Communication Quarterly
Vol. 57, No. 3, July–September 2009, pp. 352–373
Contradictory Messages: A Content
Analysis of Hollywood-Produced
Romantic Comedy Feature Films
Kimberly R. Johnson & Bjarne M. Holmes
This study analyzed the romantic content of a sample of 40 romantic comedy films using
a basic grounded theory methodology. Analyses revealed that such films appear to depict
romantic relationships as having qualities of both new and long-term relationships; that
is, to be both novel and exciting, yet emotionally significant and meaningful. Furthermore, relationships were shown to have both highly idealistic and undesirable qualities
but for any problems or transgressions experienced to have no real negative long-term
impact on relationship functioning. The potential for viewer interpretations is discussed
and the need for future research highlighted.
Keywords: Adolescence; Content Analysis; Grounded Theory; Media; Romantic
Relationships
With the media such a prominent part of today’s society it is little wonder that it has
become a resource on how the world works. Adolescents, particularly impressionable
as they attempt to make sense of themselves and others around them, often look to
the media (e.g., Bachen & Illouz, 1996; Brown, 2002; Signorielli, 1997) for issues
increasing in importance such as those of romantic and sexual relationships (e.g.,
Arnett, 2000; Furnham & Simon, 1999). However, interpreting media representations
of these issues as being an accurate reflection of reality may have serious implications
for adolescents’ perceptions of the world. Films and television programs typically rely
on exaggerated and unrealistic portrayals of romantic and sexual relationships to
Kimberly R. Johnson (BSc, Heriot-Watt University, 2007) is a PhD student in the Department of Psychology at
Heriot-Watt University. Bjarne M. Holmes (PhD, University of Massachusetts at Amherst, 2004) is a professor
in the Department of Psychology at Heriot-Watt University. Correspondence: Kimberly R. Johnson, Department
of Psychology, School of Life Sciences, Heriot-Watt University, John Muir Building, Edinburgh, EH14 4AS,
United Kingdom; E-mail: [email protected]
ISSN 0146-3373 print/1746-4102 online # 2009 Eastern Communication Association
DOI: 10.1080/01463370903113632
Communication Quarterly
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appeal to their audiences (e.g., Committee on Public Education, 2001; Jowett &
Linton, 1980; Ward & Rivadeneyra, 1999); and, although older and more experienced
viewers can generally recognize this (Illouz, 1998), younger viewers with few of their
own experiences to compare against may come to view these representations as cultural norms and form unrealistic relationship beliefs and expectations accordingly. If
adolescents are indeed looking to the media’s exaggerated and unrealistic portrayals
to gain insight into what to expect in their own relationships, research must determine what specifically they are being exposed to. Research on romance media content
thus far, however, is severely lacking. This study, therefore, sought to address this gap
by analyzing the romantic content of a sample of romantic comedy feature films.
Furthermore, a coding system of the romantic themes identified during analysis
was created and interrater reliability established.
Theoretical Background
Research on media effects is generally carried out within the framework of one of
two major theories, that of either cultivation theory (Gerbner, Gross, Morgan, &
Signorielli, 1994) or social cognitive theory (Bandura, 1986, 1994). Social cognitive
theory suggests individuals may actively observe media portrayals of behaviors in
romantic relationships for insight into how they themselves could behave in their
own relationships. According to Bandura (1986, 1994), individuals commit to memory
behaviors they have observed to memory to be later used as models on which to base
their own behavior. Observed behaviors are especially likely to be modelled if they are
performed by individuals perceived as attractive and if outcomes are viewed as particularly appealing (Bandura, 1994)—that is, if an observed behavior results in a desired
outcome, adolescents may engage in similar behavior believing that in doing so they
too will gain the same benefits. However, with the media typically relying on unrealistic
portrayals of relationships, it may be that adolescents modelling their own behavior on
those seen in the media are unlikely to achieve the observed desired outcomes.
Where social cognitive theory suggests adolescents actively look to the media,
cultivation theory suggests the effects of media messages may involve a more passive
process. According to Gerbner et al. (1994), television has become the primary
common source of socialization and everyday information for a heterogeneous
population. Through its use of repeated themes and images it serves to influence
viewer perceptions of reality—that is, viewers exposed over a prolonged period of
time to portrayals of reality as defined by the media may come to develop perceptions
that are consistent with these portrayals. Traditional cultivation theory posits that it
is the overall exposure to general media content that influences real world perceptions. However, recent research has suggested that it is not overall media content
but rather genre specific viewing that has a more potent influence on audiences
(e.g., Holmes, 2007; Rössler & Brosius, 2001). Therefore, according to this revised
theory, viewers exposed to a high level of romance media will come to cultivate
beliefs and expectations of relationships consistent with those particular presentations over heavy viewers of media in general.
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For example, a major criticism of romantic genre television and films is that they
frequently portray intimate liaisons between physically beautiful characters (Ward &
Rivadeneyra, 1999) leading to relationships full of romance, physical intimacy,
passion (Segrin & Nabi, 2002), and little conflict (Signorielli, 1991). Adolescents
repeatedly exposed to these highly idealized images may therefore come to perceive
them as normal, which, in turn, could have an adverse effect on their satisfaction with
their own future relationships. When their own relationships do not compare to the
exaggerated depictions in the media they may come to feel as though they are lacking
a relationship that others are enjoying.
Previous Research
Studies have indeed found evidence to suggest a relationship between sexual media
content and adolescents’ beliefs and expectations. Viewing sexually oriented media
has been associated with adolescents overestimating the sexual activity of peers
(Ward & Rivadeneyra, 1999), experiencing dissatisfaction in their own lack of sexual
activity (Baran, 1976), and endorsing unhealthy beliefs of women as sex objects
(Ward & Friedman, 2006) and men as sex-driven (Ward, 2002).
Lending support to social cognitive theory, studies suggest there may be an association between exposure to sexual content on television and initiation of sexual behavior.
Brown and Newcomer (1991) found evidence to suggest a relationship between heavier
viewing of sexual television programs and earlier initiation of sexual behavior. In addition, one year-long study found that adolescents who frequently viewed large amounts
of sex-oriented television programs were more likely to initiate sexual behavior than
those who watched comparatively less sexual content (Collins et al., 2004).
Having established an association between exposure to media representations of
sexual relationships and adolescent beliefs and behaviors, recent years have seen a
progression into exploring other aspects of relationships presented in the media that
may serve to have similar associations. A study carried out by Signorielli (1991)
examined the possibility of a relationship between media and adolescents’ feelings
and expectations for marriage. A content analysis carried out within the study examined the portrayals of marriages on prime-time television programs and found a tendency to promote only positive images of marriages. Adolescents who regularly
viewed such programs had greater aspirations to marry and start a family, suggesting
a relationship between exposure to these biased representations and adolescents’
marriage expectations.
Segrin and Nabi (2002) also found a relationship between consumption of
romanticized television and high expectations of marriage. Consistent with the
revised theory that the cultivation of viewer beliefs and expectations is the result of
genre specific rather than general media content, individuals who frequently watched
media that focused on relationships and marriage, such as romantic comedy films
and soap operas, held idealistic expectations of marriage. Not only was romantic
media found to be related to elevated expectations but, consistent with Signorielli’s
(1991) study, also to greater intentions to marry.
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In addition to these overly optimistic beliefs are studies that have shown that
individuals exposed to romantic television content also endorse dysfunctional
relationship beliefs, potentially to the detriment of their current relationships.
Haferkamp (1999), Holmes (2007), and Shapiro and Kroeger (1991) examined the
relationship between romantic media, including sitcoms, romantic novels and
movies, and dysfunctional relationship beliefs as established by Eidelson and
Epstein’s (1982) Relationship Belief Inventory. Individuals viewing high levels of
romantic media content were found to more strongly endorse beliefs that men
and women are different, that neither can change themselves or their relationship
(Haferkamp, 1999), that sex must be perfect (Shapiro & Kroeger, 1991), and that a
partner should intuitively understand their needs (Holmes, 2007).
In addition, Holmes (2007) found a relationship between romance media and the
belief that partners can be romantically destined for one other, whereas Shapiro and
Kroeger (1991) found a positive relationship between exposure to romantic media
and intimate relationship dissatisfaction, potentially the result of viewers’ relationships not comparing to media-endorsed ideals.
Rationale Behind Current Work
With studies providing evidence of an association between genre-specific television
programs and films and viewer beliefs and behaviors, research has set out to determine
what the specific messages are that audiences are frequently being exposed to. What
particular messages are potentially cultivating dysfunctional beliefs and unrealistic relationship expectations? What scenarios do adolescents find so appealing as to use them
as a model for their own behavior? Several content analyses have been carried out investigating the nature and frequency of sexual encounters (e.g., Kunkel et al., 1999;
Sapolsky & Tabarlet, 1991; Ward, 1995); but, despite evidence of a relationship between
depictions of romantic aspects of relationships and viewer beliefs and expectations,
there have been but a few content analyses investigating this. Of the two content analyses found examining the romantic content of films (Pardun, 2002; Tanner, Haddock,
Zimmerman, & Lund, 2003), neither looked at a romantic genre-specific sample, which
is an important factor to consider from a cultivation theory perspective. With this in
mind, the primary aim of this study was to identify what messages on romantic relationships adolescents are being exposed to by systematically documenting all
relationship-oriented themes that feature in the popular genre of romantic comedy
films, with a secondary aim to establish interrater reliability on the themes found.
Method
Film Sample
The film genre of ‘‘romantic comedy’’ was chosen due to its high romantic content
and wide appeal. From a list of the U.S. top 200 grossing romantic comedies
(see www.boxofficemojo.com/genres/?id=romanticcomedy.htm), a shorter list was
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created according to the following four criteria. First, films were chosen if they were
available on Region 2 DVD. As this study was carried out in the United Kingdom, it
was not possible to view films available on Region 1 DVD only.
Second, it was proposed that adolescents may more strongly identify with the
characters and situations of recent films; therefore, only films released in cinemas
between 1995 and 2005 were included. Films made, but not set, within this time period were not included. For example, Pride and Prejudice (Bevan, Fellner, Webster, &
Wright, 2005), was excluded due to being set during the 1800s. Films that did not
specify were assumed to be set in the year they were released.
Third, only films rated by the British Board of Film Classification as U, PG, or 12
were included. Younger adolescents with fewer of their own experiences may be more
susceptible to representations of relationships; therefore, it was decided that the
sample should comprise films viewable by younger audiences.
Finally, only films produced by one of the ‘‘Big Six’’ major Hollywood studios
(see http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/List_of_Hollywood_movie_studios) were included.
Films produced by major Hollywood studios typically have the widest distribution
and, as a result, attract the largest viewing numbers. After excluding films that did
not fit into the aforementioned criteria, the top 40 of the remaining highest grossing
films were then selected to be analyzed, as presented in Table 1.
Table 1 Films Selected for Analysis
Movie title
What Women Want
Hitch
Runaway Bride
Bringing Down the House
Sweet Home Alabama
My Best Friend’s Wedding
Mr. Deeds
Something’s Gotta Give
50 First Dates
You’ve Got Mail
How to Lose a Guy in Ten Days
Maid in Manhattan
America’s Sweethearts
Two Weeks Notice
Along Came Polly
While You Were Sleeping
Six Days Seven Nights
Nine Months
Down to Earth
She’s All That
Bewitched
The Wedding Planner
Clueless
Just Married
Never Been Kissed
Sabrina
Forces Of Nature
Serendipity
Kate and Leopold
One Fine Day
Must Love Dogs
About a Boy
10 Things I Hate About You
Keeping the Faith
Return to Me
Just Friends
The Wedding Date
Picture Perfect
Fools Rush In
The Prince and Me
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Analysis
The aim of this study was to document all relationship-oriented themes using a basic
grounded theory methodology. This involved three stages of coding: open, axial, and
selective coding (Strauss & Corbin, 1990).
The aim of open coding is to create initial categories by comparing data with data
for similarities (Charmaz, 2003) and grouping them accordingly. These initial
categories are simply a means of organising the data to progress into the next stage
of coding (Strauss & Corbin, 1990).
The purpose of axial coding is to re-evaluate the categories created during the
open coding stage. This stage involves a reorganization into more abstract categories
through searching for and linking any traits each open coding category might share
(Charmaz, 2003; Strauss & Corbin, 1990).
The final selective coding stage involves further reorganization of the categories
established from axial coding. Categories at this stage are integrated into a core
concept that summarizes the overall findings of the study (Strauss & Corbin, 1990).
Before the open coding analysis could be performed, raw data was collected, in this
case, any relationship-oriented incidents (e.g., kissing, sexual acts, dates, etc.)
observed in the 40 films included in the sample. Each film was divided into DVD
chapters; each chapter was watched, and relationship-oriented observations were
recorded as they occurred. Once each film in the sample had been viewed, they
were viewed a second time in case any incidents may have been missed. Once completed, the process of open coding could be carried out.
Results and Discussion
Open Coding
A total of 3,470 relationship-oriented incidents were recorded during analysis. Each
incident was written on individual papers and phrased clearly and unambiguously so
its context could be understood independent of other incidents. Open coding was
carried out by placing each incident into categories with other incidents that were
similar in content or meaning and by creating new categories when new incidents
could not be placed. After doing this for all 3,470 incidents, 103 open coding
categories were created, listed in Table 2.
By far, the largest category created at this level was ‘‘kissing,’’ which in itself comprised nearly 10% (326) of all incidents coded. When looking at the most common
behaviors depicted in the film sample, many involved couples’ physical demonstrations of affection for one another, such as ‘‘affectionate touching,’’ (96) ‘‘hugging
and cuddling,’’ (91) and ‘‘holding hands’’ (83). Instances of nonsexual touching
far outweighed incidents of sexual activity (46), which occurred in just over one half
(21) of the 40 films. Although this may appear to be a considerable proportion of the
total films, it leaves nearly one half of the films failing to include any reference to this
important aspect of romantic relationships. This, of course, could be a reflection of
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&
&
&
Affection
. Affectionate touching
. Arms linking around each other
. Carrying
. Dancing
. Flirting
. Gazing and smiling
. Holding hands
. Hugging and cuddling
. Kissing
. Lost in the moment
. Physical closeness
. Sharing a private moment
. Sitting on partner’s lap
Commitment
. Committing to the relationship
. Engagement
. Weddings
. Marriage
. Proposals
Demonstrating caring
. Caring and concern for love interest
. Guilt
. Nursing
. Support
Table 2 Axial and Open Coding Categories
&
&
. Good with children
. Match-making
. Relationship views from the outside
Gestures
. Chivalry
. Doing favors
. Gestures
. Gifts
. Serenading
Importance of partner
. Changing for or because of relationship
. Creating opportunities to meet
. Defending partner
. First person to contact
. Importance of looks
. Importance of partner’s opinion
. Keeping mementos
. Partner on the mind
. Loyalty
. Missing partner
. Priorities
. Rescuing the relationship
. Risking safety for love
. Sacrificial action
. Taking an interest
. Discussing past relationships
. Discussing current relationship
. Discussing relationships in general
. Love epiphanies
. Relationship advice
. Relationship confidence
& Relationship issues
. Arguments
. Being single
. Cheating
. Counselling or therapy
. Deception
. Divorce or separation
. End of relationship
. Game playing
. Inappropriate behavior
. Inappropriate gifts
. Inappropriate talk
. Jealousy
. Neglect
. Violence
& Relationship with ex
& Romantic speech
. Accepting love
. Compliments
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&
&
Expression of emotions
. Lost for words
. Excited about a new relationship
. Excited to see or hear from partner
. Feeling comfortable
. Happier because of partner
. Overtly happy or laughing together
. Pleased to see or hear from partner
. Post-deception reaction
. Post relationship behavior
. Relationship nerves
Family and friend approval
. Family and friend approval
&
&
&
. Wanting partner to stay
One-of-a-kind relationship
. Fate or soul mates
. Special relationship
Open communication
. Apologies or admitting being wrong
. Confessions
. Declarations of love
. Open about feelings and intentions
. Showing appreciation
. Taking the initiative
Relationship discussion
. Character wants
. Discussing partner
&
&
&
. Feeling lucky
. Love at first sight
. Remembering or reciting details
. Sweet nothings
. Terms of endearment
. True understanding
Sexual activity
. Sex
. Post-sex behavior
Time together
. Being playful together
. Celebrating anniversary
. Dates
. Spending time together
Trust in partner
. Confiding or opening up
. Trust
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the certificate ratings of the films. Indeed, in all but two instances sexual activity
between two characters was implied as opposed to actually depicted. However, as
similarly suggested by Pardun (2002), movies in which there is an absence of reference to sexual behaviors may leave adolescents with an impression of a disconnect of
such behaviors from romantic relationships.
‘‘Compliments’’ was the second-largest category, with 154 instances being coded,
the vast majority (123) of which were expressed by male characters. This was not the
only area where male characters were depicted as making the greater effort. Of the
107 gestures coded, male characters performed 90, they gave 35 of 37 gifts, performed
14 of 17 favors, and took more steps to initiate relationships (63 of 84). Such a
proportion of effort could lead to the distinguishing of gender roles, identifying
the man’s role to ‘‘take the lead’’ when it comes to relationships. A further implication could be female adolescent viewers’ forming of somewhat idealized relationship
expectations. With films depicting male characters as frequently performing exaggeratedly romantic gestures (e.g., such as the scattered rose petals, bouquets of roses, and
a phone message gesture in Sweet Home Alabama (Fottrell, Jashni, Mordaunt, & Tennant, 2002), ‘‘There’s a rose for every moment I thought of you last night’’), female
adolescents may be led to believe that such behaviors are the norm. Furthermore, by
preferring to focus on behaviors between couples such as the aforementioned, it is
possible that such films may make these gestures more salient to adolescents as an
indication of the extent of partners’ feelings for them and the quality of the relationship itself over factors such as communication and trust.
Although there were 61 coded instances of ‘‘open about feelings and intentions,’’
there were only 4 incidents coded pertaining to trust, with 3 of these demonstrating
a character’s lack of trust in their partner. For example, in Nine Months (Bradshaw,
Lambert, & Columbus, 1995), a male character suspects that his girlfriend has
intentionally fallen pregnant, despite knowing his lack of interest in having children. Further to this, in the one coded incident where a character spoke of their
trust in their partner (Forces of Nature, Arnold, Bryce, Roth, & Hughes, 1999), their
partner had, in fact, been unfaithful to them. The lack of depiction of trust becomes
particularly notable when looking at the number of incidents of ‘‘deception’’ coded.
There were 82 such incidents, occurring across all 40 films, ranging from white lies
so as to spare partners’ feelings, to more serious acts of deception such as ulterior
motives and direct lying for personal gains. These far outweighed characters confessing their lies and deceptive acts to their partners (9), with lies being discovered
by partners typically by chance or indeed not at all. In addition, there were 33 incidents coded of characters cheating or having cheated on their partners, which, in
combination with ‘‘deception’’ and ‘‘trust,’’ could have the potential to cultivate
in viewers a sense of a need to be cautious of others’ sincerity and intentions.
The vast majority of films in the sample focused on newly developing relationships
and as such included many depictions of behaviors and feelings that are typical to the
early stages of a relationship. For example, there were 116 coded incidents of
characters mutually gazing and smiling longingly at one another, suggesting early
feelings of infatuation and adoration for a new or potential partner. Perhaps atypical
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to new relationships, however, were the 75 coded incidents of ‘‘declarations of love,’’
with characters frequently declaring their love for one another very early in their
relationship, such as in Runaway Bride (Lucchesi, Madden, Tannebaum, & Marshall,
1999), where both characters declare their love for one another after 1 week and
arrange to marry a few days later.
In addition to these early feelings of adoration and infatuation, certain
incidents coded seemed to suggest new relationships to be fragile and to break
down quite easily. There were 73 coded incidents of arguing and 43 incidents
of relationships ending. It was quite often the case that a couple’s relationship
ended directly after a heated argument. With films often linking these two
relationship aspects, it may be the case that adolescent viewers may form an
association between the two, potentially leading to interpretations of arguments
as destructive in relationships.
Another category to emerge at this stage of coding that may have the potential
to influence viewer perceptions was ‘‘being single.’’ Although this was one of the
smaller categories, each coded incident (15) was consistently negative. Individuals
who were single were depicted as either lonely and miserable (such as in While
You Were Sleeping (Barron, Sarkissian, & Turtelbaub, 1995), where a character
dejectedly says she has no one to laugh with), frustrated (such as in Hitch, Mordaunt, Tadross, & Tennant, 2005; where a character expresses her frustration at
not having had sex for 1 year), or made to feel insecure (such as in Picture Perfect,
Maddon, Teitler, Caron, 1997; where a character attending a wedding on her own
is made to feel inadequate). Two films (Keeping The Faith, Barber, Birnbaum,
Glickman, & Norton, 2000; and Picture Perfect) even suggested that being single
might interfere with career progression. Such a consistently negative representation
of being single could, therefore, have the potential to negatively influence viewers’
feelings toward being single themselves.
Axial Coding
Once all the open coding categories were created, axial coding could be carried out.
All 103 open coding categories were examined and, from these, 16 axial coding
categories were created, listed in Table 2.
The first category, ‘‘affection,’’ was created from open coding categories that were
viewed to represent couples demonstrating physical affection for one another, as
listed in Table 2. Three open coding categories, ‘‘gazing and smiling,’’ ‘‘lost in the
moment,’’ and ‘‘sharing a private moment,’’ although not physical, were also categorized here, as it was reasoned these were still suggestive of the feelings of affection that
characters held for one another.
This was the largest category, comprising 25% of the total incidents coded.
Affection between couples was often expressed freely, irrespective of where the couple
was or if other characters were present. For example, in Must Love Dogs (Hall, Smith,
& Goldberg, 2005), a couple in a supermarket are speaking with a counter assistant
when both suddenly kiss one another passionately on the lips. Examples such as this
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occurred frequently, potentially suggesting to viewers that couples who are happy and
in love should want to engage in such behaviors regardless of who can see them.
Further, it may encourage an impression that public displays of affection are a measure of a couple’s love for one another, imparting a feeling almost of ‘‘couples are as
in love as others see them to be.’’ This is not to say that couples were affectionate with
each other only when there were others around to see it, but the prevalence of publicly affectionate behaviors was high and as such may be viewed as being an important behavioral feature of relationships.
It should be further noted that of the incidents of affection coded, a vast minority
occurred between married couples. Married couples were typically portrayed as either
unhappy with their spouse (such as in 50 First Dates, Ewing, Lupi, Roach, & Segal,
2004; where a husband is repeatedly shown to speak poorly of his wife), or were
implied as happy but did little to reflect this (such as in Two Weeks Notice, Berman,
McLaglan, & Lawrence, 2002; where a character’s married parents show no affection
toward each other throughout the film but appear content in their marriage). Of the
depictions of affection between married couples that were coded, many were interspersed with episodes of arguing (such as in Return to Me, Erickson, Green, & Hunt,
2000; where a married couple argue about getting their children to sleep but then kiss
before going to bed themselves), and most were limited to gestures such as brief
kisses or standing with an arm around one other. Such a representation of marriage
may leave adolescent viewers to see marriage and romance as disparate entities and
with affection between married couples as an exception instead of the norm.
A second major category created in the axial coding stage was ‘‘relationship
issues.’’ This category emerged from finding that many open coding categories, listed
in Table 2, appeared to represent negative aspects of relationships that could be either
seen to be detrimental to a relationship’s functioning, such as ‘‘cheating,’’ or to represent relationship-related issues that could adversely affect individuals’ well-being,
such as ‘‘being single.’’ The nature of negative behaviors in this category ranged from
serious acts (e.g., acts of violence, such as in Just Married, Rosen, Donner, Trench, &
Levy, 2003; where a wife throws a glass ashtray at her husband), to less serious acts
(e.g., game-playing behaviors, such as in Clueless, Lawrence, Rudin, & Heckerling,
1995; where a character sends herself flowers and chocolates to gain the attention
of a male classmate). What is interesting to note about the behaviors comprising this
category, however, is that, irrespective of seriousness, there appeared to be no real
consequences for characters’ transgressions in their relationships. For example, in
You’ve Got Mail (Brown, Durk, Ephron, & Ephron, 1998) a character in a long-term
relationship is having an emotional affair with a man she speaks with through e-mail.
Her partner never finds out about this; when the relationship eventually ends, the
affair is not revealed and the separation is amicable. In She’s All That (Weinstein,
Weinstein, Yacoub, & Iscove, 1999), a relationship occurs because of a bet the male
character makes with a friend. Upon finding out, the female character’s initial distress
is soon forgotten and both are happy together again. Similarly in Never Been Kissed
(Barrymore & Gosnell, 1999), when a character is revealed to have been deceitful
about who she is, initially it appears that the man she has fallen for may not forgive
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her. However, after writing an apology in the newspaper she works for, the relationship continues as though no transgression has occurred. Such depictions do not
accurately reflect the actual emotions individuals typically experience in response
to acts of deception and betrayal in their relationships, which can involve feelings
of hurt, anger, resentment, and relational devaluation (Fitness, 2001). As a result,
with characters’ negative behaviors either going undiscovered or having no
long-lasting impact on their relationships, adolescent viewers may underestimate
the consequences their behaviors can have on their own relationships.
The next category, ‘‘relationship discussion,’’ was created by combining the open
coding categories listed in Table 2. ‘‘Love epiphanies’’ was included here, as characters typically disclosed their realization that they were in love with a partner to
another character. What is interesting to note is how the nature of the conversation
differed depending on the relationship being discussed. Characters spoke positively of
their partners, such as in Something’s Gotta Give (Block, McNeill Fairwell, & Meyers,
2003), where a character describes a new partner to her mother as ‘‘fun, smart, and
fascinating.’’ This was not only the case in new relationships; characters also spoke
fondly of more long-term partners, such as in Nine Months (Bradshaw et al.,
1995), where a character speaks of his love for his partner to a friend. However,
the nature of the discussion appeared to change when it was a married character
speaking of their spouse, such as in Forces of Nature (Arnold et al., 1999), where a
character tells his grandson that he was never attracted to his wife, that he only stayed
with her through fear, and that marriage ‘‘is a prison.’’ The few coded incidents of
married characters shown to be discussing either their spouse or their marriage more
positively were typically followed by statements or behaviors that seemed to go
against what was being said. For example, in Two Weeks Notice (Berman et al.,
2002), a character tells a friend she had to fight to be with her husband, but it was
‘‘the best thing I ever did.’’ Upon her husband then speaking from their apartment
window, she yells angrily at him. With the few discussions of marriage that were positive, but then followed by contradictory behaviors, and the vast majority of discussions negative, this may further add to the non-romantic impressions of marriage
discussed earlier that adolescent viewers might form.
‘‘Romantic speech’’ was created after combining the open coding categories listed
in Table 2. ‘‘True understanding,’’ ‘‘love at first sight,’’ and ‘‘feeling lucky’’ were categorized here, as these were all verbally expressed to partners. The significance of this
category becomes clearer when compared to another category created at this level.
‘‘Open communication’’ consisted of open coding categories that seemed to involve
characters openly communicating and admitting their feelings and wants to their partner. This category was comparatively smaller than ‘‘romantic speech,’’ which contained the more romantic verbal gestures. The greater frequency of romantic verbal
gestures such as compliments and sweet nothings may lead adolescents to place more
importance on them in relationships than on open communication between partners.
‘‘Expression of emotions’’ was created when several open coding categories were
noticed to depict characters expressing their feelings about their relationships (as
listed in Table 2). Characters were shown to be visibly happier when in a relationship
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or excited at the prospect of a new relationship forming. For example, in The
Wedding Planner (Borman, Sadowsky, Sievernich, Sinclair, & Shankman, 2001), a
character arrives at work the day after a date and colleagues comment on her appearing noticeably happier, more carefree, and that she ‘‘can’t stop smiling.’’ This contrasts from the depictions of single characters that were typically shown to be
unhappy or frustrated, potentially further influencing the negative attitudes toward
being single discussed earlier.
Several open coding categories, upon closer examination, appeared to represent
the importance individuals placed on their partners. These were grouped together
under the axial category, ‘‘importance of partner.’’ Characters were quickly loyal to
their partners, defending them to others (such as in 10 Things I Hate About You,
Chernov, Jaret, & Junger, 1999; where a character defends the girl he is interested
in when a friend speaks derogatively of her). Partners preoccupied characters’
thoughts (such as in Keeping the Faith, Barber et al., 2000; where a character appears
distracted at work while waiting for her partner to meet her), and their opinions
became important (such as in Clueless, Lawrence et al., 1995; where two characters
change their appearance in response to comments each has made of the other). Characters also prioritized their relationships and partners over other areas in their lives.
For example, in Mr. Deeds (Caracciolo, Sandler, & Brill, 2002), a character gives up
her career and moves to be with the man she loves. Such instances outnumbered
those depicting characters prioritising careers over partners, such as in Picture Perfect
(Maddon et al., 1997), where a character ends her relationship due to ‘‘bad timing.’’
However, even in such cases, work is only initially prioritized over a relationship, as
by the end of the film the relationship is ultimately chosen over all else.
The next axial category, ‘‘demonstrating caring’’ was created after it was noticed
that ‘‘concern for partner,’’ ‘‘nursing,’’ ‘‘guilt,’’ and ‘‘support’’ all appeared to represent or suggest characters showing caring for a partner. The majority of this category
consisted of depictions of characters providing emotional support, typically from
male characters to their female partners in the form of reassurance or comfort when
upset. As with ‘‘taking the initiative’’ and ‘‘gestures,’’ this may similarly have the
potential to suggest certain gender roles in relationships.
One of the smaller categories to be created at this stage was that of ‘‘commitment.’’ It should be noted that in films where the central characters married one
another, the wedding was shown to be the culminating point of the film with life
after the wedding left to the viewers’ imagination. This gap may lead adolescents to
view the act of getting married itself as the peak of a relationship, with the earlier
discussed depictions of already married couples as unaffectionate with each other,
speaking negatively of each other, and arguing with each other potentially reinforcing this.
The axial category, ‘‘family and friend approval,’’ was created from adding ‘‘good
with children,’’ ‘‘matchmaking,’’ and ‘‘relationship views from the outside’’ to the
open coding category of the same name. ‘‘Good with children’’ was categorized
here, as it was found that in each case it was the partner’s child who the character
had a good relationship with and as such represented a form of approval. For the
Communication Quarterly
365
most part, characters’ friends and family approved of their partners. In some
instances this was the case despite very little being known about them. For example,
in The Wedding Planner (Borman et al., 2001), a father, told by a man he has never
met before that he wants to marry his daughter, excitedly approves. All incidents
coded were not this extreme, however; in The Wedding Date (Niemeyer, Reeve,
Robbins, Waitt, & Kilner, 2005), a character’s friends all approve of her date by
enthusiastically commenting on his looks. It should be noted that in only six films
did family and friends not approve of partners, and in three of these (50 First Dates;
Ewing et al., 2004; The Prince and Me, Winikoff & Coolidge, 2004; Just Married,
Rosen et al., 2003) the families were eventually won over by partners and gave their
approval. As adolescence is a time where approval by others increases in importance, the majority of depictions of family and friends approving of partners may
serve to reinforce the importance of viewers’ own family and friends’ opinions of
their own partners.
‘‘Sex’’ and ‘‘post-sex behavior’’ were combined to create the broader category,
‘‘sexual activity.’’ After sex, couples cuddled and talked (such as in Keeping the Faith,
Barber et al., 2000), connected emotionally (as in Something’s Gotta Give, Block et al.,
2003; where both characters cry) and, in one case, woke up before the other and left
(as in Maid in Manhattan, Medina, Newirth, & Wang, 2002). However, with only
very few incidents coded pertaining to post-sex behavior, viewers may be left still
unsure as to what is appropriate in such circumstances.
‘‘Fate or soul mate’’ and ‘‘special relationship’’ were combined to create ‘‘one-ofa-kind relationship.’’ Although there were 17 coded references to either fate or to
finding one’s soul mate (almost one half of which were coded in a single film,
Serendipity, Goldstein, Osher, Slotnick, & Chelsom, 2001), the majority of this axial
category consisted of characters’ claims or behaviors that suggested there was something special or different about their relationship. For example, in How to Lose a Guy
in Ten Days (Evans, Forsyth-Peters, Obst, Vane, & Petrie, 2003), a male character
brings his partner home to meet his family, at which point it is revealed he has never
done this with a partner before; later his partner writes in the magazine she works for
that the last 10 days with her partner were the best in her life.
‘‘Trust in partner,’’ consisting of ‘‘trust’’ and ‘‘confiding or opening up,’’ was
one of the smallest categories, comprising only 0.7% of the total incidents coded.
Characters were shown to open up to their partners about personal memories,
insecurities, and feelings. Although partners were shown to listen and offer emotional
support if needed in return, the far greater number of incidents of deception coded
may still give adolescent viewers the feeling of a need to demonstrate caution in
relationships.
The two final categories to be created at this stage were ‘‘time together’’ (consisting
of open coding categories ‘‘dates,’’ ‘‘being playful together,’’ ‘‘celebrating anniversary,’’ and ‘‘spending time together’’) and ‘‘gestures’’ (consisting of ‘‘chivalry,’’
‘‘gifts,’’ ‘‘gestures,’’ ‘‘doing favors,’’ and ‘‘serenading’’), leaving one open coding
category, ‘‘relationship with ex,’’ which could not be grouped with others and was,
therefore, left as it was.
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Interrater Reliability for Axial Codes
As content analyses are subjective in nature, establishing interrater reliability (i.e., the
extent to which 2 or more coders evaluate data and reach the same conclusions;
Lombard, Snyder-Duch, & Bracken, 2002) is important for the results of a study
to be considered valid.
In this study, a coding manual was constructed from the categories created at the
axial coding level of analysis to establish interrater reliability. Using a random
number generator, 7 films (containing 174 chapters in total) from the original 40
were randomly selected for reliability coding. A female psychology undergraduate
acted as a second coder. Training comprised familiarising the second coder with each
of the open coding categories, their properties, and axial coding categories, using
films not in the final reliability sample.
Coding judgments consisted of coding observed axial coding categories as being
present or absent within each chapter. This approach was chosen because the focus
of this study was to identify relationship behaviors and actions. By focusing coding
judgments on the presence and absence and therefore on recognition, a high
interrater reliability rating suggests that others can recognize and interpret these
behaviors and actions in the same way.
Reliability was calculated using Cohen’s kappa. Scores between .41 and .60 are
considered moderate interrater reliability, .61 and .80 as substantial, and .81 and
above as almost perfect (Landis & Koch, 1977). The results of this analysis are listed
in Table 3. Thirteen of 16 codes reached the substantial threshold, with the remaining
four having moderate values.
Selective Coding
After examining the data, one finding that emerged was that depictions of relationships seemed contradictory and, therefore, potentially confusing to adolescent viewers. With the purpose of this study to identify how relationships are depicted in
romantic comedy films and what these might suggest to adolescent viewers, ‘‘contradictory messages’’ was named as the core concept.
Relationships were shown to be at once highly desirable and highly undesirable. Characters in relationships placed importance on and prioritized partners,
often made great efforts with romantic gestures, and were understanding and supportive when partners confided in them. Characters were also shown, however, to
neglect their relationships, deceive their partners, fight and argue, and in some
cases be unfaithful. Although it could be argued that such contradictory behaviors
are actually common in reality and that these films may, therefore, be offering a
realistic representation in this respect, the previously discussed underplay of the
consequences of negative and undesirable behaviors does not accurately reflect
those typical in reality (e.g., Fitness, 2001); therefore, it would seem that these
representations of arguably realistic features of relationships are still depicted in
an unrealistic way.
Communication Quarterly
367
Table 3 Axial Level Category Kappa Scores
Axial level category
Affection
Commitment
Demonstrating caring
Expression of emotions
Family and friend approval
Gestures
Importance of partner
One-of-a-kind relationship
Open communication
Relationship discussion
Relationship issues
Relationship with ex
Romantic speech
Sexual activity
Time together
Trust in partner
Kappa scoresa
0.69b
0.68b
0.64b
0.61b
0.67b
0.51
0.62b
0.59
0.74b
0.64b
0.66b
0.89b
0.56
0.67b
0.72b
1.00b
a
b
Figures shown are correct to two decimal places.
Scores reaching a substantial rating and above.
In addition to the aforementioned desirable–undesirable representations were the
contradictions that could be found in the undesirable behaviors themselves. An
example of this can be found in The Wedding Planner (Borman et al., 2001). A female
character confides in a male character about a painful past experience of her
ex-fiancée being unfaithful to her. However, these two characters are themselves having an emotional affair and, yet, this itself is not negatively depicted. With the character’s described experience of infidelity painted in a negative light and the present
behavior as simply two people falling in love, there is potential for confusion in viewers as to what is acceptable and what is not.
Films in the sample typically focused on relationships in their early stages, a time
of excitement at the prospect of the new relationship, a strong desire for physical
closeness and contact (Berscheid, 1985), and passion (Sternberg, 1986). This was
certainly demonstrated in the films analyzed here: Characters spent much of their free
time together, appeared visibly happier and excited, and were physically close and
affectionate with one another.
However, there were also behaviors demonstrated by couples that seemed incongruous with these early-stage representations—behaviors suggestive of deeper feelings that ordinarily develop over time and, as such, are usually absent early on.
Characters performed actions purely to promote partners’ well-being, placed great
importance on partners, expressed deep feelings of love, and provided emotional
support—features more typically associated with later stages (Reedy, Birren, &
Schaie, 1981; Sternberg, 1986). Although films depicting new relationships with
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K. R. Johnson & B. M. Holmes
characteristics of longer term relationships can be assumed to be for the purpose of
creating a narrative that is both engaging (through the depiction of exciting early
relationship encounters) and satisfying (through the suggestion of a deeper, more
meaningful relationship experience) to appeal to audiences, this could have potentially significant consequences for adolescent viewers’ relationship perceptions. By
coming to believe that characteristics of relationships that ordinarily take time to
develop should be present early on, adolescents may misjudge the quality of their
own relationships and find them lacking. In addition, adolescents might come to
expect that the excited feelings present early on in a relationship should remain
as the relationship progresses. However, as these early feelings come to be replaced
by, not develop in conjunction with, the feelings of closeness, connectedness, and
bondedness of later-stage relationships (Sternberg, 1986), there is potential for
adolescents to misinterpret this progression as reflecting negatively on the quality
of their own developing relationships.
Conclusion
With the media viewed as a major source of information for adolescents on issues
they know little about (e.g., Bachen & Illouz, 1996), it is important to identify what
information such media might be providing. From a social-cognitive theory perspective (Bandura, 1986, 1994), adolescents using films of this nature as a means to obtain
information on what behaviors are successful in initiating and maintaining a relationship may find information on the former, but little on the latter. Films appeared
to depict relationships as progressing quickly into something emotionally meaningful
and significant, but there was little shown to explain how or why this was the case.
Adolescents using these films as a model on which to base their own behaviors,
expecting that in doing so their relationships will progress in kind, are likely to be
left disappointed. Likewise, from a cultivation theory perspective (Gerbner et al.,
1994), adolescents coming to view these representations as norms are likely to be left
with an inaccurate impression. However, the effect of romance media on individuals
is an area that has been greatly under-explored and, as such, we have limited understanding on what specific influences such media might have on viewers. With the
findings highlighted here suggesting that what adolescents might ‘‘learn’’ from
romance media may lead to a number of interpretations that could interfere with
future relationship functioning, it is important that future research expand on our
current understanding and explore in greater detail such effects. For example,
research on the effects of romance media thus far has yet to establish a direction
of causality. Experimental work, therefore, needs to be carried out to determine
whether exposure to films of this nature does indeed have a causal influence. If this
is the case, what specific effects on viewers such exposure has and how individual differences may serve to moderate needs to be explored.
It is interesting to note that findings from previous research, which suggest a
relationship between romance media consumption and idealistic expectations of
marriage (e.g., Segrin & Nabi, 2002), seem to conflict with the finding from this study
Communication Quarterly
369
of marriage being consistently depicted in a non-romantic and less than appealing
manner. Perhaps the relationships at the forefront of these films, building up to an
imagined ‘‘happy ever after’’ marriage, are more salient to viewers on which to form
their expectations than the negatively depicted marriages in the background. Future
research will need to ascertain whether this is the case. This study might also provide
some insight into the findings of previous research that individuals who frequently
watch romance media endorse dysfunctional relationship beliefs. For example,
Haferkamp’s (1999) and Holmes’ (2007) finding that individuals believed a partner
should intuitively understand their needs could be explained by the observation that
characters appeared happy in their relationships, despite seldom openly communicating their feelings, intentions, and wants to each other.
Further worthy of note in this analysis is the narrow spectrum of character representations offered by these films. Characters were predominantly White, middle class,
and heterosexual. On this latter characteristic, in particular, only one film included a
portrayal of a homosexual relationship (Must Love Dogs, Hall et al., 2005), although a
stark contrast between this couple’s interactions and those of their heterosexual
counterparts was apparent. Whereas heterosexual couples were open in physically
demonstrating their affection for one another, this was not evident in the homosexual
couple, with the only indication of romantic feelings between the two being shown
through a reference made to an early experience they had shared. With generally very
limited variation in character portrayals, one could question the impact these depictions might have on a heterogeneous viewing audience. Whereas viewers with similar
ethnic and socioeconomic backgrounds to those depicted on screen may see the portrayals as relevant models on which to base their own behaviors and expectations,
viewers with differing backgrounds may identify less with these portrayals and, therefore, take little from them. Furthermore, research has shown female viewers to
demonstrate greater preference for romance media than male viewers (e.g., Holmes,
2007); on this basis, one would expect different effects to emerge across gender.
Future research will need to examine the effects of exposure to romance media taking
these factors into consideration.
This study focused on a sample of only 40 films; although informative, further content analyses examining the nature of romantic relationship depictions across different
genres of television programming and films are needed to identify romance messages
in a wider media context. However, there was still much highlighted here that may
serve to broaden our understanding of the potential of romance media to influence
adolescents’ relationship beliefs, expectations, and resultant relationship experiences.
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