieces that should be
studied in an assessment of a water system. The production of fish is a result of the human,
natural and institutional components.
Fig. 6.16: A few pieces of the three components of Lake Bam fishery
system
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PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
6.7.2- Institutions
Our study highlights the co-existence of two dualistic legal frameworks in natural resources in
Bam and Kompienga as also observed by Sarfo-Mensah & Oduro (2007) in Ghana and
(Hawley et al. 2004) elsewhere: the indigenous and the republican schemes. Under the
traditional approach which is based on religions, beliefs, taboos, superstitions and rituals
(Sarfo-Mensah & Oduro, 2007), the resources were own by local communities. Then, they
have fallen into public ownership under the republican approach which is supposed to use
technical and scientific means and suitable strategies. Failing to do so resulted in lack of
sustainability and in excessive pressures on and regrettable damages of Lake Bam. The case
of Bam illustrates Beck & Nesmith (2001) statement on the usual break down of traditional
management scheme under the modernization pressures. But in Burkina Faso, the traditional
chiefs are still powerful. Actually in Burkina most people are confident in their capacities in
governance and economic reform. Afrobarometer (2010) studied the Burkinabe people trust in
the traditional power. It was found that 75 % of people trust in their capacities in socioeconomic governance and 56 % wish they receive a salary from the government. However,
this confidence decreases from rural areas (78 %) to cities (63 %) in the cities. This matches
the suggestion of Teng-soba Yaale of Bam who during our debate claimed for governmental
support for the institution that he is leading to be able to meet the challenges. Also the study
showed that education influences the confidence in indigenous authority as 63 % of educated
people (primary level at least) against 79 % of those who did not go to school trust in that
authority.
In Africa, there is a claim to support applied research in capacity building and institutional
strengthening in the domains of fish and related resources (Beck & Nesmith, 2001; WorldFish
Centre, undated). From our working experience, we know that local communities are
sometime able to locally do what the government cannot, to take over the responsibility that
the republican institutions gave to the government. For illustration we give a case that
happened in the area of Bam. Around 1998, the floodplain of Gassongo village, 25 km distant
from Bam Lake, was fished by fishermen from Mali 4-6 months per year but they never
minded buying a legal fishing license that coasted 8,000 CFA. However, the village
community set a tax of 5,000 FCFA/fisher/month that was rigorously observed. Similar cases
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
157
are frequent across the country. Some local people used to set illegal but legitimated exclusive
rights of access to fish resources, or to simply sell the whole fish stock to external fishermen.
Obviously the republican fishery concession approach has not work as expected, which was
recognized by the workshop aiming to assess the ‘participatory’ approach to fisheries
management that took place in September 2009 in Tenkodogo, Burkina Faso. Besides, Zerbo
et al. (2007) analyzed the earning of a fisherman. From fishing, on average a Burkinabe
fisherman can earn 545.047 FCFA as annual net revenue, which is confirmed by chapter 2 of
the present research. Therefore one would expect the fishermen to all buy a fishing license
that costs only 1.5 % of their returns. Unfortunately, from the fisheries department archives,
we estimated that less than 8 % of them bought it in 1998. This problem could be addressed
under the management scheme, the devolution of responsibility to local communities and the
property rights and a study of the behavior of individual fishermen.
6.7.3- Livelihoods
The results of our field investigations on the historical development of Bam commercial
fishery are similar to the statement of Baijot et al. (1994) which is repeated by many sources
like MAHRH (2003a). In Burkina Faso commercial fisheries took place with the
contribution of professional fishermen from neighbor countries. Passively and actively they
trained the Burkinabe people in fishing in addition to be supplying the market with fish
products. Actually in their livelihoods strategies, the Burkinabe people are primary farmers
and cattle breeders; fishing is already a secondary, alternative and even seasonal activity
(Baijot et al., 1994; Zigani, 2000; Konté et al., 2002) and this holds true in many other parts
of Africa (Allison & Ellis, 2001; Béné & Russell, 2007). On the opposite the bozo ethnic
group who are primary professional fishermen of Mali diversify their livelihoods in carrying
out agriculture and cattle breeding (Daget, 1994).
Confronted to food shortage and to poverty, people of Bam are directly using more and more
natural resources to meet crucial and short term needs, which make many of them migrate
from one water-body to another in search for productive fisheries (chapter 2). One might
think that the trend of the fishermen to be sedentary is disadvantageous to the fishery (Overa,
2001; after Ellis & Allison, 2004). However, in Burkina migrant fishermen are said to tend to
sack fish resources in addition to be in conflict with local people for rights of access to fish
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PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
resources as Allison & Ellis (2001) also observed elsewhere in the world. For this reason,
from 1997, the spatial validity of the fishing license was restricted from the national territory
to the one of the 13 administrative regions where it was issued. To go further, each of the four
current aquatic perimeters of economic interest has its specific license.
As rural economy is not diversified in Burkina, we agree with Anon. (2005) that alternatives
to agriculture and cattle breeding lack in Kompienga. But it is more worrying in Bam where
agriculture lands are eroded and no longer extensible.
6.7.4- Ecosystems
With a density of 1.5 fishermen/ha, the Bam fishery is overloaded; with a density of 0.025
fishermen/ha, Kompienga possibly reached the maximum number of fishermen that it can
host.
The features of Lake Bam fish community imply that the water dangerously impacted.
Carpenter & Brock (2004) and Frissell & Bayles, 1996) would agree that the increasing
disconnection with other water-bodies and the chronic seasonality and the yearly mortality of
fish achieve to convince that the lake is in advanced state of physical and biotic death. One
the opposite, as far as we know, Kompienga does not show any sign of damage even if
preventive more actions are needed and even planned.
The exposure of Lake Bam ecosystem is also connected with the lake geographical position in
the river basin. Cappiella & Fraley-McNeal (2007) observed that due to their small size and
ease of alteration, headwater streams and isolated wetlands are more vulnerable than the
downstream ones are. The lake is located in the upstream area of the Volta River catchment,
hence it is exposed to nature generated risks.
6.7.5- Historical trajectories of the two water-bodies systems
Following Fraser (2007), we are interested in observing the movement of the two water
systems within the 3-dimension box (fig. 6.17). Movements in the direction of the bottom
corner in the left hand side reflect a highly robust system (corner 1), i.e. the least vulnerability
of the water systems. In this area, the fishermen can easily shift from fishing to other
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
159
livelihoods opportunities. But in our case, we mentioned that these alternative activities must
not be detrimental to the fishery; also institutions are able to prevent and deal with damages to
the water-bodies and the aquatic ecosystems are resilient. Movements towards the upper
corner (corner 8), right-hand side reflect the opposite situation.
We broke the historical path of Lake Bam into three periods: (i) before the colonization, (ii)
during and four decades after the colonization and (iii) now. Before the colonization only the
indigenous approach to natural resources management was prevailing and was well-built and
well implemented. Natural resources were abundant and lowly impacted. There was no need
for alternatives in livelihoods and in case there was, they could not harm the lake ecology
very much. The lake ecosystem was resilient. Consequently, this period was the least
vulnerable one for Lake Bam system.
Fig. 6.17: The trajectories of Bam and Kompienga fisheries systems (B1: Bam before the
colonisation, B2: Bam 2 decades ago and B3: Bam presently; Kpg: Kompienga
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PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
During the colonial occupation until half a century later, the republican approach to natural
resources was introduced overnight and co-existed with the traditional one that it combated to
some extent. But it failed to be effective despite indigenous structures, believes and behaviors
were deeply altered. As the population kept growing fast and the economy being moneydriven, natural resources were profoundly exploited with no regard to their conservation for
future generations. The available options in livelihoods of rural people have impaired the
lake.
Presently, the trends are an improvement of the institutions and the awareness of stakeholders.
But the fishermen are still short of livelihoods options that besides are inappropriate to the
lake conservation. The lake and its ecosystem are so affected that they became seasonal. As
agricultural income no longer meet the cultivators’ financial needs, the farmers see fishing as
additional and necessary activity. Therefore the number of fishermen and the fishing
pressures have kept increasing. It resulted in the biological depletion of the lake fish stock and
the probable economical ruin of the fishery. The fish traits suggest that the resilience of the
fish stock is very low. The (nearly) yearly mortalities of fish and the important sedimentation
achieve to convince that Bam will probably not recover soon.
We do not break the historical trajectory of Kompienga system vulnerability because it is a
recently built body of water (only 20 years old). Strong and adaptive policies, institutions and
rules are already in place, livelihoods are better and the ecosystem more protected.
This holistic approach to the assessment waters systems could be extended to other areas of
Burkina, especially to protected areas like the Game Ranch of Nazinga where the republican
institutions are very strong and where people were removed and relocated elsewhere. It
appears highly relevant in the frameworks of the decentralization, the devolution of
responsibility to local communities and the integrated management of water resources. From
this study, we also learned that as the natural and social and economic contexts of natural
resources continuously change, it is necessary for the institutions to adapt and look at
sustainable management as a journey but not a destination. The multipurpose of small waters
development in Burkina creates a big challenge of their management. To undertake the
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
161
journey towards sustainability, people, institutions and the nature should be addressed at the
same time (Hilhorst, 2008).
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PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
7- Overview of the research and final discussion
This chapter firstly summarizes the study and discusses the research in terms of challenges in
fish and freshwaters in Africa and suggests fields of future investigations.
7.1- Overview of the study
This work contributes to increase the use of fish and fisheries for the analysis and the
improvement of waters systems in Burkina Faso. The study was undertaken in 2008 and 2009
and was designed to give evidence that (i) as resource users, the fishermen are aware that
waters are threatened, (ii) the features exhibited by fish can be used to characterize the level
of damage of waters and (iii) fish and fisheries can be used to scrutinize the status of water
system, including its natural, institutional and humans facets.
We targeted four geographical areas in Burkina: the damaged Lake Bam, the moderately
impacted area of Koubri, the protected area of Nazinga Gaming Ranch and the large size
reservoir of Kompienga. To collect data we discussed with the fishermen and the local leaders
of governmental and traditional authorities. We also sampled fish with electric fishing, cast
net, gill nets and long lines.
The first part of the study analyzed ecological alertness and livelihoods in fisheries. It
involved an assessment of policies papers and interviews of fishermen. In this arid country the
creation of reservoirs is a priority in development policies. Today national policies are much
attentive to the increasing degradation of waters. Rural people are primary farmers and cattle
breeders but in addition, they exploit the reservoirs as fisheries. Thus, fishing is a
supplementary activity that tends to be seasonal; but it provides significant returns to the
fishermen household. More importantly, the fishermen are significantly aware of the threats
that the waters are facing as they were able to accurately describe pressures and drivers. They
pointed the finger at irrigated gardens and water abstraction, then rain-fed agriculture,
deforestation, sand mining and cattle to have increased soil erosion, sedimentation, siltation,
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
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pollution, loss of habitat and biodiversity. But for a majority of them, damming and the
resulting impoundment have positive influence on the environment quality. Some species of
fish were reported to have disappeared while other are re-appearing after downstream dams
accidentally disrupted. To lessen the impacts to waters, the fishermen transfer fish species
from one site to the other but the outputs are open to discussion.
The second part of the study examined the communities of fish in Koubri. Thirty five species
were recorded in the running waters against 31 in the non running ones, showing the
inclination of fish to migrate. The stony sites located below dams yielded more species than
the others did, inferring that the migration of fish was hampered. Electric-fishing and cast
netting look equally efficient for the assessment of fish species diversity and assemblages.
Also seasonal and spatial shifts in fish communities were shown. The size of fishes increased
from the end of the dry season to the rainy period and to the start of the dry one. The number
and the biomass of fishes caught per unit of fishing effort decreased from the end of the dry
season to the rainy season, and then increased when the dry season started. The free flowing
section of brook exhibited 32 species, the tributaries 26, the upstream reservoirs of Arzoum
Baongo and Naba Zana 20 and 18 species respectively; which confirms the impediment to
fish migration.
Bam, Koubri and Nazinga exhibited 56 species of fish regrouped in 16 families. The more an
area is impacted the low the number of species was. Hence, Bam had 20 species, Koubri 35
and Nazinga 48. The more an area is impacted the smaller the size of species and individuals
tended to be. The fish community of Bam was much dominated by S. galilaeus (30.2%) and
Barbus ablabes (26.3%). In Koubri, it was dominated by B. ablabes (40.1%) and B. macrops
(17.9%) followed by S. galilaeus (9.4%). In Nazinga the most frequent species was S.
galilaeus (12.4%), followed by Brycinus nurse (11%), and B. macrops (10.8%). The number
of emergent species (> 1%) was 12 in Bam, 9 in Koubri, and 20 in Nazinga. Intolerant and
vulnerable species like Lates niloticus, Heterobranchus sp., Heterotis niloticus, and Labeo sp.
were absent in Bam, infrequent in Koubri but frequent in Nazinga.
The number of fishes caught by a cast net throw did not varied much from Bam to Koubri but
more fishes in Koubri than in Nazinga. But the biomass per throw was smaller in Bam than in
Koubri and also smaller in Koubri than in Nazinga. However the statistical test did not show
significant difference in any of the comparison. With the electric fishing, we caught less
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PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
fishes per hectare of water in Bam than in Koubri but more in Koubri than in Nazinga. The
biomass per hectare of water fished was higher in Bam than in Koubri, but lower in Koubri
than in Nazinga. However the statistical test did not show significant difference in any of the
comparisons.
The third part of the research was on the adaptive management of water based on fish. It
showed that the ecosystem of Lake Bam is critically impacted. The yearly mortality of fish
and the high rate of sedimentation persuade that the water is biologically and physically
dying. Fishing is already an additional activity in the diversification of rural people sources of
revenues. The fishermen do not have many options in their livelihoods; and the available
options will result in increased damages to the nature within the lake banks and catchment
area, which in turn will affect the lake. In the past only indigenous institutions were in place
and they were fitting the contexts. Then the republican ones were inappropriately introduced.
As they are not able to fulfill their roles, people still refer to the traditional system of natural
resources management but they also refer to the republican ones. The fishermen are being
better organized. Private institutions are trying to reduce the sedimentation by building stony
dams on the tributaries and planting trees on the banks. The government is formulating the
physical and economical rehabilitation of the water. And over the whole country, efforts are
being made to give more responsibilities to local communities, within the republican system.
On the opposite of Bam that is natural a water body the creation of the Kompienga reservoir
costed a lot. In addition, the reservoir is more economically important than Bam is. Therefore,
that water has benefited from political and technical attention more than Bam did. In fact the
mis-management experiences of Bam have fed the improvement of the management of newly
created waters.
7.2- Challenges in African waters
Water is an irreplaceable resource required for the maintenance of natural organisms,
ecosystems and for human societies but it is becoming short both in quantity and in quality
(Stikker, 1998). In quantity the availability of water is declining in any continent. In Africa it
has continuously declined from 20,600 m3 per capita in 1950 to 16,500 in 1960, to 12,700 in
1970, to 9.400 in 1980 and to 5.100 in 2000 (Rosegrant & Perez, 1997). Stikker (1998)
warned that the Nile will soon no longer reach the sea as partially resulting from water
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
165
retention, abstraction and release, which is a source of international conflicts (Wolf, 1998) as
it recently occurred between Ghana and Burkina Faso (RFI, 2010). But the conflicts arise
from the challenges of meeting not only the societal needs but the ecological ones as well
(Haftendorn, 2000; Baron et al. 2002).
To jointly address poverty and environmental improvement we need to increase poor people's
access to natural resources, to increase environmental awareness and to enhance the
productivity of the resource use. Access to water is a core issue in the Sahelian zone of Africa
and it is though the development of reservoirs is a step to a solution to hunger. In this view,
Clay (1984) estimated the increase of the total reservoir area in Africa at 17,919 km² from
1960 to 1970, 24,000 km² from 1980 to 1990 and 32,000 km² from 1990 to 2000. While
Burkina Faso has built 1,400 reservoirs, Zimbabwe has built more than 8,000 (Jackson et al.,
1988). In Africa 75% of the population live in arid to semi-arid areas (Vörösmarty, et al.
2005); most of these areas usually face hungry (FEWS NET, 2010); therefore this is where
artificial lakes are concentrated (FAO (2010b)). The idea that reservoirs are constructed to
reduce the famine in densely populated and water deficient zones can be drawn from fig. 7.1.
We have to develop reservoirs and live with dams (Saeijs & Schuyt, 2001; McCartney, 2009)
but today the creation of reservoirs appears not sufficient for water supply as the rain fall
decreases year by year. Therefore, since 1998, Burkina has implemented an artificial rain
programme extensible to the Sahelian region (Centre Regional Agrhymet, 2006).
Focusing on water and food shortages in Burkina Faso, famine recurrent areas are
predominantly targeted for reservoirs construction. DGPER (2010) predicted food insecurity
in the north eastern county where the cereal crops of the agriculture campaign 2009-2010
were deficient compared to the demand. As this area is usually vulnerable to the famine that
was occurring until July-August 2010 that is the latest period before cropping takes place,
about 50 reservoirs are planned to be built there as soon as possible (fig. 7.2). We would like
to estimate the additional quantity of fish that could be produced from these waters. However
no data is available so far. But from our working experience, we know that most of the
reservoirs of Burkina are 50-60 ha large, which is confirmed by the mean size of the 23
reservoirs of Koubri and Nazinga (69.89 ha).
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
166
Fig. 7.1: Africa: reservoirs to meet food security in densely populated and
food deficient areas in Africa.
1- Climate moisture index (CMI) calculated from the precipitations (P) and the
potential evapotranspiration (PET). CMI = (P/PET) -1 when P<PET, CMI= 1(P/PET) when P ≥ PET). CM1 ranges from -1 to +1 (Vörösmarty et al
(undated).
2-Population distribution in 2002 (Adapted from Encyclopaedia Britannica,
2002),
3-Food insecurity severity scale in July-September 2010 (Adapted from
FEWS NET 2010),
4-Reservoirs distribution in 2010 in Africa (Adapted from FAO (2010b) and
Google Earth 28 September 2010)
In Burkina, the productivity of the waters is between 60-200 kg of fish per hectare and per
year (Moreau et al., 1994). From this, the expected additional production of capture fisheries
could be 200 to 600 t per year.
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
167
Fig. 7.2: Development of
reservoirs in Burkina Faso.
1- Spatial distribution of the
coverage of food need by the
cereals crop of the 2009-2010
agricultural campain (adapted
from DGPER, 2010),
2- Hunger occurrence in JulyAugust 2010 (Adapted from
FEWS NET, 2010)
3- Location of some reservoirs to
be created in the next future
(adapted from ABN, 2010)
Nevertheless, the availability of water does not necessarily result in socio-economic
development. The inverted U-shaped relationships between water use and income (Matthew,
2004) appeals for more efficiency of water use and the one between natural resources
availability and institutions strength (Couttenier, 2008) for more implication of resources
users in the approach to land use. Fortunately the awareness of resources users and the
strength of local communities as shown by this study are key factors to address povertyenvironment interactions (Poizat & Baran, 1997; Scherr, 2000) thanks to proper approach to
devolution of responsibility from the side of central governments.
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PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
7.3- Fisheries and water resources development in Africa
If the development of water resources is intended to meet food security, we expect significant
increase of irrigated area in the next coming decades. Actually, Niasse et al. (2004) estimated
the irrigated area in Sub-Saharan Africa at 6.3 million hectares for a potential of 35 million
hectares. In addition to the expected increase of crops following the development of reservoirs
for irrigation, fish could considerably contribute to food security in Africa. However African
freshwater fish production soared from 250,000 t in 1950 to 1,500,000 in 1994 and to 2.1
million tons in 2006, but today it has reached the potential (Sarch &Allison, 2000; Kolding &
Zwieten, 2006). However in the future contribution of fish to food security could vary from
one area to another depending on the seasonality of the waters that will be created. In the arid
of Burkina Faso the landings of fish has increased from less than 800 tons in 1950 to 12,000
tons per year today thanks to the creation of reservoirs. On the opposite an annual loss of
11,250 t of fish per year in the permanent Senegal River system resulted from the construction
of Guires dam (Marmulla, 2001). In this case, much attention should be paid to the impacts on
damming on rivers ecology. From Clay (1984), we know that in Africa, the reservoirs created
between 1980 and 1990 have induced 110,000 additional tons of fish to the continent inland
fisheries production. But that source prudently mentioned a probable less net production of
the fishery due to loss of production from rivers and flood plains. In fact in addition to the
alteration of the rivers connectivity caused by dams, these areas are expected to be converted
into irrigated agricultural land which has serious impacts to waters (Welcomme, 2001). This
points out conflicts in development and uses of water resources. To address the problem,
many African countries have developed strategies for integrated water resources management
in their territories. In addition, they are taking part in endeavors in international rivers
management. Altogether 13 international river basin organizations exist or are projected in
West Africa and they have a double principal function of regulation and development of the
basins (Niasse et al., 2004).
The IUCN workshop on water governance in West Africa that took place 25-27 September
2002 in Ouagadougou mentioned that in this region the legislation of Burkina Faso is the
most advanced in the protection of aquatic ecosystems, followed by the one of Ghana; but
efforts are also made by other countries (Niasse et al., 2004). Actually in Burkina, many laws
contribute to the protection of aquatic ecosystems. A typical example is the water law (Loi
N°002-2001/AN du 08 Février 2001) which article 40 requires dams to keep a minimum
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
169
water debit to guaranty aquatic life and also requires the incorporation of fish ladders. From
this rule the first important question is how to set characteristics of that debit (timing,
frequency, duration …) to maintain a healthy aquatic ecosystem in seasonal brooks and at the
same time to meet societal needs of water bellow and above dams. This query highlights the
roles that natural and human sciences have to play in water management and exploitation in
Africa. The second important question is the assessment of biotic health of a seasonal brook.
7.4- The use of fish and fisheries to monitor water health in
Africa
To our knowledge, the health of rivers in Burkina is not studied yet. But in other African
countries, the use of fish to assess the health of waters is being attempted; examples are
Guerra-García & García-Gómez (2001) that applied the approach in the north of the
continent, Birungi et al. (2007) in the east, Schuwerack et al. (2001) in the south, Ogbeibu &
Ezeunara (2002) and Kantoussan et al. (2009) in the west. Fish were also used as biological
indicators to monitor fisheries exploitation as Laë et al. (2004) did on an artificial lake fishery
in Mali. These studies have targeted permanent water courses but in Burkina, rivers are not
representative in the water domain and they are all seasonal.
7.5- Reservoir fisheries and local people livelihoods
Irrigation is a key purpose of reservoirs creation in Africa and especially Burkina Faso.
Despite fisheries are seldom targeted in this development, Zoungrana et al. (2006) warned
that regardless of the large amount of investment that was made to attract local people in
irrigation in Bagré that is the largest reservoir of Burkina, they rather prefer fishing. This is a
rationale to increase political and research interests in fish and fisheries.
7.6- Potential fields of research
The following subsection describes some questions that could be addressed by next studies.
i-
Before the colonization of Burkina Faso by France, by their own means local
communities around Bam created small size reservoirs on which they paid much
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
170
attention. Today reservoirs are created by external partners like Non Governmental
Organizations. As the republican institutions are weak, they have to cooperate with
traditional communities for the management of these waters and their fish resources
generated. We need to know more on the local communities’ aptitudes to cope with
the changing world.
-
How are the anthropological profiles of riverside villages and their impacts on waters
management?
-
What are the levels of responsibility of indigenous communities in the management of
waters according to their involvement in water and fish resources development?
-
Which roles can they play in the future?
-
What are the relationship between legality and legitimating in waters and fisheries?
ii-
The fishermen have good ecological knowledge. They are aware that fishes have to
migrate. They also know that juvenile fishes have to grow before being exploited. But
they still use environmentally unsuitable fishing methods. Furthermore, in depleted
fisheries fishing pressures are still increasing. This study brought qualitative
arguments to emphasize that the fishermen do not have many alternatives in their
livelihoods. Social scientists could take over the analysis:
-
What are the socio-economic facts that attract and keep people in fisheries?
-
Is there any real common vision in waters and fisheries management?
iii-
Fish and fisheries are expected to play important roles in food security and poverty
alleviation. Our study revealed that small size species are abundant and event
dominant in fish communities. However, the Burkinabe fishery legislation has limited
the net stretched mesh size to a minimum of 70 mm. If the fishermen observe that rule,
than the species will not be economically valued.
-
How to design fishing methods affordable to the fishermen to target small size fish
species?
iv-
However, this query also raises others in the biology and ecology of fish. The
designing of such fishing methods entails good knowledge in fish community
structures and species diversity that are still poorly assessed in Africa.
-
Which fish species are met in Burkina Faso?
-
How are they assembled?
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
171
We note that the answers to these questions are legally required, but also essential to fisheries
sustainable management.
v-
Our investigations revealed that the fishermen used to transfer fish species from one
body of water to another. In this fishery enhancement technique, the Nile perch is the
favored species. But the dangers of the introduction of Lates niloticus are known, Lake
Victoria being the typical example. That species was brought in the reservoir of
Kompienga two decades ago. By this time, the tiger fish Hydrocynus sp. that is a top
predatory species like the Nile perch was abundant. Today, the tiger fish has decreased
significantly.
-
How could the Nile perch impact Kompienga fish species? The answer would help
gather the fishermen attention on the risks of fish species introductions if detrimental
effects are shown.
-
In case the scientific study points out serious actual or potential impacts of the Lates
niloticus to species diversity, than from the management prospective, it would be
necessary to devise an approach to reduce its occurrence, for by allocating sights to the
fishermen to target it.
vi-
We showed that fish migrate a lot. Their migration takes place within particular
hydrological regime and particular socio-economic environment, but it is impeded by
dams. The policy makers and the fishermen are responsive to the ecological meaning
of the migration. But scientists still have to fulfill their roles and propose prototypes of
suitable migratory devices.
-
Which type of fish pass would fit such contexts? Our study argued that series of
dissipation basins and lateral types of spill ways work as fish ladders but this has to be
proven.
vii-
We have been able to use fish to characterize the level at which waters are impacted.
The advantages of using fish as indicators of waters biotic integrity are known among
biologists. We explained how the use of fish as bio-indicators is suitable in the
political, economical, and cultural contexts of Burkina and other African countries.
Here again, fish biologists are late in the fulfillment of their responsibilities.
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
172
-
How can the approach to the use of fish for the assessment of water biotic status that
was initially developed for natural waters can be adapted to the manmade lakes
created on intermittent brooks?
viii-
This raises another important ecological question that is about the ability of fish to
survive in impacted waters. Among the fish species of Bam, Sarotherodon galilaeus is
likely the one that cope the best.
-
To what extent that species adapt its reproduction?
-
To be more general, how do fish cope with the seasonality of waters?
7.7- Summary in French
L’eau est une ressource vitale pour la nature, y compris l’humanité. L’histoire montre que les
peuples ont toujours exploité les eaux douces pour leur bien-être socio-économique, en
témoigne l’installation des villes sur les berges des rivières. De ce fait, ces eaux sont
impactées, voir endommagées mais à présent un effort considérable est consenti à leur
protection. Ce développement engage aussi bien les utilisateurs, le politique et la recherche.
Les sciences naturelles ont prouvé que l’agriculture, l’élevage, la déforestation, les barrages et
les réservoirs, la pêche, les prélèvements d’eau, l’introduction d’espèces envahissantes, les
routes, les transports, les modifications de la morphologie des rivières, l’exploitation minière,
l’urbanisation et le tourisme ont eu pour conséquences sur les eaux les changements hydromorphologiques, la pollution, l’altération de la diversité biologique, la fragmentation de la
connectivité, la sédimentation, les assèchements et la réduction de la variabilité de l’habitat.
Dans cette lancée les sciences humaines ont montré que ces changements affectent à leur tour
les conditions de vie humaine. Ce faisant les politiques n’escamotent plus la protection des
écosystèmes aquatiques.
Bien que la construction des barrages et la création des réservoirs puissent endommager les
rivières, le développement des ressources en eau est un préalable au développement socioéconomique des pays arides. Cette perception prend tout son sens dans les pays dépendant de
l’agriculture tel le Burkina Faso en Afrique de l’Ouest. Dans ce pays, l’objectif général de la
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
173
création des réservoirs est de mettre de l’eau à la disposition des populations pour des
utilisations diverses, notamment l’agriculture dans son sens le plus large et la satisfaction de
besoins domestiques.
Cette recherche contribue à l’utilisation des poissons et de la pêche dans l’analyse et
l’amélioration du système des eaux au Burkina et en Afrique. Elle a été formulée de manière à
montrer que (i) en tant qu’utilisateurs de ressources naturelles, les pêcheurs ont une bonne
connaissance des menaces anthropiques qui pèsent sur les eaux, (ii) les caractéristiques des
communautés des poissons sont fonction de l’état d’endommagement des eaux et que (iii) les
ressources piscicoles et la pêche peuvent parfaitement être utilisées comme porte d’entrée
dans l’analyse et la conservation des eaux dans leur composantes naturelle, humaine et
politique. Ces trois points sont les grands chapitres de cette thèse.
Nous avons ciblé quatre zones du Burkina Faso : le Lac Bam qui est détérioré, Koubri, une
zone modérément impactée, la zone protégée du Ranch de Gibier de Nazinga et le grand lac
de barrage de Kompienga. Pour collecter les données, nous nous sommes entretenus avec les
pêcheurs, les services gouvernementaux, les chefs coutumiers et des organisations non
gouvernementales œuvrant dans le domaine des ressources naturelles. Nous avons aussi fait
des pêches expérimentales au moyen de la pêche électrique, du filet épervier, du filet maillant
et des palangres.
La recherche a montré qu’étant donné que le Burkina Faso n’a pas d’importants plans d’eau
naturels, le développement de la pêche est intimement lié à la création des réservoirs. Au
début de la pêche commerciale un penchant productiviste était nécessaire pour recruter les
candidats pêcheurs. Mais il en a résulté une surpêche qui a engendré une tendance à la
protection de la ressource.
La pêche est une importante activité additionnelle dans la diversification des moyens
d’existence en milieu rural. Les pêcheurs ont une bonne connaissance des menaces auxquelles
les eaux font face. Ils ont incriminé principalement le maraîchage (irrigation) sur les berges,
mais aussi l’agriculture pluviale, la déforestation, l’extraction de sable et l’élevage. Ils pensent
que ces activités ont contribué à accroître la sédimentation, la perte d’habitat et à l’érosion de
la diversité biologique. Cependant la construction des barrages et la création des réservoirs
sont perçues comme améliorant l’état de l’environnement. Ils ont rapporté la disparition
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PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
d’espèces piscicoles; mais d’autres sont entrain de réapparaître suite à la rupture des barrages
situés en aval. Les pêcheurs initient eux-mêmes des transferts d’espèces de poisson entre
plans d’eau.
L’étude a montré d’importants changements saisonniers dans la communauté des poisons. Les
poissons migrent beaucoup mais ce déplacement est bloqué par les barrages. Plus une zone est
endommagée, plus le nombre d’espèces de poisson est réduit, plus les poissons sont petite
taille avec une tendance à la dominance d’espèces naines. Par conséquent, en termes de
nombre de poissons capturés par unité d’effort de pêche, les eaux des zones impactées sont
plus productives que celles des zones protégées ; ce qui est l’inverse de la biomasse. Pour
l’étude de la diversité spécifique des poissons la pêche électrique et le filet épervier ont des
efficacités similaires.
Le Lac Bam a été ruiné par les effets des regroupements humains, de l’agriculture pluviale, du
maraîchage, de l’élevage, de la déforestation, la pêche et de la construction de barrages dans
son bassin versant. La pêche est très importante pour la survie des ménages des pêcheurs. Ils
ont très peu d’options dans leurs moyens d’existence. De ce fait ils ne peuvent quitter la
pêcherie afin que les ressources se renouvellent. Les institutions indigènes et les institutions
républicaines coexistent. Les premières ont été altérées par les secondes mais elles demeurent
toujours une référence pour les utilisateurs des ressources naturelles. Au contraire Kompienga
bénéficie d’une attention toute particulière de la part des institutions républicaines.
L’’écosystème du Bam semble atteint au point que sa résilience est au plus bas niveau et
qu’une amélioration naturelle ne peut survenir dans un proche futur.
La veille écologique des pêcheurs est un avantage certain dans le processus de partage de
responsabilités dans la gestion des ressources en eau et en poisson. Nous recommandons des
espèces de poisson sentinelles pour le suivi de la qualité biotique des plans d’eau au Burkina.
Les résultats de cette recherche peuvent contribuer à la gestion durable des ressources en eau
et des nombreux réservoirs en Afrique sub-saharienne.
Mots clés: Burkina Faso, eau, impacts, poisson, pêche, veille écologique, moyens d’existence,
institutions
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
175
8- Curriculum vitae
Raymond OUEDRAOGO was born 23 January 1966 in the village of Sika, Department of
Nasséré, Province of Bam, Burkina Faso. In 1986-89 he pursued fisheries and aquaculture
studies at the former Higher Institute of Fisheries Techniques and Sciences in Nouadhibou,
Islamic Republic of Mauritania and the Center for Training in Fisheries in Bouake, Ivory
Coast. From this study he was awarded a certificate of higher technician in fisheries. In 19981999 he attended the Center for Training in Aquaculture of the University of Liege in
Belgium where he obtained a postgraduate diploma in aquaculture. His dissertation was about
the breeding of Perca fluviatilis larvae in green water. In 2002-2003 he read for a Master of
Science degree in Fisheries Policy and Planning at the University of Hull in the UnitedKingdom. For his dissertation he formulated a project for the creation of a center for training
in fisheries and aquaculture in Burkina Faso.
From 1991 to 1994, Mr. OUEDRAOGO worked as fisheries officer at the Kompienga
reservoir fishery, Burkina Faso. In 1995 in was recruited as fisheries officer by the
government of Burkina Faso and appointed at the Fisheries department. From 2004 he is
appointed as senior officer of capture fisheries and aquaculture. He is attached to the General
Directorate for Fish Resources, Ministry of Agriculture, Water and Fish Resources,
Ouagadougou, Burkina Faso.
176
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
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les pêcheries de Kompienga et Bagré. Élaboration de protocole expérimental pour la
mise au point de systèmes sélectifs de pêches d’espèces de petites tailles. Rapport
final. Direction Générale des Ressources Halieutiques ; Unité de Coordination Nationale
du Programme pour des Moyens d’Existence Durables dans la Pêche. Juin 2004. 52 p.
Zerbo, H., Bouda, S., Magnini, S., F., Ouedraogo, Y., Yao, B. and Zampaligre, I. (2002):
Analyse des politiques, institutions et processus en relation avec la gestion participative et
durable des pêches dans la zone du projet GPSO octobre 2002, in Kabre, G., B., and
Magnini, S. F. (2002): Recueil des expériences du projet ‘Gestion de la Pêche dans le SudOuest’ du Burkina Faso. GTZ & MAHRH, 398 p.
Zerbo, H., Ouattara, D., C., Soubeiga, Z., Kabore, K., Kabore, C., Bado, E., Goumbri, B., A.,
Yerbanga, R., A., Ouedraogo, N., and Baro, S. (2007): Analyse de la filière pêche au
Burkina Faso. Projet d’Appui au Renforcement des Capacités d’Analyse des Impacts des
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l’Agriculture, de l’Hydraulique et des Ressources Halieutiques. Août 2007. 63 p.
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PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
10 -
199
APPENDIX
Content
10.1- Questionnaire
10.2- Transfers of fish undertaken by fishermen in the area of Koubri between 1991 and
2007, as reported by the interviewees
10.3- List of fish species in Bam, Koubri and Nazinga (experimental and commercial
landings together)
10.4- Number of fishes per family and species (in the three areas, experimental and
commercial landings together)
10.5- Number of fishes, fish families and species caught by the different gears (in the three
areas, experimental landings only)
10.6- Number of fishes caught per date and in each fishing site in the three areas
(Experimental landings only)
10.7- Other photos of the research
200
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
10.1- Questionnaire
General information
Date:……………Reporter name:……………………………......Water name:…………………………Fisher name:………………………………… Fisherman
age:…………...……Fisher’s marital status:…………………………….. Number of years of fishing experience:…………………………
Category 1: Importance of fishing in livelihoods
Nbr of working days/ year:…………… Current annual catches:……………….…….Fisheries currently frequented:………………………………….
Fisheries frequented in the past:……………………………………………………………………………………………...……………………………
Other economic activities
Economic activities
% time allocated
% annual earnings
Use of fishing revenue
% revenues
Rain fed agriculture
Vegetables growing
Retail
Others (specify)
Use of catches
Uses
% Production
Selling methods
Family consumption
Per kg
Per pile
Selling
Processing
Fishing gears and months of use
Gears
Months
Targeted species
Gears
Cast net
Long lines
Gill net
Traps
Remarks
Remarks
Personal needs
Family needs
Support other activities
Estimated price (in FCFA) / kg
Species
Price
Months
Targeted species
Category 2: The fishermen knowledge on fish and ecology
Perception of human impacts on waters: Negative (N), Positive(P), No idea
Activities
N, P, NI
Please explain how their impact the water bodies (if necessary write on the back)
Vegetables growing
Rain-fed agriculture
Deforestation
Village settlements
Roads and traffic
Dams building
Fishing
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
201
Water abstraction
Sand/gavel extraction
Cattle breeding
Others
Remarks
To your knowledge, which fish species do you think have decreased?
Arzoum
Kogse
Gonse
Poedo
Napagt
Tanvi
Segda
Nabaz
PK25
Zegued
Toyoko
Kangam
Badnogo
Mogtedo
Zakin
To your knowledge, which fish species do you think have increased?
Arzoum
Kogse
Gonse
Poedo
Napagt
Tanvi
Segda
Nabaz
PK25
Zegued
Toyoko
Kangam
Badnogo
Mogtedo
Zakin
Category 3: Mitigation and protection
What activities are implemented by the fishermen to reduce the risks and damages to the aquatic ecosystems? Explain as much as possible. (Ask the fisherman some additional
questions to help him explain)
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
202
10.2-
Transfers of fish undertaken by fishermen in the area of Koubri between 1991 and 2007, as reported by the interviewees
Reservoirs
Gonse
Kogse
Napagbtenga
Arzoum Baongo
Number of
fishes
3
Fish mean weight
(g)
50-75
Hemisynodontis
membranaceus
Sarotherodon galilaeus
Segda
7
200
Segda
20
75
L. niloticus
Arzoum Baongo
50
20
Mormyrops sp. &
Auchenoglanis
occidentalis
L. niloticus and Tilapia
sp.
L. niloticus
Arzoum Baongo
They all died
Arzoum Baongo
They all died
Arzoum Baongo
10
75
Malapterurus electricus
Arzoum Baongo
5
150
The reservoir almost dried in
2006
Disappeared
2006
1991
S. galilaeus
Tilapia sp.
Arzoum Baongo
Downstream brook
20
70
Landed today
2005
Synodontis sp.
Downstream brook
100
50
Not landed today
2005
L. niloticus
Arzoum Baongo
2
50
2 fishes (0.5 kg each) caught
1.5 years later during a
drought
2004
Alestes sp. or Brycinus
sp.
Downstream brook
10
30-50
Date
Species name
Species origin
Dec
2004
2007
Lates niloticus
Oct
2003
2003
2003
PK25*
2003
Tanvi
Toyoko
Wedbila
May
2003
2004
* PK25 is out of but contiguous to the study are
Remarks
Not landed today
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
203
10.3- List of fish species in Bam, Koubri and Nazinga (experimental and commercial
landings together)
Families / Species
Bam
Koubri
Nazinga
1-Ctenopoma kingsleyae
X
2-Ctenopoma petcherici
X
Koubri
Nazinga
30-Distichodus rostratus
X
10-Malapteruridae
31-Malapterurus electricus
2-Bagridae
X
X
4-Bagrus bajad
X
X
5-Bagrus docmak
X
6-Chrysichthys nigrodigitatus
X
X
11-Mochokidae
32-Hemisynodontis
membranaceus
X
X
X
X
33-Synodontis clarias
X
34-Synodontis comoensis
X
35-Synodontis filamentosus
3-Centropomidae
7-Lates niloticus
X
X
4-Characidae
8-Alestes baremoze
Bam
9-Distichodontidae
1-Anabantidae
3-Auchenoglanis occidentalis
Families / Species
X
36-Synodontis punctifer
X
X
X
37-Synodontis schall
X
X
X
X
38-Synodontis velifer
X
9-Alestes dentex
X
39-Synodontis vermiculatus
X
10-Brycinus macrolepidotus
X
11-Brycinus nurse
X
X
12-Mormyridae
X
X
40-Brienomyrus niger
X
X
41-Hippopotamyrus paugyi
13-Hydrocinus vittatus
X
42-Hippopotamyrus pictus
14-Micralestes elongatus
X
43-Hyperopisus bebe
X
12-Hydrocinus forskalii
44-Marcusenius senegalensis
5-Cichlidae
15-Hemichromis fasciatus
X
X
X
45-Mormyrops anguilloides
16-Hemichromis letourneauxi
X
X
X
46-Mormyrus hasselquistii
17-Oreochromis niloticus
X
X
X
47-Mormyrus rume
18-Sarotherodon galilaeus
X
X
X
48-Petrocephalus bovei
19-Tilapia zillii
X
X
X
49-Pollimyrus isidori
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
13-Osteoglossidae
6-Citharinidae
20-Citharinus citharus
X
50-Heterotis niloticus
X
14-Polypteridae
7-Clariidae
21-Clarias gariepinus
X
X
51-Polypterus endlicheri
22-Heterobranchus bidorsalis
X
52-Polypterus senegalus
23-Heterobranchus longifilis
X
X
X
X
X
15-Protopteridae
53-Protopterus annectens
8-Cyprinidae
X
24-Barbus ablabes
X
X
X
25-Barbus macrops
X
X
X
54-Schilbe intermedius
26-Chelaethiops bibie
X
X
X
55-Schilbe mystus
27-Labeo coubie
X
56-Siluranodon auritus
28-Labeo niloticus
X
29-Labeo senegalensis
X
16-Schilbeidae
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
X
204
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
10.4- Number of fishes per family and species
(in the three areas, experimental and commercial landings together)
Fish families and species
1-Anabantidae
1-Ctenopoma kingsleyae
2-Ctenopoma petcherici
2-Bagridae
3-Auchenoglanis occidentalis
Koubri sections
1
2
3
Bam
4
Nazinga
33
1
10
44
24
1
10
35
9
73
9
1
1
2
16
9
186
286
13
9
151
175
22
22
13
22
4-Bagrus bajad
5-Bagrus docmak
6-Chrysichthys nigrodigitatus
Total
9
62
1
1
3
3-Centropomidae
58
97
20
3
82
260
7-Lates niloticus
58
97
20
3
82
260
132
14
95
42
42
755
1080
41
5
1
4
33
68
152
123
123
29
29
480
715
49
55
13-Hydrocinus vittatus
4
4
14-Micralestes elongatus
2
2
4-Characidae
8-Alestes baremoze
67
9-Alestes dentex
10-Brycinus macrolepidotus
11-Brycinus nurse
12-Hydrocinus forskalii
5-Cichlidae
85
9
94
38
9
6
876
510
932
1527
1163
1199
6207
15-Hemichromis fasciatus
92
108
49
1
87
76
413
16-Hemichromis letourneauxi
51
68
40
104
8
271
17-Oreochromis niloticus
80
185
230
270
109
332
1206
18-Sarotherodon galilaeus
389
100
299
587
764
544
2683
19-Tilapia zillii
264
117
286
629
99
239
1634
10
10
10
10
6-Citharinidae
20-Citharinus citharus
7-Clariidae
243
22
50
174
101
285
875
243
22
50
174
101
244
834
22-Heterobranchus bidorsalis
40
40
23-Heterobranchus longifilis
1
1
21-Clarias gariepinus
8-Cyprinidae
2133
1523
2341
2663
978
1108
10746
24-Barbus ablabes
1460
1138
1542
1720
665
316
6841
25-Barbus macrops
607
372
741
892
149
472
3233
66
13
58
51
164
156
508
30
30
6
6
128
128
5
5
5
5
26-Chelaethiops bibie
27-Labeo coubie
28-Labeo niloticus
29-Labeo senegalensis
9-Distichodontidae
30-Distichodus rostratus
10-Malapteruridae
31-Malapterurus electricus
1
2
5
1
3
12
1
2
5
1
3
12
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
Fish families and species
11-Mochokidae
Koubri sections
24
40
2
Bam
50
5
Nazinga
51
Total
157
457
2
44
24
24
34-Synodontis comoensis
2
2
35-Synodontis filamentosus
1
1
32-Hemisynodontis membranaceus
170
205
33-Synodontis clarias
36-Synodontis punctifer
116
9
13
2
13
28
181
14
13
37
3
38
95
200
38-Synodontis velifer
4
4
39-Synodontis vermiculatus
1
1
293
629
15
18
6
6
37-Synodontis schall
12-Mormyridae
104
40-Brienomyrus niger
27
39
1
76
90
2
41-Hippopotamyrus paugyi
42-Hippopotamyrus pictus
50
13
29
43-Hyperopisus bebe
32
9
4
44-Marcusenius senegalensis
5
2
15
21
45-Mormyrops anguilloides
1
6
1
1
1
22
46-Mormyrus hasselquistii
47-Mormyrus rume
8
2
48-Petrocephalus bovei
8
16
1
67
49-Pollimyrus isidori
2
2
2
2
2
2
51-Polypterus endlicheri
15-Protopteridae
54-Schilbe intermedius
55-Schilbe mystus
56-Siluranodon auritus
Total
86
151
1
10
7
7
73
84
80
171
19
19
19
19
30
36
30
30
6
2
7
35
44
2
7
35
44
389
1
1
74
97
237
799
204
1
27
11
148
391
89
159
53-Protopterus annectens
16-Schilbeidae
70
19
50-Heterotis niloticus
52-Polypterus senegalus
25
19
13-Osteoglossidae
14-Polypteridae
93
35
35
150
4214
2226
1
12
86
3541
4626
2533
249
4369
21509
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
206
10.5- Number of fishes, fish families and species caught by the different gears
(in the three areas, experimental landings only)
Koubri Sections
Anabantidae
Ctenopoma kingsleyae
Cast Net
Electric Fishing
3
Electric Fishing
Bagridae
Nazinga
1
2
33
1
10
44
24
1
10
35
9
11
2
22
4
Total
1
23
Gill Nets
Ctenopoma petcherici
Bam
1
1
9
9
9
9
4
9
96
183
1
9
83
95
26
26
38
40
19
29
Bagrus bajad
11
11
Cast Net
9
9
Gill Nets
2
2
9
2
11
Cast Net
4
2
6
Electric Fishing
5
Auchenoglanis occidentalis
73
1
2
Cast Net
Electric Fishing
2
Gill Nets
Bagrus docmak
Chrysichthys nigrodigitatus
Cast Net
Electric Fishing
Centropomidae
Lates niloticus
Cast Net
Electric Fishing
1
9
5
62
1
3
66
6
1
3
10
56
56
58
6
3
2
66
135
58
6
3
2
66
135
5
6
2
2
31
46
20
74
13
13
53
1
Gill Nets
Long Lines
Characidae
2
2
17
42
696
991
5
3
33
68
150
28
2
3
35
68
13
3
33
82
87
87
61
61
132
10
41
Cast Net
Electric Fishing
Alestes baremoze
94
33
Alestes dentex
Cast Net
Electric Fishing
Gill Nets
Brycinus macrolepidotus
Cast Net
Electric Fishing
Brycinus nurse
4
4
22
22
29
29
25
25
4
4
85
5
94
14
9
476
683
Cast Net
43
3
38
14
9
334
441
Electric Fishing
42
132
219
45
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
Gill Nets
Hydrocinus forskalii
2
207
11
10
23
6
31
37
Cast Net
1
15
16
Electric Fishing
5
5
Gill Nets
Hydrocinus vittatus
Cast Net
Micralestes elongatus
Cast Net
Cichlidae
Hemichromis fasciatus
Cast Net
Electric Fishing
Oreochromis niloticus
Cast Net
Electric Fishing
Electric Fishing
3
3
2
2
2
2
359
864
1055
1163
1181
5498
49
1
87
76
413
3
1
23
1
3
31
89
107
26
86
72
381
1
1
51
51
1
68
40
104
8
271
12
6
1
2
21
56
34
103
6
250
80
92
189
221
109
327
1018
6
74
62
57
27
139
365
74
2
111
100
52
104
443
16
15
61
30
83
205
1
3
1
5
Long Lines
Cast Net
3
108
Gill Nets
Sarotherodon galilaeus
3
92
Cast Net
Electric Fishing
16
876
Gill Nets
Hemichromis letourneauxi
16
389
84
287
500
764
531
2555
7
71
207
470
709
339
1803
382
12
65
27
50
52
588
1
15
3
5
140
164
Gill Nets
Tilapia zillii
264
75
271
293
99
239
1241
Cast Net
16
20
39
89
34
77
275
248
55
224
190
60
122
899
8
14
5
39
66
1
1
Electric Fishing
Gill Nets
Long Lines
Clariidae
Clarias gariepinus
Cast Net
Electric Fishing
243
9
23
62
101
271
709
101
233
671
45
91
243
9
23
62
16
8
16
6
7
11
89
138
467
17
9
36
64
28
3
14
49
37
37
21
21
4
4
222
Gill Nets
2
Long Lines
3
1
Heterobranchus bidorsalis
Cast Net
Electric Fishing
Gill Nets
8
8
Long Lines
4
4
1
1
1
1
Heterobranchus longifilis
Cast Net
Cyprinidae
Barbus ablabes
2133
1523
2341
2661
978
1086
10722
1460
1138
1542
1718
665
316
6839
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
208
Koubri Sections
Bam
Nazinga
1
2
3
4
410
524
990
1382
44
4
3354
1050
614
552
336
621
312
3485
607
372
741
892
149
472
3233
47
226
392
864
15
32
1576
560
146
349
28
134
439
1656
1
1
156
508
1
8
155
500
Labeo coubie
18
18
Cast Net
4
4
Electric Fishing
2
2
12
12
124
124
31
31
8
8
85
85
Cast Net
Electric Fishing
Barbus macrops
Cast Net
Electric Fishing
Total
Gill Nets
Chelaethiops bibie
Cast Net
Electric Fishing
66
13
58
51
164
7
59
13
58
51
164
Gill Nets
Labeo senegalensis
Cast Net
Electric Fishing
Gill Nets
Malapteruridae
Malapterurus electricus
1
1
1
3
1
1
1
3
1
1
2
Cast Net
Electric Fishing
Mochokidae
Hemisynodontis membranaceus
1
1
170
4
17
3
51
146
391
40
2
42
Cast Net
15
2
17
Electric Fishing
12
12
Gill Nets
8
8
Long Lines
5
5
Synodontis clarias
19
19
Cast Net
14
14
Gill Nets
5
5
2
2
2
2
1
1
1
1
28
165
2
14
13
26
151
38
91
157
7
21
54
31
60
91
9
11
1
1
4
4
4
4
Synodontis comoensis
Cast Net
Synodontis filamentosus
Cast Net
Synodontis punctifer
Cast Net
116
1
9
1
5
2
2
Electric Fishing
107
Synodontis schall
14
1
12
1
14
1
10
1
Cast Net
5
Electric Fishing
Gill Nets
Long Lines
Synodontis velifer
Electric Fishing
13
2
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
209
Synodontis vermiculatus
Gill Nets
Mormyridae
104
Brienomyrus niger
19
37
59
90
1
1
1
1
215
524
1
2
15
18
1
2
15
18
4
4
Cast Net
2
2
Electric Fishing
2
2
Cast Net
Hippopotamyrus paugyi
Hippopotamyrus pictus
50
13
29
1
93
Cast Net
31
7
29
1
68
Electric Fishing
19
6
Hyperopisus bebe
32
9
3
21
65
1
5
3
16
25
31
4
2
37
3
3
22
79
129
3
37
50
19
31
68
10
10
1
1
Cast Net
Electric Fishing
25
Gill Nets
Marcusenius senegalensis
5
2
Cast Net
2
2
Electric Fishing
3
15
6
6
15
Gill Nets
Long Lines
Mormyrops anguilloides
Electric Fishing
1
1
1
1
Mormyrus hasselquistii
Electric Fishing
Mormyrus rume
8
Cast Net
4
4
4
4
12
20
8
8
4
12
Electric Fishing
8
Petrocephalus bovei
8
16
67
80
171
Cast Net
7
14
18
12
51
Electric Fishing
1
2
49
68
120
Pollimyrus isidori
Cast Net
Polypteridae
19
19
19
19
2
2
Polypterus endlicheri
Electric Fishing
Polypterus senegalus
2
Cast Net
Electric Fishing
30
34
30
30
30
30
2
4
1
1
2
2
Gill Nets
1
Protopteridae
Protopterus annectens
1
35
35
35
35
Cast Net
20
20
Gill Nets
11
11
4
4
Long Lines
Schilbeidae
Schilbe intermedius
389
1
50
97
228
765
204
1
3
11
146
365
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
210
Koubri Sections
Cast Net
Electric Fishing
1
2
201
1
3
Bam
Nazinga
4
3
3
Total
7
50
262
4
63
70
31
31
2
2
Gill Nets
Long Lines
Schilbe mystus
Cast Net
Electric Fishing
35
35
82
152
30
35
77
142
5
Gill Nets
Siluranodon auritus
Cast Net
Electric Fishing
Total
2
7
3
3
150
12
86
248
142
12
7
161
79
87
8
4214
1933
3380
3958
2533
4016
20034
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
211
10.6- Number of fishes caught per date and in each fishing site in the three areas
(Experimental landings only)
Koubri Sections
1
05/08/2008
2
Bam
3
Nazinga
Total
4
37
37
2_R01_D_C07
28
28
2_R01_U_C08
9
9
141
448
06/08/2008
307
1_B06_U_C01
108
108
1_B06_U_C02
187
187
1_B06_U_G01
10
10
1_B06_U_L1
1
1
1_B06_U_L2
1
1
2_R01_D_C01
59
59
2_R01_D_C02
9
9
2_R01_D_C03
29
29
2_R01_U_C10
44
44
07/08/2008
6
6
1_B06_D_L1
3
3
1_B06_D_L2
3
3
08/08/2008
116
116
2_R01_D_C12
4
4
2_R01_U_C12
72
72
2_R01_U_C14
39
39
2_R01_U_G4
1
1
09/08/2008
89
89
4_R02_D_G1
2
2
4_R02_D_G2
4
4
4_R02_U_G1
5
5
4_R03_D_C01
25
25
4_R03_D_C02
10
10
4_R03_D_G1
2
2
4_R03_D_L1
2
2
4_R03_U_C01
10
10
4_R03_U_C02
6
6
4_R03_U_C03
21
21
4_R03_U_G1
2
2
175
175
4_R02_D_C01
2
2
4_R02_D_C02
3
3
4_R02_D_C03
14
14
4_R02_D_C04
7
7
4_R02_U_C01
5
5
4_R02_U_C02
27
27
4_R02_U_C03
11
11
10/08/2008
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
212
Koubri Sections
1
2
Bam
3
Nazinga
Total
4
4_R02_U_C04
16
16
4_R02_U_C05
14
14
4_R04_D_C01
21
21
4_R04_D_G1
9
9
4_R04_D_L1
2
2
4_R04_U_C04
22
22
4_R04_U_C05
22
22
897
897
11/08/2008
4_B03_U_C01
732
732
4_R04_D_C02
16
16
4_R04_D_C03
16
16
4_R04_D_C04
28
28
4_R04_U_C01
19
19
4_R04_U_C02
15
15
4_R04_U_C03
19
19
4_R04_U_C06
52
52
12/08/2008
385
385
4_B01_D_C01
244
244
4_B01_U_C01
18
18
4_B11_D_C01
5
5
4_B11_D_C02
74
74
4_B11_U_C01
13
13
4_B11_U_C02
8
8
4_R12_D_C01
8
8
4_R12_D_G1
1
1
4_R12_D_G2
1
1
4_R12_D_L1
1
1
4_R12_D_L2
1
1
4_R12_U_C01
11
11
13/08/2008
25
25
3_R08_D_C01
10
10
3_R08_D_C02
4
4
3_R08_D_C03
2
2
3_R08_D_G1
5
5
3_R08_D_G2
1
1
3_R08_D_G3
2
2
3_R08_D_L1
1
1
152
152
3_R08_D_C04
41
41
3_R08_D_C05
55
55
3_R08_D_C06
32
32
3_R08_D_G4
8
8
3_R08_D_G5
1
1
3_R08_U_C10
15
15
14/08/2008
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
Koubri Sections
1
22/08/2008
2
173
Bam
3
Nazinga
213
Total
4
30
203
2_R01_D_C05
25
25
2_R01_D_C09
13
13
2_R01_U_C04
109
109
2_R01_U_C06
26
26
4_B05_U_C01
6
6
4_R06_D_C01
11
11
4_R06_D_G2
2
2
4_R06_D_L2
5
5
4_R06_D_L3
2
2
4_R06_U_G1
1
1
4_R06_U_G3
1
1
4_R06_U_L1
1
1
4_R06_U_L2
1
1
319
319
1
1
23/08/2008
4_R05_D_G3
4_R05_D_G4
1
1
4_R05_D_L3
1
1
4_R05_U_C01
85
85
4_R05_U_C02
32
32
4_R05_U_C03
42
42
4_R05_U_C04
13
13
4_R05_U_G2
1
1
4_R06_D_C02
48
48
4_R06_D_C04
39
39
4_R06_U_C02
54
54
4_R06_U_C03
2
2
24
24
4_R13_D_C01
9
9
4_R13_D_G1
5
5
4_R13_D_G2
2
2
4_R13_D_L2
2
2
4_R13_U_C01
4
4
4_R13_U_C02
2
2
143
143
4_B12_U_C01
21
21
4_B12_U_C02
119
119
4_R14_D_L2
2
2
4_R14_U_G3
1
1
193
193
4_B13_D_C01
98
98
4_B13_D_C02
29
29
4_B13_U_C03
10
10
4_R11_D_G1
8
8
24/08/2008
25/08/2008
26/08/2008
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
214
Koubri Sections
1
2
Bam
3
Nazinga
Total
4
4_R11_D_G2
1
1
4_R11_D_L1
1
1
4_R11_D_L2
1
1
4_R11_U_G03
1
1
4_R11_U_L1
1
1
4_R11_U_L2
1
1
4_R14_D_C01
7
7
4_R14_D_C02
5
5
4_R14_D_C03
5
5
4_R14_U_C01
2
2
4_R14_U_C02
23
23
142
142
4_B10_D_C01
28
28
4_B10_U_C01
31
31
4_R05_U_C05
12
12
4_R11_D_C01
9
9
4_R11_D_C02
10
10
4_R11_D_C03
6
6
4_R11_U_C01
1
1
4_R11_U_C02
6
6
4_R11_U_C03
14
14
4_R11_U_C04
7
7
4_R11_U_C05
4
4
4_R15_D_G1
2
2
27/08/2008
4_R15_D_G2
9
9
4_R15_D_L1
1
1
4_R15_D_L2
2
2
20
20
4_R10_D_G1
2
2
4_R10_D_L3
2
2
4_R10_U_G1
2
2
4_R10_U_L1
2
2
4_R10_U_L2
1
1
4_R15_DU_C01
11
11
241
241
4_B08_D_C01
42
42
4_B08_D_C02
14
14
4_B08_U_C01
121
121
4_B09_U_C01
4
4
4_R09_D_C01
12
12
4_R09_D_C02
13
13
4_R09_D_C03
15
15
4_R09_D_G1
3
3
4_R09_D_G2
2
2
28/08/2008
29/08/2008
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
Koubri Sections
1
2
Bam
3
Nazinga
215
Total
4
4_R09_U_G1
2
2
4_R09_U_L3
1
1
4_R10_D_C01
1
1
4_R10_U_C01
4
4
4_R10_U_C02
3
3
4_R10_U_C03
4
4
30
124
30/08/2008
94
3_R08_D_C07
16
16
3_R08_D_G6
1
1
3_R08_U_C08
53
53
3_R08_U_C09
1
1
3_R08_U_C10
6
6
3_R08_U_C11
17
17
4_B15_D_C01
16
16
4_R09_U_C01
3
3
4_R09_U_C02
5
5
4_R09_U_C03
6
6
53
53
4_B15_D_C02
7
7
4_B15_U_C01
46
46
31/08/2008
10/10/2008
733
94
827
1_B06_D_C01
1
1
1_B06_D_C02
444
444
1_B06_D_C03
184
184
1_B06_D_C04
104
104
2_R01_D_C08
39
39
2_R01_D_C13
24
24
2_R01_D_G03
2
2
2_R01_D_L3
1
1
2_R01_U_C15
28
28
21/10/2008
1_B06_U_E1
22/10/2008
782
782
782
782
1056
95
1151
1_B06_D_E1
82
82
1_B06_D_E2
89
89
1_B06_D_E3
404
404
1_B06_U_E2
481
481
2_R01_D_E1
60
60
2_R01_U_C13
35
35
23/10/2008
728
75
803
2_R01_D_E3
174
174
2_R01_U_C11
124
124
2_R01_U_E1
430
430
3_R08_D_C09
4
4
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
216
Koubri Sections
1
2
Bam
3
Nazinga
Total
4
3_R08_D_E1
20
20
3_R08_D_E2
23
23
3_R08_U_C12
28
28
27/12/2008
1_B06_U_E4
1147
1147
1147
1147
30/12/2008
48
2_R01_U_C09
1758
1806
48
48
3_R08_D_C12
132
132
3_R08_U_C06
78
78
3_R08_U_C07
204
204
3_R08_U_C13
166
166
3_R08_U_C14
88
88
3_R08_U_C15
136
136
3_R08_U_C16
66
66
3_R08_U_E1
888
888
02/06/2009
183
218
401
1_B06_U_C03
25
25
1_B06_U_E3
158
158
2_R01_D_C04
12
12
2_R01_D_E2
59
59
2_R01_U_C01
22
22
2_R01_U_C02
16
16
2_R01_U_C03
32
32
2_R01_U_C05
35
35
2_R01_U_E4
41
41
2_R01_U_G1
1
1
03/06/2009
643
643
3_R08_D_E3
181
181
3_R08_D_E4
162
162
3_R08_U_C01
124
124
3_R08_U_C02
38
38
3_R08_U_C03
38
38
3_R08_U_E3
100
04/06/2009
100
1105
1105
4_R05_D_C01
82
82
4_R05_D_C02
116
116
4_R05_D_E1
505
505
4_R05_D_G2
1
1
4_R05_U_C06
147
147
4_R05_U_E2
100
100
4_R05_U_G1
1
1
4_R06_D_C03
12
12
4_R06_D_C04
21
21
4_R06_D_E1
94
94
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
Koubri Sections
1
2
Bam
3
Nazinga
217
Total
4
4_R06_U_C01
24
24
4_R06_U_G2
1
1
4_R06_U_L3
1
1
79
232
05/06/2009
87
66
2_R01_U_C07
16
16
2_R01_U_E3
71
71
3_R08_U_E2
66
4_R05_U_E1
38
4_R06_U_E2
06/06/2009
66
38
41
52
41
109
161
2_R01_D_C06
16
16
2_R01_D_E4
35
35
2_R01_U_G3
1
1
3_R08_D_C08
10
10
3_R08_D_C10
15
15
3_R08_D_E5
84
84
07/06/2009
2_R01_U_E2
08/06/2009
85
85
85
85
59
458
33
550
2_R01_D_C10
45
45
2_R01_D_G01
6
6
2_R01_D_G02
8
8
3_R08_D_C11
220
220
3_R08_U_C04
162
162
3_R08_U_C05
29
29
3_R08_U_C09
14
14
3_R08_U_G1
22
22
3_R08_U_G2
11
11
4_R04_U_G1
11
11
4_R04_U_G2
21
21
4_R04_U_L1
1
1
523
523
30/06/2009
Bam_D_C01
20
20
Bam_D_C02
14
14
Bam_D_C03
16
16
Bam_D_C04
20
20
Bam_D_C05
11
11
Bam_D_C06
72
72
Bam_D_E1
145
145
Bam_D_E2
225
225
01/07/2009
178
178
Bam_D_G01
4
4
Bam_U_C01
19
19
Bam_U_E1
57
57
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
218
Koubri Sections
1
2
Bam
3
Total
4
Bam_U_E2
02/07/2009
Nazinga
98
824
98
824
Bam_D_E3
92
92
Bam_D_E4
97
97
Bam_D_E5
73
73
Bam_D_G05
4
4
Bam_D_G06
3
3
Bam_D_G07
1
1
Bam_D_L06
1
1
Bam_U_C02
210
210
Bam_U_C03
78
78
Bam_U_C04
66
66
Bam_U_C05
17
17
Bam_U_E4
3
3
Bam_U_E5
158
158
Bam_U_G04
5
5
Bam_U_G05
5
5
Bam_U_G06
6
6
Bam_U_G07
3
3
Bam_U_G08
1
1
Bam_U_G11
1
1
03/07/2009
930
930
Bam_D_E6
72
72
Bam_D_G03
4
4
Bam_D_G04
1
1
Bam_D_G08
1
1
Bam_D_L04
1
1
Bam_U_C06
64
64
Bam_U_C07
110
110
Bam_U_C08
100
100
Bam_U_E6
567
567
Bam_U_G09
6
6
Bam_U_G10
1
1
Bam_U_G15
1
1
Bam_U_G17
1
1
Bam_U_L05
1
1
04/07/2009
57
57
Bam_D_C07
15
15
Bam_D_C08
9
9
Bam_D_C09
12
12
Bam_D_C10
05/07/2009
21
8
21
8
Bam_U_G16
4
4
Bam_U_G18
4
4
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
Koubri Sections
1
06/07/2009
2
Bam
3
Bam_D_C11
30/11/2009
Total
4
3
Bam_U_G17
07/07/2009
Nazinga
219
3
3
3
10
10
10
10
404
404
Naz_Bar_C04
100
100
Naz_Bar_L02
1
1
Naz_Kal_EF05
303
303
01/12/2009
430
430
Naz_Kal_C10
27
27
Naz_Kal_C12
6
6
Naz_Kal_EF04
303
303
Naz_Kal_G14
7
7
Naz_Kal_G15
1
1
Naz_Tal_C26
43
43
Naz_Tal_G26
25
25
Naz_Tal_G33
15
15
Naz_Tal_L25
1
1
Naz_Tal_L26
1
1
Naz_Tal_L27
1
1
215
215
Naz_Bod_C07
21
21
Naz_Bod_C08
7
7
Naz_Bod_C09
8
8
02/12/2009
Naz_Bod_EF01
149
149
Naz_Bod_G05
4
4
Naz_Bod_G10
12
12
Naz_Bod_G11
11
11
Naz_Bod_L04
1
1
Naz_Bod_L05
1
1
Naz_Bod_L08
1
1
163
163
Naz_Kal_C11
4
4
Naz_Kal_C13
15
15
Naz_Tal_C24
48
48
Naz_Tal_C25
41
41
Naz_Tal_G08
29
29
Naz_Tal_G21
13
13
Naz_Tal_G22
11
11
Naz_Tal_L28
1
1
03/12/2009
Naz_Tal_L29
1
1
408
408
Naz_Nac_C18
32
32
Naz_Nac_C19
21
21
04/12/2009
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
220
Koubri Sections
Nazinga
Total
Naz_Nac_EF08
279
279
Naz_Nac_G23
59
59
Naz_Nac_G24
12
12
Naz_Nac_G27
1
1
Naz_Nac_L16
1
1
Naz_Nac_L18
1
1
Naz_Nac_L20
1
1
Naz_Tal_L29
1
1
1
05/12/2009
2
Bam
3
4
565
565
Naz_Nac_G25
97
97
Naz_Nac_G28
1
1
Naz_Nac_L19
1
1
Naz_Nag_C20
136
136
Naz_Nag_C21
12
12
Naz_Nag_C22
46
46
Naz_Nag_C23
92
92
Naz_Nag_EF10
138
138
Naz_Nag_G29
2
2
Naz_Nag_G30
3
3
Naz_Nag_G31
36
36
Naz_NaL_L21
1
1
658
658
Naz_Kou_C14
20
20
Naz_Kou_C15
13
13
Naz_Kou_C16
273
273
Naz_Kou_C17
262
262
Naz_Kou_EF06
21
21
Naz_Kou_G17
17
17
Naz_Kou_G18
4
4
Naz_Kou_G19
17
17
Naz_Kou_L12
1
1
Naz_Nag_G32
23
23
06/12/2009
Naz_Nag_G34
3
3
Naz_NaL_L22
2
2
Naz_NaL_L23
2
2
205
205
Naz_Bar_C01
19
19
Naz_Bar_C02
64
64
Naz_Bar_C03
17
17
Naz_Bar_G01
48
48
Naz_Bar_G02
45
45
Naz_Bar_G03
5
5
Naz_Bar_L01
2
2
Naz_Kal_G16
4
4
07/12/2009
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
Koubri Sections
1
2
Bam
3
Nazinga
221
Total
4
Naz_Kou_L13
1
1
163
163
Naz_Cent_C05
58
58
Naz_Cent_C06
58
58
Naz_Cent_G06
26
26
Naz_Cent_G09
18
18
Naz_Cent_L06
2
2
Naz_Cent_L07
1
1
08/12/2009
10/12/2009
549
549
Naz_Bod_EF02
205
205
Naz_Bod_EF03
149
149
Naz_Nag_EF11
138
138
Naz_Tal_C27
57
57
13
13
13
13
243
243
11/12/2009
Naz_Kou_EF07
12/12/2009
Naz_Nac_EF09
Total
4214
1933
3380
3958
2533
243
243
4016
20034
10.7- Other photos of the research
Data collection
On the left :Dr MELCHER (BOKU) giving the electric fishing
equipment bought by the OEAD to Mr. Idrissa
ZAMPALIGRE, the General Director for Fish Resources,
Burkina Faso.
Recording species, length
and weight
Threats to waters in Burkina Faso
Household waste (plastic
bags) accumulated in a river
Bank in Ouagadougou
Bricks made of soil taken
from the bottom of
Napagbtenga reservoir
Sand mining and
transportation
222
PhD Thesis Raymond Ouedraogo
Artisanal mining of gold in
the area of Bam
Mechanic control of water
hyacinth, Reservoir No3 of
Ouagadougou, 26/07/2008
High fishing pressures: 3
professional fishermen
fishing on row
Increasing sportive fishermen Use of pesticides (in this
affluence in Koubri
picture) and fertilizers
Prohibited long lines in Bam
Views of Bam, Koubri and Nazinga
Bam at the highest water
level: all dead wood were
taken away
A few pieces of dead wood
still remain in reservoir of
Arzoum Baongo, Koubri
Much vegetation still in
Nazinga waters 2.5 months
after the end of the rainy
season