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OrientationsinTime:MusicandtheConstructionofHistoricalNarrativein
20thand21stCenturyAfrican-AmericanLiterature
LeislSackschewsky
Adissertation
submittedinpartialfulfillmentof
requirementsforthedegreeof
DoctorofPhilosophy
UniversityofWashington
2016
ReadingCommittee:
SonnetRetman,Chair
HabibaIbrahim
AlysWeinbaum
ProgramAuthorizedtoOfferDegree:
English
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©Copyright2016
LeislSackschewsky
3
UniversityofWashington
Abstract
OrientationsinTime:MusicandtheConstructionofHistoricalNarrativein20thand21st
CenturyAfrican-AmericanLiterature
ChairofSupervisoryCommittee:
AssociateProfessorSonnetRetman
AmericanEthnicStudies
ThisdissertationarguesthattheintersectionsbetweenAfrican-Americanliteratureand
musichavebeeninfluentialinboththedevelopmentofhip-hopaestheticsand,specifically,
theircommunicationofhistoricalnarrative.Challenginghip-hophistoriographersthat
narratethemovementasthematerializationofa“phantomaesthetic”,orasociological,
cultural,technological,andmusicalinnovationofthelastfortyyears,thisdissertation
assertsthathip-hopartistsdeploydistinctlyliterarytechniquesintheirattemptsto
animate,write,rewrite,rupture,orreclaimthepastforthepresent.Throughananalysisof
20thand21stcenturyAfrican-Americanliteraryengagementswithblackmusic,musical
figures,scenesofmusicalperformance,andwhatIcall‘musical-oral’,Ihopeto
demonstratehowproserepresentationsofmusicdisruptthelinearnarrativesofprogress
thathavedominatedhistoricisminthewhite,westernworld.Bycreatingaself-reflexive
aestheticthatdrawsthepastintoimmediateconversationwiththepresent,textssuchas
LangstonHughes’sTheWearyBlues(1926)toRichardWright’s12MillionBlackVoices
(1941),AnnPetry’sTheStreet(1946)and“SoloontheDrums”(1947),SoniaSanchez’sWe
aBaddDDDPeople(1971),ToniMorrison’sJazz(1992),andColsonWhitehead’sSag
Harbor(2009),offeranewmodelforunderstandingslaveryandtheAfricanpast,Marxian
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classtheory,genderpolitics,intersectionality,politicalcallsforsolidarity,andthe
formationofpost-soulaestheticssuchaship-hop.
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TableofContents
Introduction...................................................................................................................................................6-29
ChapterOne:DestabilizingHistoricalStasis:LangstonHughesandtheDeploymentof
MusicasMetaphorinTheWearyBlues……………………………………………………………………..30-74
ChapterTwo:RichardWrightandAnnPetry:TheIntersectionBetweenMusicandPolitics
in1940sAfrican-AmericanRealism………………………………………………………………………75-122
ChapterThree:Performance,Memory,andtheAffectiveTransmissionofHistoryin
AnnPetry’s“SoloontheDrums”…………………………………………………………………………123-146
ChapterFour:LocatingaPoliticalPast:Musicandthe“PerformativePolitics”ofFreedom
inSoniaSanchez’sWeABaddDDDPeople………………………………………………………….147-186
ChapterFive:TheWriterasJazzEnsemble:FragmentationandTemporalDislocationin
ToniMorrison’sJazz…………………………………………………………………………………………187-213
ChapterSix:SamplinginColsonWhitehead’sSagHarbor:TheUseofHip-HopAestheticsin
ContemporaryBlackFiction……………………………………………………………………………214-249
Conclusion............................................................................................................................................249-250
WorksCited………………………………………………………………………………………………….250-27
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Introduction
Thisprojectbeganwiththehistoriographyofhip-hop.Whileittookalmosttwentyfiveyearsafterthemusic’semergenceforscholarstobegindiscussingitshistoryand
aesthetics,inonlytenshortyearsafterTriciaRose’sfoundationalBlackNoise(1994)1,
manyofthedefinitivescholarlytextsofthemovementhadalreadybeenwritten.2While
thesetextsengagewiththeartistry,socialmeanings,politics,economiesand
appropriationsofthemusic,theirnarrationofthemusic’saestheticinnovationsnearly
alwaysfocusesonthreeaspectsofitsemergence:1)thesocioeconomicconditions
surroundinghip-hop’sorigins2)thetechnologicaladvancesofearlydeejays3)the
relationshipbetweenoralcultureandthesignificationpracticesofemcees.Thefirst,and
mostfamiliarnarrativehingesonsociologicalaccountsofwhiteflight,deindustrialization,
Reaganomics,andthepoliticsofabandonment.Themajorflawinthishistoriographyis
thatpeopleareoftenreducedtofeaturesoftheirneighborhood,theirartcharacterizedas
eitherareactiontoorrebellionagainstthosesocioeconomicconditions.Parallelstudies
providein-depth,detailed,andgenerallythoughtfulexplorationsofdeejayingtechnologies
andtechniques,includingthedevelopmentofthebreak,sampling,andmixing.Finally,
nearlyeverymajorargumentaboutthehistoryofhip-hopaestheticslinksemceestothe
1ItshouldbenotedthatjournalistincludingBillAdler,NelsonGeorge,BarryMichaelCooper,David
Herskovitz,GregTate,andnewspaperssuchasTheVillageVoicewereallwritingaboutthecultural
intricaciesofhip-hopbeforeRose’sbookcameout.Iamstartingwithherbecauseitisthefirst
majorintersectionbetweenhip-hopandacademia.Alsoseehip-hopanthologiesThat’sTheJoint
(2012)andAndItDon’tStop(2004)foramorecomprehensivehistoryofhip-hopjournalism.
2Whilethousandsofarticlesandhundredsofbookhavebeenwrittenabouthip-hopculturesince
Rose’sbook,thisdissertationemergesfromtheresearchthatappearsinthefollowingtexts:S.Craig
Watkins,Hip-HopMatters(2005);NelsonGeorge,Hip-HopAmerica(1998);MarcAnthonyNeale;
WhattheMusicSaid(1999);HoustonA.Baker;Rap,BlackStudies,andtheAcademy(1993);Jeff
Chang,Can’tStop,Won’tStop(2005);S.CraigWatkins,Hip-HopMatters(2005);AdamBradley,
BookofRhymes(2009);MurrayForeman,The‘HoodComesFirst(2002).
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historyofsignificationpracticesoutlinedbyHenryLouisGatesJr.inhisclassic1985text
TheSignifyingMonkey:ATheoryofAfro-AmericanLiteraryCriticism.
Whileeachoftheseapproaches,tovaryingdegrees,hasinformedmyunderstanding
ofhip-hophistoriography,theyalllackadistinctsenseofthewayship-hopaestheticsare
shapedbytheintersectionsbetweenAfrican-Americanliteratureandblackmusic—its
forms,figures,scenesofmusicalperformance,anddescriptionsofwhatIcall‘musical-oral’
settings.3Unlikethepracticesofsignifyingandoralstorytelling,hip-hopdidnotemerge
fromentirelyoralorvernacularcultures.Similarly,whilehip-hopaestheticsareinformed
bypreviousmusicalformsandthedevelopmentoftheturntable,itisnotexclusivelya
musicalortechnologicalinnovation.Whatmakeship-hopuniqueisitsincorporationof
multiplegenresforms,includingtheliterary,initsexplorationofblackidentityand
African-Americanhistoriography.ByattemptingtonarratewhatJamesWeldonJohnson
callsthe“consciousandunconsciousart”oforaltradition,orwhatRalphEllisondescribes
asmusic’sabilitytosoundthe“indefinableaspectsofexperience”(198),IargueAfricanAmericanauthorscreatednewmodelsandmethodsforwritingandrewritingthepast
throughmusicalaesthetics.Sometimesfoundationaltothetext’snarrativeandothertimes
oneofmanyconstructs,musicbecomesthevehicleforanimating,reclaiming,rupturing,or
reshapingthepastinthepresent.Thismethodofhistoricalcompression,whichrefutes
linearandteleologicalrepresentationsofAfrican-Americansubjectivity,informsboththe
contentandaestheticformsofhip-hopculture.
3WhatImeanby“musical-oral”settingsareanysitesinwhichmusicalcultureisdeliberately
linkedwithoralexpressionorvice-versa.WhileIunderstandthatoralculturesofstorytelling,
folklore,andsignifyingaredistinctinmanywaysfrommusicalpractice,itismyhopetopointout
howthesegenreshaveconsistentlyoverlappedanddrawnfromoneanotherinAfrican-American
culturalpracticeacrossthe20thcentury.
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Ratherthanreaffirmingpopularculture’sobsessionwiththe‘ghetto’orsimplifyingthe
complexityofAfrican-Americanculturalaestheticstotherealmoftechnologyororality,the
literaryopensuphip-hophistoriographytoawiderangeofAfrican-Americansubject
positions,bothpastandpresent.IntextsthatrangefromLangstonHughes’poeticvolume
TheWearyBlues(1926)toColsonWhitehead’snovelSagHarbor(2009)4,Iexaminehow
thepersistentinclusionofmusicalformsassistsinthetransmissionofaestheticand
culturalhistoriesthatstretchfromtheancientpast,toAfrica,andacrossanynumberof
pointsintheAfrican-Americanpast.Theseliteraryencounterswithmusicofferan
alternativeAfrican-Americanhistoriography,orameansoftellinghistoryandshaping
culturalmemory.Itismygoaltoobservenotonlyhowthepastisshapedbythepresentin
thesetexts,butalsotonotehowtheintersectionbetweenmultiplegenreformscould
constituteanewdirectioninhip-hophistoriography.
AsanumberofAfrican-Americanwritersandscholarsacrossthetwentiethcentury
havenoted,African-Americanmusicalandoralformshavebeenengagedinaprocessof
aestheticreplicationandrevisionthatstretchesfromtheAfricanpasttothetechnologically
saturatedmarketsofthepresent.TheonlyavenuesforAfricanAmericancultural
4Whilethisdissertationdealswithonlysevenliterarytexts,myargumentisinfluencedbyawide
rangeofAfrican-Americanliteraryengagementswithmusic.Theseinclude,butarenotlimitedto:
PaulLaurenceDunbar;WhenMalindySings(1896);FrederickDouglass,TheNarrativeoftheLifeof
FrederickDouglass(1845);BookerT.Washington,UpFromSlavery(1901);JeanToomer;Cane;
ZoraNealeHurston,TheirEyesWereWatchingGod(1937);NellaLarsen,Passing(1929);Sterling
Brown;SouthernRoad(1932);LangstonHughes,FineClothestotheJew(1927);Montageofa
DreamDeferred(1951);AskYourMama:12MoodsforJazz(1961);RalphEllison;InvisibleMan
(1952);JamesBaldwin;GoTellItOntheMountain(1953),“Sonny’sBlues”(1957);WilliamMelvin
Kelley,ADifferentDrummer(1962);NikkiGiovanni,BlackFeeling,BlackTalk(1970);Sonia
Sanchez,ABluesBookforaBlueBlackMagicWoman(1974);GaylJones;Corregidora(1975);
IshmaelReed,MumboJumbo(1972);NtozakeShang;ForColoredGirlsWhoHaveConsideredSuicide
(1976);PaulBeatty,WhiteBoyShuffle(1996).
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expressionfromthe16thcenturythroughmuchofthe19th,signifying,oralstorytelling,
folklore,spirituals,sermons,dialect,andmusicwereconstitutiveelementsinthe
communicationofindividualexperiencesandcommunalhistories.Largelydistorted,
silenced,ormisrepresentedasemergingfroma‘subhuman’culturesorcontexts,these
aestheticexpressionsnonethelessprovidedameansforpeopletosubverttheoppressive
social,economic,andpoliticalsystemsthatcontainedthem.Althoughtherearenotable
exceptionsinthetraditionsof18thand19thcenturyAfrican-Americanliterary
development,manyofthetextswrittenbeforethe20thcenturyareconfinedtoslave
narratives,personalmemoirs,andpoliticalpamphletsthatsupportedtheaimsof
abolition.5Subjecttovalidationbywhitepublishersandpatrons,andreleasedin
accordancewithwhitereadingaudiencesexpectations,thesetextsoccasionallygesture
towardsoralandmusicaltraditions,6butrarelyconsidertheinfluenceoftheseformson
thenewlyburgeoningfieldofliteraryexpression.
5AlthoughtextssuchasPhyllisWheatley’sPoemsonVariousSubjects,ReligiousandMoral(1773)
andFrancesE.W.Harper’sMoses:AStoryoftheNile(1869)arenotableexceptionsinthe19th
centuryAfrican-Americanliterarytradition,nearlyallthetextspublishedbyblackauthorsinthe
18thand19thcenturydealtwithslavery,abolition,passing,lynching,votingrights,andtheaffectsof
thesesystemsonAfrican-Americancommunities.Theseinclude,butarenotlimitedto,IdaB.Wells
SouthernHorror(1892)andARedRecord(1895);FrederickDouglass,ANarrativeoftheLifeof
FrederickDouglass(1845);WilliamWellsBrown,NarrativeofWilliamW.Brown,aFugitiveSlave
(1847);SojournerTruth,NarrativeofSojournerTruth(1850);SolomonNorthup,TwelveYearsA
Slave(1853);HarrietJacobs,IncidentsintheLifeofaSlaveGirl(1861);FrancesE.W.Harper,Iola
Leroy(1893).NotablenewspapersthatdealtdirectlywiththeAfrican-Americancommunity,
slaveryandissuesofabolitionalsoincludedTheNorthStar(1847-51),Freedom’sJournal(18271829),TheColoredAmerican(1837-1842),andTheNationalEra(1847-1860).
6ThemostnotableexampleofthisisFrederickDouglass’narrationofAuntHester’sscreamandhis
observationshortlyafterthat,“Ididnot,whenaslave,understandthemeaningofthoserudeand
apparentlyincoherentsongs…Theytoldataleofwoewhichwasthenaltogetherbeyondmyfeeble
comprehension;theyweretoneslong,loud,anddeep…Everytonewasatestimonyagainstslavery,
andaprayertoGodfordeliverancefromchains”(124-125).
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However,attheturnofthetwentiethcentury,African-Americanauthorsnotonly
greatlyexpandedtheirexplorationofmusicalandoralaesthetics,theyalsobegantonote
overtlyhistoriographicelementsintheseexpressions.Althoughthereareamyriadofblack
aesthetictheoriesthatinformthisdissertation,Ianchormyargumentintwentieth-century
scholarshipthatdiscussestherelationshipbetweenmusicalandoralaestheticsandthe
narrationofAfrican-Americansubjectivity:W.E.B.DuBois’TheSoulsofBlackFolks(1903);
JamesWeldonJohnson’sGod’sTrombones(1926);ZoraNealeHurston’s“Characteristicsof
NegroExpression”(1934)and“WhatWhitePublishersWon’tPrint”(1947);RalphEllison’s
ShadowandAct(1953);AmiriBaraka’sBluesPeople(1963);andHenryLouisGatesJr.’sThe
SignifyingMonkey(1986).IwillalsoarguefortheinclusionofStephenHenderson’s
introductiontoUnderstandingtheNewBlackPoetry(1972)andAlexanderWeheliye’s
Phonographies(2005)intothistheoreticalgenealogy.Whetherdescribingmusicasan
affectivetransmissionofmemory,anaestheticformofreplicationandrevision,adoublesideddiscoursewithracistideologies,oraperformativeengagementwithindividualand
communityhistories,eachtextpresentsmusicasauniqueengagementwith,embodiment
of,orresoundingofthepastasitisunderstoodandtransmittedinthepresent.This
variationintheoreticalapproachesdismantlesreductivehistoriographiesofhip-hopby
demonstratingthehistriographicimpulseofhip-hopthroughit’sengagementwiththe
literary.
OneofthemostinfluentialAfrican-Americantextsoftheearly20thcentury,W.E.B.
DuBois’TheSoulsofBlackFolksestablishestheimportanceofmusictobothblack
historiographyandthecommunicationofaffectacrosstimeandspace.Acompilationof
essaysonhistory,sociology,andeconomics,aswellasshortstoriesandautobiographical
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sketches,TheSoulsofBlackFolks(1901)hasstoodasoneofthedefiningtextsin20th
CenturyinterpretationsofAfrican-Americanhistory,psychology,sociology,literature,
music,andart.7Whilethefinalsectionofthebookisdedicatedtohisanalysisofthe
spirituals,musicpermeatestheentirevolume.Barsfromfamousspiritualsareplacedat
thebeginningofeachchaptertoreinforcenotonlytheimportanceofmultiplegenresinthe
expressionofAfrican-Americansubjectivity,butthedirectcorrelationsbetweenmusicand
thehistoricalnarrativesofthecommunity.Beginningwith“TheDawnofFreedom,”an
essayaboutemancipation,isalinefrom“TheBeginningandtheEnd.”Whendiscussingthe
necessityforblackeducation,“MarchOn”echoesinthebackground.Morethanan
accompaniment,thesesongsarenarrativesofaffect,storiesof“ofanunhappypeople,of
thechildrenofdisappointment,ofdeathandsufferingandunvoicedlongingtowardatruer
world”(182).Theyaremeanttoconveywhathistoryfeltlikeanditisthesefeelingsthat
enhanceallofthenarrativesthatfollow.Ashedescribesinthefinalchapter,whichdeals
directlywiththeSorrowSongs,thebricksofJubileeHallaremorethansimplythemortar
ofabuilding,theyare“redwiththebloodofdustandtoil”and“fullofthevoicesofthe
past”(180).Whilethematerialrealitiesofthebuildingtelloflaborandtoil,itisthevoices
withinthatremindthereaderofthehumanvoicesthatlivedthroughthesehorrorsand
stillfoundwaystocommunicatetheirsubjectivitytotheworld.Theysinginthepresent,
buttheirsongsareamethodforexpandingandcontractingthescopeofhistory.AsDuBois
7InadditiontothehundredsofarticlesinwhichDubois’theoryof“double-consciousness”appears,
hiscarefuldescriptionsoftheeconomicandsocialdynamicsofraceinformcountlessworksby
scholarsacrossthehumanities.Thisincludes,butisnotlimitedto,worksbyFredMoten(2003),
HortenseSpillers(2003),NathanielMackey(1993),CedricRobinson(1983),AlexanderWeheliye
(2005),EricLott(1995),ToniMorrison(1992),BernardBell(2012),ClaudiaTate(1999),Howard
Bodenhorn(2015),andRalphEllison(1953).
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describes,theyare“thesiftingofcenturies”,orthenarrativesoffeelingthatlinkAfricanAmericanstodisparatetemporalandphysicalspaces.Often“persistentlymistakenand
misunderstood”,thesesongshavetheabilitytobothpreservetheAfrican-Americanpast
andaddressboththecontinuitiesanddiscontinuitiesthatconnectthatpasttothe
discoursesandmaterialrealitiesofthepresent.
ExtendingDuBois’argumentforapowerfulrelationshipbetween20thcentury
literarypracticeand19thcenturyAfrican-Americanhistoryanddevelopment,James
WeldonJohnsonfocusesonthechurchandoralityasaninvaluablepartofcurrentblack
aestheticpractice.Anintroductiontotheoraltraditionsofthe19thcenturythatisfollowed
byapoeticattempttoreplicatethevarioussermonsofAfrican-Americanpreachers,God’s
Trombones(1926)insistsontheimportanceoforalandauralcultureincombattingthe
racistideologiesofthepast.Althoughpresentedasa“semi-comicfigure”(2),the“old-time”
preacherfoundinthechurch“thefirstsphereinwhichraceleadershipmightdevelop”.
Ratherthanbeingsequesteredtothepast,Johnsontranslatesthesesermonsintopoemsas
awayofpreservingthislegacyofleadershipandculturaltraditioninthecommunity.
Focusedonthemethodsthesepreachersusetosparktheimaginationandtransformthe
temperamentofthecongregation,hisintroductionfocusesonthemultipleaesthetic
practicesnecessarytorevitalizethepastforthepresent.A“consciousandunconsciousart”
thatsendsthelisteners“inamomentaliveandquivering”(5),thesermonactivatesthe
pastinordertoanimatethepresent,emphasizingtheexperiencesthattieeachmemberof
thecongregationtothecollectivepastfromwhichitemerged.Ashenotes,thepreacher’s
wordswere“notprosebutpoetry”andtheintonationsofhisvoicewere“whatshallI
say?—notofanorganoratrumpet,butratherofatrombone,theinstrumentpossessing
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aboveallothersthepowertoexpressthewideandvariedrangeofemotionsencompassed
bythehumanvoice—andwithgreateramplitude”(Johnson5).Atalossforhowto
describethevarianceandmultiplicityofthepreacher’svoice,Johnsondrawsananalogy
betweenoral,musical,andliteraryforms.AlthoughJohnsonadmitshisinabilitytocapture
thesermon’sgrandeur,hisworksupportstheuseanddevelopmentofblackliteratureasa
waytobothpreservetheseformsandcreateahistoricalnarrativethattiestogetheroral,
aural,religious,andliteraryforms.8
Alsointerestedinpreservingthelegacyof19thcenturyblackaesthetictradition,
ZoraNealeHurstonturnedtowardsfolklore,dialect,anddanceasnecessarytoan
understandingofAfrican-Americanhistoriography.Writtenoverfifteenyearsapart,her
essays“CharacteristicsofNegroExpression”and“WhatWhitePublishersDon’tPrint”
documentandinterpretboththecreativeingenuityoftheAfrican-Americancommunity
andthediscoursesofthewhiteculturethathavestifledtheseexpressionsthrough
persistentimagesofstasis.Incontrasttothe“THEAMERICANMUSEUMOFUNNATURAL
HISTORY”,whichpresumes“allnon-Anglo-Saxonsareuncomplicatedstereotypes”(“White
Publishers”55),Hurston’sdiscussionsofdialect,thejookjoint,imitation,dancing,folklore,
originality,anddramachallengetheerasureofAfrican-Americancultureinbothpublic
contextsandhistoricalrecordbooks.AsHurstonnotes,“Negrofolkloreisnotathingofthe
past.Itisstillinthemaking…nothingistoooldornew,domesticorforeign,highorlow,for
hisuse”(“Characteristics”36).Nothinginthepastorpresentislosttothecreatorof
folklore,infact,itisameasureoftheircreativityhowwelltheyassembleandreassemble
8AsJohnsonassertsinhis1922prefacetoTheBookofAmericanNegroPoetry,“thefinalmeasureof
thegreatnessofallpeoplesistheamountandstandardoftheliteratureandarttheyhave
produced”(688).
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materialtocontributetotheoverallbodyoffolklorethatalreadyexists.Similarly,the
modificationoftheEnglishlanguagethroughdialectisdrivenbythedesiretooffer
multipleinterpretationsofthesameactionorevent,anddosoinsuchawaythatmakes
themimmediatelyaccessibletooneanother.Asshestates“theNegro’sgreatest
contributiontolanguageis(1)theuseofmetaphorandsimile;(2)theuseofthedouble
descriptive;(3)theuseofverbalnouns”(“Characteristics”32).Bycomparingdissimilar
objectstosuggestaresemblance,describingsimilaractionsindifferentterms,andimbuing
descriptivewordswithactivesuggestion,thespeakerquestionsthestabilityofany
discoursethatreliesonstaticinterpretationsoflanguageorsubjectivity.Timeandtime
again,inchaptersacrossthisdissertation,IexplorethewayAfrican-Americanwriters
disruptthepresumptionbywhiteaudiencesandsocietythat“everybodyknowsallabout”
(“WhitePublishers”55)African-Americanidentityandhistory.Ratherthanacceptthis,
theseauthorsdeploymusicalandmusical-oralsettingsasawaytobothruptureimagesof
historicalstasisandoffernewinterpretationsofthepresent.
RalphEllison’sessaysinShadowandAct(1963),whichwerepublishedfromthe
early1950’stothemid1960’sanddiscusstopicsfromMahaliaJacksontoCharlieParker,
RichardWright,blackcomedy,andtheartoffiction,havecometodefinemid-century
discussionsofblackaesthetics.WhilehisprologuetoInvisibleMan(1951)hasbeen
repeatedlyinvestigatedforitsdeploymentofmusicandmemory9,intheseessayshe
explorestheimportanceofmusicasamarkeroftime,orauniquespaceforthe
transmissionofpersonalandcollectivehistory:
9SeeAndrewRadford(2003);JamesBooth(2008);PaulAllenAnderson(2005);SaraWood
(2002).
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PerhapsintheswiftchangeofAmericansocietyinwhichthemeaningsof
one’soriginsaresoquicklylost,oneofthechiefvaluesoflivingwithmusic
liesinitspowertogiveusanorientationintime.Indoingso,itgives
significancetoallofthoseindefinableaspectsofexperiencewhich
neverthelesshelptomakeuswhatweare.Intheswiftwhirloftimemusicis
aconstant,remindingusofwhatwewereandofthattowardwhichwe
aspire.Artthoutroubled?Musicwillnotonlycalm,itwillennoblethee.
(198)
Whethertemporallydisparateorimmediate,musicoffersaccessto“themeaningofone’s
origins.”Describedas“constant”,musicdoesnotallowfortheobfuscationofthepast,but
encouragesaconversationbetweenone’spastandpresent.Additionally,Ellisonconsiders
howmusicnotonlyreachesbackward,butalsogesturestowardsthepossibilitiesofthe
future.Ineachofthetextsacrossthisdissertation,musicisdeployedasawayfor
charactersandcommunitiestogainan“orientationintime,”oranunderstandingoftheir
subjectivityinrelationshiptorecent,distant,andevenancientpasts.Musicdoesnotalways
replicatethepast,butinsteadoffersthelistenerandreaderarenewedformofhistorical
consciousness,orawaytosituatethemselvesinrelationtothepast,present,andfuture.
Despitetheircleardifferencesontheuseandpurposeofmusicinthestrugglefor
freedom,LeroiJones/AmiriBarakasharesEllison’sassertionthatmusichastheabilityto
document“thechangingsame”,orthoseaspectsofexperiencethatbothtieustothepast
andoffernewwaysofthinkingaboutthepresentandfuture.Inspiredbythepolyrhythmic
arrangements,fast-paced,improvisational,rebellioussentimentofbebopduringtheforties
andfifties,theBlackArtsMovementcommittedtotransformingthesesentimentsinto
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politicalaction.SimilartothemanyothertheoristsIdiscuss,Jonesviewsmusicasanactive
andactivatingforceinthetransmissionofhistory.Musicdoesnotsimplytellofthepast,it
alsomakesitheardandfeltinthepresent.AshestatesinhisgroundbreakingtextBlues
People(1963):
[Music]wasthehistoryoftheAfro-Americanpeopleastext,astale,asstory,
asexposition,narrative,orwhathaveyou,thatthemusicwasthescore,the
actuallyexpressedcreativeorchestration,reflection,ofAfro-Americanlife,
ourwords,ourlibretto,tothoseactual,livedlives.Thatthemusicwasan
orchestrated,vocalized,hummed,chanted,blown,scatted,corollary
confirmationofthehistory.Andthatonecouldgofromonetoanother…and
betalkingaboutthesamethings.Themusicwasexplainingthehistoryas
thehistorywasexplainingthemusic.Andthatbothwereexpressionsofand
reflectionsofthepeople!(ix)
Suggestingaself-reflexiverelationshipbetweenexperienceandsound,Jonesdescribes
musicasamulti-facetedandcomplexrenderingofhistoriography.Forevery“narrative”
thereisa“score”,orarecordofAfrican-Americanlifethatwouldmoreoftenthannotbe
misrepresentedormisunderstoodbywhiteaudiences.However,forJonesthesoundswere
simplyconfirmationsthatthepastwaspresentandexplicationsoftherelationship
betweenindividualandcommunityexperiencesthroughoralityandaurality.Histheory
alsoaccountsforthevastandmultifariouswaysthesenarrativeswerebothcollectedand
transmittedfrompersontoperson.Ashenotesinhisessay“TheChangingSame”,“[music]
canbeexpressiveoftheentireforce,ormakeittheoccasionforsomespecialpleading”
(187).Thisoscillationbetweentheindividualandthecommunityisparticularlyimportant
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becauseitaccountsforawidevarianceinhowauthorsnarratemusicinrelationshiptothe
past.Forsomeauthors,musicreachesdeeplyintoone’spersonalpastandonlygestures
towardssharedexperiences,whileforothers,thisprocessisinvertedthroughavastand
overarchingnarrativeofthecommunityovertime.
ContributingtotheBlackArtMovement’sdiscussionofmusicalformsasa
revolutionarypractice,StephenHenderson’sUnderstandingtheNewBlackPoetry(1972)
beginswithanearlyeighty-pagelongsectiontitled“theformsofthingsunknown.”Another
theoreticalattempttomaketheunknownknown,Henderson’stext,similartothis
investigation,createsachronologicalrecordofAfrican-Americanpoetryanditsvarious
integrationsandexplicationsofmusicalpractice.Providingexamplesthatspanfrom
PhyllisWheatleythroughthecontemporarymoment,hischronologyreflectsnotonly
enduringpatterns,butwhatheviewsasthethemesandstructureswhichbestreflectthe
“communicationofBlackness…ortheintuitedtruthoftheBlackExperienceintheUnited
States”(Henderson10).WhilewecanseemanyoftheprimaryargumentsoftheBlackArts
andBlackPowermovementsemergingwithinhiswork,hisanalysisismuchmore
concernedwith“howanyseriousappreciationorunderstandingof[blackpoetry]must
restuponadeepandsympatheticknowledgeofblackmusicandblackspeech”(Henderson
31).Includingeverythingfromchildren’ssongstosermons,folklore,fieldcries,jubilees,
spirituals,blues,jazz,thedozens,andeven“non-jazzmusicbyBlackcomposerswho
consciouslyorunconsciouslydrawupontheblackmusicaltradition”(31),thetextinsists
onmusicasvitaltoanunderstandingofblackliterarypractices.Offeringcontextforhow
aestheticpracticessuchasunderstatement,virtuosonaming,free-rhyming,hyperbolicand
metaphysicalimagery,andadaptationofsongformshavebothevolvedandmaintained
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continuitywiththepast,Henderson’sintroductionprovidesastrongmodelfortheliterary
researchandhistoriographyhip-hopsodesperatelylacks.Heisnotconcernedwiththe
immediacyofthereferent,buthowthatreferentappearsagainandagain,butwith
differentaimsandtodifferentends.
ExtendingHenderson’sworkbeyondthebordersoftheUnitedStatesandintothe
AfricanculturalpracticesthathaveinflectedAfrican-Americanaesthetic,andspecifically
oralandliteraryexpression,HenryLouisGatesJr.’sTheSignifyingMonkey(1986)extends
thegenealogyofAfrican-AmericanmusicalandoralpracticestoEastAfricaandthe
mythologiesofEsu-Elegbaraandthepracticesofsignification.Informedbytheoriesof
deconstruction,Gatestracesthepatternsofsignificationascreatinginstabilityin
language’smeanings.Transformingthislinguisticinstabilityintotheculturalpracticeof
signifyingor,inverysimpleterms,“directionthroughmisdirection”(75),Gatesarguesthat
African-Americanshaveengagedinaculturalprocessofreplicationandrevisionthat
stretchesfromAfricatothepresentday.ClaimingthatAfrican-AmericanauthorsfromToni
MorrisonandAliceWalkertoIshmaelReedareconstantlyengagedintheseoralpractices
intheirnovels,Gates’textencouragesthereadertoacknowledgetheimmediacyofpast
aestheticsinconstructionsofnarrativesinthepresent.Whilesignifyinganditsattendant
practicesofthedozenshasbeendescribedtimeandtimeagainbyscholarsasfoundational
tohip-hoppractice,nonedrawparallelsbetweenGatesdiscussionsofliteratureasasite
wherethisisstillforcefullyenactedaswell.Byignoringthisliterarytraditionandhowit
constructsaestheticsasareferentforhistoricalnarrative,hip-hophistoriographersisolate
themovementasentirelyanextensionoforalpractices,ratherthanacomplexengagement
withavarietyofgenres.
19
Inadditiontoignoringsomeoftherelationshipsbetweensignifyingandliterary
practice,manyscholarshaveoverlookedhowtechnologyandtechnologicalculturehave
alteredthetransmissionandreceptionoftheseoralpracticesacrossthe20thcentury.
Drawingrelationshipsbetweendeejaying,W.E.B.DuBois’TheSoulsofBlackFolks,Ralph
Ellison’sInvisibleMan,andthehip-hopdiaspora,AlexanderWeheliye’sPhonographies
(2005)presentsAfrican-Americanculturalexpressionasacarefullycraftedamalgamof
historicalreferencesandaesthetichistories.Ashedescribes,“The‘mix,’asitappearsin
blackculturalproductionthroughoutthetwentiethcentury,highlightstheamalgamationof
itscomponents,orrathertheprocessofthis(re)combination,asmuchasitaccentuatesthe
individualpartsfromwhichitsprings.”Toconsiderhip-hopasanamalgamationof
technological,oral,musical,andliterarycomponentsoffersanopportunitytohighlight
boththerevolutionaryaspectsofhip-hop’saestheticsanditscontinuitieswithother
African-Americanpracticesacrossthe20thcentury.Torecordone’sselfalsomeansto
createarecordofthemultipleinfluences,bothpastandpresent,thathavebeencombined
and(re)combinedtocreateasenseofmodernsubjectivity.Thisdissertationbuildsonthis
assertionbyconsideringhowtechnologiesofrecording,inconcertwithavarietyofmusical
andoralaesthetics,havetransformedblackliterarypracticeintoadistincthistoriographic
methodoftemporalcompression.
Informedbyalloftheseaesthetictheories,thisdissertationcreatesagenealogyof
20thcenturyAfrican-Americanliteraturethat,initsveryconstruction,refutesthenotionof
linearnarrativesasbeingabletoaccuratelyoruniformlyrepresentAfrican-Americans.By
implementingtheself-reflexiveaestheticsofAfrican-Americanmusicintotheirnarratives,I
arguethattextssuchasLangstonHughes’sTheWearyBlues(1926)toRichardWright’s12
20
MillionBlackVoices(1941),AnnPetry’sTheStreet(1946)and“SoloontheDrums”(1947),
SoniaSanchez’sWeaBaddDDDPeople(1971),ToniMorrison’sJazz(1992),andColson
Whitehead’sSagHarbor(2009),offeranewmodelforunderstandingslaveryandthe
Africanpast,Marxianclasstheory,genderpolitics,intersectionality,politicalcallsfor
solidarity,andtheformationofpost-soulaestheticssuchaship-hop.Intemporal
intersectionsthatstretchfromtheancientpast,throughtheannalsofAfrica,andacross
anynumberofpointsintheAfrican-Americanpast,thesetextsrevealhowdiscoursesof
capitalism,gender,race,class,politics,andaestheticsinteractacrossthetwentiethcentury.
Thedegreetowhichthesediscoursesinteractvaries,butitcouldbesaidthatallofthese
textsareacutelyawareoftheirrelationshiptothematerialrealitiesofpastandpresent.
However,amaterialistanalysiscannotaccountentirelyfortheseexpressions.Although
RichardWrightandAnnPetryoffermoredistinctlyMarxistorsocioeconomiccritiquesof
theserealities,theseconversationsreappearinthebebopofPetry’sshortstory,the
localitiesofWhitehead’snovel,andthemusicofJohnColtraneinSoniaSanchez’spoetry.
Whatthenarrationofmusicoffersisamethodforunderstandingthedistinctivenessof
eachtemporalityanditsmaterialenvironmentswithoutobscuringitfromtherecentand
distantpaststhatinformitsdevelopment.10
Itismyhopethattheseliteraryengagementswithmusicwillprovidemeaningful
casestudiesforthecontinuedexpansionanddiscussionofhip-hop’srelationshiptoits
aestheticandculturalhistories.Foritisonlywhenwebegintorecognizehip-hopasa
10TheworksofCedricRobinson(1983),AngelaDavis(1981;1998),HortenseSpillers(1987),
CornelWest(1982),SaidiyaHartman(1997),andStuartHall(1993)allhelpmeexplorehowthe
racisteconomic,social,andpoliticalenvironmentsofthe19thand20thcenturyhaveshapedAfricanAmericanliteraryandaestheticproduction.
21
literarypracticethatwecanbegintorethinkhip-hophistoriographyanditsrelationshipto
awiderangeofconstituencies.Bytakingtheliteraryseriously,hip-hopscholarscould
discussthelonghistoryofprimitivismandAfrocentrictheoryinrelationtoTheJungle
Brothers,QueenLatifah,andATribeCalledQuest.Moreworkcouldbedonetoidentify
specificrelationshipsbetweenAfrican-AmericanMarxists,materialism,andtheuseof
documentariandetailinhip-hoplyricsand/orvideos.Wholeprojectscouldbededicatedto
howblackauthors,politicians,leaders,speeches,andliterarytextsemergewithinand
shapehip-hop’sunderstandingofmodernsubjectivity.
ChapterSummaries
ThisdissertationisdividedintosixchaptersthatstretchfromLangstonHughes’poetic
volumeTheWearyBlues(1926)toColsonWhitehead’s2009novelSagHarbor.Whilefour
ofthesechaptersarefull-lengthinvestigations,chaptersthreeandfivearewhatIreferto
as“bridge”chapters.FocusedonAnnPetry’sshortstory“SoloontheDrums”(1947)and
ToniMorrison’snovelJazz(1992),theseshorterchaptersnotonlycreatebridgesbetween
timeperiods,theybothaddresstextsthatattempttowritetheirnarrativesasmusical
performances.Ratherthansimplydescribingscenesofmusicalperformanceordiscussing
musicalfigures,thesetextsshapetheirnarrativestructuresasaperformanceforthe
reader.Oftentimesmoresubtleandnuancedintheircritiquesofsocial,political,economic,
anddiscursivesystemsoutsideofperformance,thesetextsrevealtheephemeral,
subconsciouswaysperformersengagewiththeirrecentanddistantpaststocreateanew
senseofself.
22
Openingwithoneofthefirstandquintessentialinteractionsbetweenbluesform
andpoetry,chapteroneaddressesLangstonHughes’poeticvolumeTheWearyBlues
(1926).Writtenattheintersectionbetweenobservation,interpretation,andperformance,
itismycontentionthatHughes’volume(notjusthistitlepoem)situatesthebluesaesthetic
asaseriesof“movingmetaphors.”WhileFineClothestotheJew(1927)hasreceivedmore
criticalattentionandpraisebecauseifitsfocusonthereplicationbetweenformand
content,IarguethatscholarshaveoverlookedtheemphasisHughesplacedonthebluesas
asocioculturalrecordofAfrican-Americanlifeattheturnofthecentury.Anexplorationof
bothbluesformandtheartisticanddiscursivecontextsthatshapeditsperformanceand
reception,TheWearyBlues,asscholarCherylWalldescribes,“initiatesLangstonHughes’s
lifelongexplorationofHarlemassettingandofbluesasmetaphorandform”(iii).Hughes
understandingofthebluesasmetaphor,acomparisonbetweentwodissimilarobjectsto
suggestaresemblance,allowshimtoengagewiththebluesaestheticwithoutignoringthe
capacityofpoetrytooutlinetherelationshipbetweenthebluesandseeminglydisparate
discursiveandtemporalspaces.AsI.A.Richardssuggests,metaphorisnotsimplya
displacementofwords,but“fundamentally…aborrowingbetweenandintercourseof
thoughts,atransactionbetweencontexts”(94).ThelogicofthemetaphorallowsHughesto
extendbeyondthedescriptionandreplicationofthebluesandintohistoricalcomparison,
aproductive“transactionbetweencontexts.”Amethodofhistoricalanimation,Hughes’
deploymentofwhatIcall“movingmetaphors”engagesthespecificityofthebluesaesthetic
whilesimultaneouslydrawingimmediateandoftendynamiccomparisonsbetween
historicalnarrativeandcontemporarycontexts.Encompassingaseriesofconceptsthat
includesHughes’deploymentofpersona,primitivism,imagesofAfrica,andwhatJames
23
Coneidentifiesas“secularspirituality”11,thesemetaphors“move”betweenreferentsand
voicesinanattempttocritiquehistoricallyracistandreductivenarratives,aswellas
challengethedivisionsbetweensecularandspiritualformsofblackmusicalexpression.
ShiftingfromthespecificitiesoftheHarlemRenaissancetothedocumentarian
detailofAfrican-Americansocialrealisminthe1930sand1940s,mysecondchapter
addresseshowRichardWright’sphoto-textdocumentary12MillionBlackVoices(1941)
andAnnPetry’snovelTheStreet(1946)expressagrowingconcernwiththeplaceof
cultureinthestruggleforsocial,economic,andpoliticalfreedom.AddressinghowAfricanAmericans’prolongedengagementwithcapitaliststructuresandbourgeoisideologieshas
eitherfacilitatedrevolutionaryculturalformsorneuteredthemfromthesourceswhich
givethemmeaningandvalue,thesetextsdemonstratehowthealigned“aesthetic
ideologies”(Denning202)oftheinterwarperiodoftenproduceddisparateinterpretations
ofculture’srelationshiptocapitalismanditsabilitytoenactsocialchange.Speakingasthe
collective“we”oftheAfrican-Americanworkingclass,Wright’sphoto-textdocumentary
narrates350yearsofhistory,frequentlydrawingconnectionsbetweenthematerial
conditionsofthephotographsandtheideologicalremnantsofracialcapitalismdescribed
inthenarrative.Thecreativeextensionofideaspresentedinhisfamousessay“Blueprint
forNegroWriting”(1937)12,12Millionpresentsvernacular,folklore,sermons,andthe
bluesasbothatrans-historicalrecordofeverydayresistanceandagenealogicaliteration
ofcapitalism’scontradictions.AradicalassertionofMarxisthistoriographyandcultural
12WhileWrightneverexplicitlydiscussedtherelationshipbetweenthesetwotexts,readingthem
side-by-sideclearlydemonstratestherelationshipbetweenhisearlyMarxisttheoriesandthislater
workofcreativenon-fiction.
24
nationalism,thetextsuggeststhatAfrican-Americans’prolongedengagementwith
Christianityandracialcapitalism(asbothcommoditiesandworkers)resultedinthe
developmentofalatent,butrevolutionarysocialconsciousness.Farlessoptimisticabout
theabilityofculturetoassuagetheravagesofcapitalism,Petry’stextistoldfromthe
individualperspectiveofLutieJohnson,asingemotherlivingandworkinginHarlem.
Offeredlimitedopportunitiesforworkbecauseofherraceandgender,constantlyunder
thethreatofsexualassault,andentrappedbytheverymoneysheneedstoescape,Lutie
desperatelyclingstoa“promiseofprosperityandsocialmobility”(Dicksteinxxi)that
beganwithBenjaminFranklinandhaspersistedwellintothe20thcentury.Withanear
obsessiveinternaldialogueaboutmoneyandanattempttoescapethe“dirty,dark,filthy
traps”(TheStreet73)ofHarlem,Lutieoptimisticallyjumpsattheopportunitytobecomea
singerandfinallyescapethestreet.However,whensherealizesthatsingingissimply
anotherformofentrapment,allofthefantasiesandvisionsshehasofconstructingabetter
lifeforherselfandhersoncomecrashingdown.Thisinteractionwithmusicleadstoher
violentandtragicdownfallandsuggeststhatculture,whilecontainingthepossibilityfor
profoundlyexpressingthecontradictionsofcapitalism,candoverylittletofundamentally
alterthesystemitdescribes.
DistinctfromthepreviousworksIdiscuss,chapterthreeaddresseshowAnnPetry’s
shortstory“SoloontheDrums”(1947)attemptstoreplicateperformanceinprose.
FocusedentirelyononeperformanceandtheinternaldialogueofKidJonesashe
remembersthelossofhiswifetothepianoplayerearlierthatmorning,thetextrevealsthe
jazzartist’sdesiretomakeinvisibleemotionsvisibleandcommunicateastorythatdoes
notignoreone’spersonalhistory,butreanimatesittocreateanewunderstandingofthe
25
past,andconsequently,one’sself.Short,visceral,non-linear,andepisodic,Petry’snarrative
isconstructedasaproseperformancethatattemptstoreplicatethevariationsintempo,
rhythm,andmoodthatcharacterizelivejazzperformance.Unabletoentirelyduplicate
sound,Petryfocusesontheaffectofthemusic,orthe“resonancesthatcirculateabout,
between,andsometimessticktobodiesandworlds”(Seigworth14).Revealingglimpses
fromKidJones’recentanddistantpast,thistechniquecreatesacorrelativebetweensound
andmemorythatdoesnotallowthereadertodissociateKidJonesfromhisinteractions
withthebandorthosepeoplehisnarrativerecallsandreimagines.Intheoccasional,but
importantshiftsbetweentheinternalmachinationsoftheplayerandthereactionsand
perspectiveoftheaudience,PetryalsoaddresseshowKidJones’personaisshapedbythe
widerpublicaudienceandtheirrelationshipstoconsumerculture.Thistensionbetween
virtuosoperformance,ortheplayers’abilitytotellhisstory,andtheobfuscationsofthe
racedmarketplaceallowsforacommentaryontheincreasingdissonancebetweenthe
performerandtheapparatusesofcommodityculture.AlthoughKidJones’performance
emergesfrom“thesubtleandrhythmicalshapingofanidea,”theaudiencestillimagines
himasatranshistoricalsymbolofblackness,oratragicomicfiguretheyhavecreatedover
thelasttwohundredyearsandwhonowappearsbeforethemas“analienatedartistliving
inthesordidworldofjazzandurbannightlife”(Lopes1470).
Inmyfourthchapter,IaddressSoniaSanchez’spoeticvolumeWeaBaddDDDPeople
(1970),consideringhowtheBlackArtsMovementshapedlanguageintoaweaponthat
carries“performative”power,ortheabilitytotransformhistoricalreflectionintoa
calculatedphysical,emotional,political,andsocialresponse.Emphasizingacomprehensive
agendaforinterandintra-racialaffairs,thisprogramofaestheticandpoliticalactivism
26
restednotonlyuponthereclamationoflanguage,butalsoonactionfelt,seen,andheard.
Newclothes,slang,poetry,theater,visualarts,andmusiccarriedliberatorypowerand
designatedassuch,redefinedhowAfrican-Americancommunitiesmightengagecultureto
exploretheirownhistoryaswellasthedominanthistoricalnarrativesthatdistortedor
erasedthathistory.BillieHoliday,JohnColtrane,andAfricandrumsnotonlyprovide
musicalcorrelativescapableoftransformingthelanguageofMalcolmXandFranzFanon
intoavividlymulti-generationalstruggleforsocialandhumanjustice,theyalsooffer
importantsitesfordebatesabouttheefficacyofprevioushistoricalnarrativesand
aestheticsintheircurrentstrugglesforfreedom.Toestablishthecontextforthe
emergenceofSanchez’spoetry,thechapterfirstconsiderstheimportanceofhistorical
narrativeinrelationtoculturalpracticethroughanumberofpoliticalandsocialfigures.
Thisincludes,butisnotlimitedto,AmiriBaraka,LarryNeal,FranzFanon,Stokely
Carmichael,AddisonGayle,JamesT.Stewart,AlbertMurray,andSoniaSanchezherself.The
finalsectionsturnmorespecificallytoSanchez’sengagementwithmusic,presentingthe
bluesdebatesthroughthefigureofBillieHoliday,andanalyzingtheinspiringpolitical
auralityofJohnColtrane’stranscendentmusicalphilosophies.Takentogether,these
conversationsdemonstratetheabilityofAfrican-Americanmusictoreshapehowthe
actionsandaestheticsofthepresentareinformedandcatalyzedbythepast.
Afocusedeffort“toblendthatwhichiscontrivedandartificialwithimprovisation”
(“ArtofFiction”81),ToniMorrison’snovelJazz(1992)isthefocusofchapterfive.A
challengetothefamiliarconstructsofmasternarrativesthat“spokeforAfrican
descendants,orofthem”(Playing50),Morrisoncreatesamusical-linguisticperformance
thatattemptstoreconcilehercharacters’pastwiththesilencesandfragmentationsthey
27
perpetuateinthepresent.UnlikeAnnPetry,whoalsoexploreswritingliteratureasa
musicalperformancein“SoloontheDrums”,Morrisondoesnotspeakthroughtheplayer,
butinsteadviewsherselfasalinguisticcorollarytothejazzensemble.Setin1920’sHarlem
butrapidlyshiftingbetweenthepresent,recent,anddistantpast,thenoveltraceshowthe
marriageofVioletandJoeTracedigressesintoextendedsilences,affairs,actsofviolence,
andeventualreconciliation.Investedinthenotionofa“continuouspresent”(“ICome”
130),Morrison’scharactersarepresentedasdynamicandinprocess,orunabletobe
reducedtoanysingularmotivationordefinition.Whilemanyscholarshavenotedthe
fragmentation,cracks,fissures,andsilencesthatpermeatethenovel,theyoftenfallintothe
habitofinterpretingthemasirreconcilableformsof‘culturalmourning’,amountingsense
ofdouble-consciousness,oranevaluationofthelossesandmisunderstandingsthat
accompanythemovementsoftheGreatMigration.13Whilerecognizingthesefactorsare
valuabletoourunderstandingofthecharacters,Ireadthesedislocationsand
fragmentationsinconcertwithMorrison’sdeploymentofjazztechniquestodiscernthe
processbywhichfragmentationoccursandistenuouslyrecoveredthroughtheexpressive
potentialofmusic.
Combiningtheinstabilityofadolescentyouthwithreferencestofamiliarhistorical
figures,popularmusic,radio,fashions,andtrendsofthe1980’s,ColsonWhitehead’sSag
Harbor(2009)demonstratesthechangingwaysAfrican-Americanliteraturehas
incorporatedcontemporaryfacetsofhip-hopinordertorethinktheconstructionof
13SeeRubenstein,Roberta."SingingtheBlues/ReclaimingJazz:ToniMorrisonandCultural
Mourning."Mosaic:AJournalfortheInterdisciplinaryStudyofLiterature31.2(1998):147-63;
Hardack,Richard.""AMusicSeekingItsWords":Double-TimingandDoubleConsciousnessinToni
Morrison'sJazz."Callaloo18.2(1995):451-71;AnnePaquet-Deyris."ToniMorrison's'Jazz'andthe
City."AfricanAmericanReview35.2(2001):219-31. 28
individualsubjectivitiesandhistoricalnarrative.Bytellingthestoryof13year-oldBenji,
hisfriends,andtheirstruggletofindoutwhatitmeanstobe“blackboyswithbeach
houses”(72),IarguethatWhiteheadshowstheimpossibilityofcreatingastableandfixed
identityinthepost-souleraandthenecessityofincorporatingmusicalformsasawayof
rethinkingmeaningmakingwithincontemporaryblackfiction.Challenging
historiographiesofhip-hopthatfocusprimarilyonanarrativeofthesocioeconomic
conditionsinNewYorkduringthe1970’sandthetechnologicalinnovationsthattookplace
intheaftermathofthesedevelopments,Whitehead’snovelincorporatestheaestheticsof
deejayingtocontinuallylayerBenji’snarrativewithreferencesfromthepastandpresent.
Seamlesslyintegratingthelong-standinghistoricalpreceptof“double-consciousness”and
aestheticpracticessuchassignifyingandoralitywithmultiplereferencestopopular
culturethroughoutthe1980’s,hecreatesconversationsbetweencomplicatedandoften
contradictorydiscoursesthatshapehistoricalnarrativesinthehighlycommodifiedworld
ofhip-hop.ThenoveldemonstrateshowcontemporaryformulationsofAfrican-American
identityhavebecome,likeblackpopularculture,“asiteofstrategiccontestation”which
“canneverbesimplifiedorexplainedintermsofsimplebinaryoppositionsthatare
habituallyusedtomapitout:highandlow;resistanceversusincorporation;authentic
versusinauthentic;experientialversusformal;oppositionversushomogenization”(Hall
470).Whitehead’sconstructionofBenjiandhisfriends’physicalandsocioeconomic
localitiesshattersthesepreconceptions,forcingthereadertorecognizeidentitiesthat
movebetwixtandbetweenthesedichotomies.BeingAfrican-American,middle-class,and
mostlyunaffiliatedwiththescenesof“ghettolife”reproducedwithinhip-hop,Benjiandhis
friendsmustnotonlynegotiatethecurrentrepresentationsofwhatitmeanstobe
29
“authentically”black,buttheyarealsoforcedtoprocesshowintra-racialconceptsof
previoushistoricalgenerations(“Militant”,“Street”,“BootstrappingStriver”,“ProudPillar”)
willeffecttheireventualmaturation.
Acrossthese6chapters,IhopetodemonstratehowAfrican-Americanliteraturecan
contributetoamoreexpansivehistoryandtraditionofblackaestheticpracticeswithinhiphop.Thiskindofcross-referentialworkinsistsonnotonlytheabilitytoreadseveral
artisticformsatonce,butalsotoconsiderhowthosegenericinteractionschangethe
reader’sperceptionofthecharactersandcommunitiesdiscussedwithinAfrican-American
literatureacrossthetwentiethcentury.Oncehip-hopscholarsandhistoriographers
embracetheseliteraryengagementsasvaluablesitesforunderstandingtheorigins,forms,
aesthetics,andcontentofhip-hop,thehistoricalscopeanddetailapplicabletohip-hopwill
greatlyopenup.Nolongerwilltheseaesthetictraditionsbeconfinedtotheurban
environmentsofpost-modernAmerica.Theycouldthenbeconsideredbothwithinand
beyondtheseboundaries,bothmaterially,physically,emotionally,psychologically,and
historically.
30
ChapterOne
DestabilizingHistoricalStasis:LangstonHughes’TheWearyBluesandtheDeploymentof
MusicasMetaphor
“It’sthewaypeoplelookatthings,notwhattheylookat,thatneedstobechanged.”
-LangstonHughes,192614
IntitlinghisfirstvolumeofpoetryTheWearyBlues(1926),LangstonHugheswas
callingattentiontoboththepoemthatmadehimfamousandthemusicalaestheticsthat
influencedmuchofhiscareermovingforward.While“TheWearyBlues”,asanindividual
poem,hascometorepresentoneofthefirstandquintessentialinteractionsbetweenblues
formandpoetryinAmerica,thevolumeisrarelydiscussedasawholeandisfrequently
positionedasatextofsecondaryimportancetohis1927volumeFineClothestotheJew.
Concernedwiththeexactreplicationbetweenformandcontent,scholarssuchasArnold
RampersadandDavidChinitzundervaluetheimportanceHughesplacedonthebluesasa
socioculturalrecordofAfrican-Americanlifeattheturnofthecentury.15Anexplorationof
bothbluesformandtheartisticanddiscursivecontextsthatshapeditsperformanceand
reception,TheWearyBlues,asscholarCherylWalldescribes,“initiatesLangstonHughes’s
14InresponsetosevenquestionsinTheCrisiscirculatedtowritersandentitled“TheNegroinArt:
HowShallHeBePortrayed?”,thissimplestatementseemstobeindirectresponsetoquestionsthat
reflectedTalentedTenthaims,inparticularquestionsabout“thecontinualportrayalofthesordid,
foolish,andcriminalamongNegroes”and“thepopulartrendinportrayingNegrocharacterinthe
underworld”(1).
15AsArnoldRampersad(1986)arguesinhisanalysisofTheWearyBlues,“theconventionallyrics
aboutnatureandloneliness,orpoemsinwhichtheexperienceofthecommonblackfolkisframed
byconventionalpoeticlanguage”donotaccuratelyreflectbluescultureoraesthetics.Heevengoes
sofarastosay“thebluesarenotpresent—despitethesonoroustitle.”(149)DavidChinitz(2013)
takesaslightlydifferentapproachbypraisingHughesuseofpersonainFineClothesand
overlookingitsimportanceinTheWearyBlues.Ashenotes,FineClothes“useofpersonaallows
[Hughes]totakethenextstepbeyond‘TheWearyBlues’andbeginwritingbluesinsteadofwriting
aboutblues…”(hisitalics44).
31
lifelongexplorationofHarlemassettingandofbluesasmetaphorandform”(iii).Hughes’
understandingofthebluesasavehicleforcreatingcomparisonsbetweentwodissimilar
objectstosuggestaresemblanceallowshimtoengagewiththebluesaestheticwithout
ignoringthecapacityofpoetrytooutlinetherelationshipbetweenthebluesandseemingly
disparatediscursiveandtemporalspaces.Writtenatthejunctionbetweenobservation,
interpretation,andperformance,Hughesvolume(notsimplyitstitlepoem)remindsthe
reader,asI.A.Richardssuggests,thatmetaphorisnotsimplyadisplacementofwords,but
“fundamentally…aborrowingbetweenandintercourseofthoughts,atransactionbetween
contexts”(94).ThelogicofthemetaphorallowsHughestoextendbeyondthedescription
andreplicationofthebluesandintohistoricalcomparison,oraproductive“transaction
betweencontexts.”Amethodofhistoricalanimation,HughesdeploymentofwhatIcall
“movingmetaphors”engagesthespecificityofthebluesaestheticwhilesimultaneously
drawingimmediateandoftendynamiccomparisonsbetweenhistoricalnarrativeand
contemporarycontexts.Describedinthischapterthroughpersona,primitivism,imagesof
Africa,andwhatJamesConeidentifiesas“secularspirituality”16,thesemetaphors“move”
betweenreferentsandvoicesinanattempttocritiquehistoricallyracistandreductive
narratives,aswellaschallengethedivisionsbetweensecularandspiritualformsofblack
musicalexpression.
Oscillatingbetweenspeakingashimself,anaudiencemember,adancer,a
performer,apoet,andamemberoftheHarlemRenaissancecommunitywhoresidesatthe
crossroadsofcontemporaryrepresentation,Hughespoeticpersonaisthemostprevalent
movingmetaphorwithinthevolume.DeeplyinspiredbyWaltWhitman,Hughessoughtto
32
createapoetrythatwasundeniablyAmerican,democratic,freedfromconventionalforms,
andsuccinctinitsrepresentationofAfrican-Americanvoicesthatweretransformativein
thecreationofthenationasheunderstoodit.17Thevarianceinhispoeticpersonaaccounts
formultipleandsometimescontradictorysubjectivities,challengingthecompulsionto
definetheblues,oranyculturalexpression,inabsoluteterms.AsStephenTracynotes,the
bluescanbedescribedinanynumberofways:
Somesayallbluesaresad.Othersclaimthattheyarehappy.Thisonesays
theyarepolitical;thatone,apolitical.Theblues,itissaid,areapersonal
expression.No,comesthereply,theyexpressthevaluesofthegroup.
Dramaticdialogues.Self-catharsis.Audiencecatharsis.Dancemusic.Devil
Music.Truth.Thetruthis,thebluescanbeallofthesethings.(75,hisitalics)
ThetruthisthatnearlyallofthesecomponentsappearwithinHughesvolumeatsome
pointoranother.Acombinationofsemi-autobiographicalpoems,subjectivethirdperson
utterances,imagisticfragments,andseveralinstancesthatinvokeacommunal,
Whitmanesque“I”,thepoeticpersonaofTheWearyBluesconnectstheindividualtothe
communityandthespokenintricaciesofthebluestotheunspokennarrativesthat
inflecteditsreception.WhileHughesoftenspeaksasanobserverofthebluesorfromthe
perspectiveofthepoet,hisdeploymentofmultiple,unnamedpersonascapturesthe
individualcreativityandimprovisationofbluesculturewhilechallengingtheperceived
17ArnoldRampersad’sbiographyofHughesfoundthatinhisearlypoeticcareer,WaltWhitman
andCarlSandburgbecamehismajorpoeticinfluences;“AndinapprenticinghimselftoWhitman
andSandburg,hefreedhimselffromthemostconventionalkindsofimitation,especially
sentimentalAnglophilia;hejoinedarivaltraditiongroundedinapassionfornative,democratic
themesandflexibleforms,especiallyfreeverse.”(29)
33
simplicityofthoseaestheticsandthepeoplewhoperformthem.Actsofhistorical
reclamationandtemporalcompression,Hughes’personasreachbeyondthespecificityof
theindividualintogesturestowardsthecollectiveexperiencesofthecommunity.These
comparisonsdemonstratethecontinuitiesbetweenAfrican-Americanhistorical
experiencesandreclaimthebluesasbothadistinctlymodern,buthistoricallyrootedform
ofculturalaesthetics.
Furtherelaboratingonhisfeelingthatthebluesarearecordofcontinuityand
change,Hughesvolumedemonstratesthatbluesaestheticcannotsimplybecharacterized
bytheGreatMigrationandtheshiftfromruraltourban,orspiritualtosecular.With
discussionsofsex,sexuality,domesticviolence,extramaritalaffairs,andthetransienceof
mostadultrelationships(amongstmanyothertopics),thebluesbecameyetanotherway
torationalizetheracedandgenderedstereotypesthatcharacterizedthe19thcenturyand
werefoundationaltotheimplementationofJimCrowpolitics.18Challengingthoseboth
withinandoutsidetheAfrican-Americancommunitywhoviewedthebluesasthesecular
andsin-ladeninheritorofthespirituals,thevolumetroublesthedivisionsbetweenthe
physicalandmetaphysical,thespiritandthebody.Ratherthanadesireforescapeinthe
afterlife,themovementofbluesdancersandthegrowls,scats,andwailsofblues
performersreflectboththe“mistywanderingsandhiddenways”(182)ofthespirituals
andanewsenseofsecularself-worth.Reclaimingablackspiritualitythatliesbeyondthe
physicalandpsychologicallegaciesofAmericanslaveryandtheconfinementsof
contemporarydiscourse,thevolumerepresentsthebluesasareiterationand
18SeeAngelaDavis,BluesLegaciesandBlackFeminism(1998),pgs.3-12formoreinformationon
therelationshipbetweenthespiritualsandtheblues.
34
reimaginationofBiblicalnarrativeandancientfemaleicons.Bycomparingjazzplayersto
theexileofJewsinBabyloniaandblackfemaledancerstothehistoriographiesofEveand
Cleopatra,Hughestransformssitesofapparenttransgressionintopowerfulforumsforthe
expressionofAfrican-Americansubjectivity.Theseunlikelyandhighlycomplexpairings
constituteHughessecondmajor“movingmetaphor”,andthroughtheirsimultaneous
presentation,forceareconsiderationofancientnarrativeanditsrelationshiptomodern
identityformation.
Considered“low”culture,orsomethingmadeforthemasses,butultimately
disengagedfromrepresentationsofmiddle-classrespectabilityandwhite,westernforms
ofaesthetics,thebluesbecameaverypublicandpopularmediumfortheprojectionof
whitefantasiesandtheexplorationofwhitefears.19WithperceptionsofAfricaas‘theDark
Continent’permeatingbothEuropeanandAmericanculturethroughoutthenineteenthand
earlytwentiethcentury,accountsofAfricasupportedtheassumptionthatAfricans,andby
extension,African-Americansweresubhumanandlackinginsocialorganization,
civilization,andself-control.20Definedbypublicimaginationratherthanactualconditions,
African-Americansbecameaneasilydigestible“other”,apopulationwhosehistoryand
historicalnarrativeswerestifledbythediscursive‘darkness’ofAfrica,dichotomous
representationsofEgypt,andhomogenizedbeliefsaboutthe‘loose’or‘lacking’moralsof
blackcommunities.ThroughtheinversionofAfrica’s“darkness”andfrequent
juxtapositionsofthemodernandtheprimitive,Hughesnotonlyexploreshowprimitivism
isasignofmodernity,butsuggeststhatthemoderninventedtheprimitive.
19SeeLeroiJones’BluesPeople(2002),pgs.50-93;
20SeeMichaelMcCarthy(1983),pgs.125-150formoreinformationontheperceptionsofAfricaby
Americans.
35
Metaphoricallyshroudedindarknessandsensationalizedinthepublicimagination,
theriseofEgyptomaniaonlyfurtherhomogenizedrepresentationsofAfrican-Americans
andblackpeoplesglobally.AswhiteAmericansembracedEgyptas“asignofancientand
modern,religiousandsecular,properandshocking,oppressionandresistance,civilized
andsavage,blackandwhite”(Trafton5),African-Americanculturalexpressionsbecame
associatedwith‘primitive’impulsethatcategorizedreligiousandculturalexpressionasthe
extensionofanunchangedandunderdevelopedpopulace.Fruitfullycomingledthroughout
thevolume,thesefinaltwo“movingmetaphors”alsohelpilluminaterelationshipsbetween
thecentersofbluesculture(wherethevolumebegins)andthetravelstoAfricaandEurope
describedinlatersections.
Aconduitfortheanimationofthesemetaphors,TheWearyBluesnotonlydefine
historythroughanAfrican-Americanperspective,butalsoharnessesthebluesaestheticto
engagewiththedamaginghistoricalcontinuitiesbetweendiscursiveandtemporal
environments.Attimesdirectlyrelatedtoitsaestheticsandatothersarepresentationof
African-Americanlifeattheturnofthetwentiethcentury,thebluesoffersmultiplesitesof
historicalreclamationandtemporalcompression.Thischapterwillfirstevaluatethe
“Proem”,orthepreambletothevolume,asbothanintroductiontothemovingmetaphors
thatwillfollowandaformulationofhistoricalstasisthatHughesintendstoshatterthrough
bluesformandaesthetics.Thiswillbefollowedbyanevaluationofpoemsthat
immediatelyaddressbluesmusicandcabarets,andcompletedwithananalysisofHughes’
travelpoemsandtheirrelationshiptothediscursivecontextsthatshapedblues
performanceandreception.
“Proem”andtheIntroductionofPersona,Primitivism,andSecularSpirituality
36
BeforeCarlVanVechtenoffershisbriefbiographyofLangstonHughes’lifeandhis
assertionthatthevolume’spoemshave“ahighlydeceptiveairofspontaneous
improvisation”(TheWearyBlues13),Hughescarefullyplacedthe“Proem”,orpoetic
preamble.This“Proem”,freefromtheinfluenceofVanVechten’sglowingintroductionand
isolatedfromthepoemsthatfollow,isoneofthemostformallystructuredpoemsofthe
volumeandcouldbesaidtocontainreductive,althoughlaudatory,representationsof
AfricansandAfrican-Americans.Itismyassertionthatthis“Proem”orprefacetothe
volumeismeanttointroducethediscursiveandaestheticcontextsHughesisentering,and
hisintenttoreinventthemthroughthecreativityandimprovisationofthebluesculture
thatfollows.ItisherethatHughesintroduceshisthreemajormetaphors,thelimitations
theycontendwithandthepossibilitiestheycontain.The“Proem”readsasfollows:
IamaNegro:
Blackasthenightisblack,
BlacklikethedepthsofmyAfrica.
I’vebeenaslave:
Caesartoldmetokeephisdoor-stepsclean.
IbrushedthebootsofWashington.
I’vebeenaworker:
Undermyhandthepyramidsarose.
ImademortarfortheWoolworthBuilding.
I’vebeenasinger:
AllthewayfromAfricatoGeorgia
Icarriedmysorrowsongs.
Imaderagtime.
I’vebeenavictim:
TheBelgianscutoffmyhandsintheCongo.
TheylynchmenowinTexas.
IamaNegro:
Blackasthenightisblack,
BlacklikethedepthsofmyAfrica.(TheWearyBlues13)
37
Bybreakingdowneachstanza,wecanbegintodiscernthemetaphorsthatwilldrivethe
volumeandhowHughesintendsonmanipulatingthesetoshattertheperceivedstasisthat
surroundseachstatementofidentityandhistoricalcompression.Beginningthefirstand
laststanzawithanaffirmationofexistenceandasimple,butpowerfulstatementof
identity,Hughesintroducesthepotentialspeakersthereaderwillencounterthroughout
thevolumeandaffirmsthemetaphoricdarknesssurroundingAfricansandAfricanAmericans.Althoughthelasttwolinesofthestanzareadassuccessivesimiles,“Blackas
thenightisblack,/BlacklikethedepthsofmyAfrica.”,Hughesdeploymentofthesecond
similedemandstobereadmetaphorically.AslinguisticscholarsRobynCarstonand
CatherineWearingnote,“inthemetaphorcase,theimplicationsarelogicallyimpliedbythe
adhocconcept,whileinthesimilecasetheyarederivedbyaprocessofconsidering
encyclopaedicassumptions”(297).Inotherwords,ontheprocessualandpsychological
level,similesinvokeliteralassociations,whilemetaphorsinvokecategoricalorconcept
drivenassociations.Hughesfirststatement,“Blackasthenightisblack”,referstoavisual
andliteralreferent,hisskinisdark.Thesecondstatement,althoughmimickingthe
structureofthesimileabove,isnotliteral,itinfactrequiresametaphoriccomparison;his
skinisnotdarkasAfrica,itisperceivedtobeasdarkandmisunderstoodastheplaceto
whichherefers.Takentogether,Hughesspeaksofapeopleunknown,oraplaceperceived
tobebereftoflightwhenithasyettobeexposedasafalseandstultifyingformof
metaphoricdiscourse.Thebluesaesthetic,asapowerfulvoicewithintheAfricanAmericancommunity,exposesthisproverbialdarknesstothelightofblackexperience
nationallyandinternationally.Presumptionsofstasisareconvertedintodynamic
38
dichotomies,remindersthattheblues“unitesjoyandsorrow,theloveandthehate,the
hopeanddespairofblackpeople;anditmovesthepeopletowardsadirectionoftotal
liberation”(Cone5).
EvenHughes’openingstatementofidentityanditsrepetitionsof“I’ve”throughout
therestofthepoemplaysdownthecomplexityeachstatementcarries.Whenhesays,“I
amaNegro”heisnotsimplyreferringtohimself,buttopeopleofcolorinawidevarietyof
temporalandspatiallocations.ItisherethatWhitman’sinfluenceonHughesisclearly
discernable.AsHughesdiscussesinhisintroductiontoIHearthePeopleSinging:Selected
PoemsofWaltWhitman:
Oneofthegreatest“I”poetsofalltime,Whitman’s“I”isnotthe“I”ofthe
introspectiveversifierswhoalwayswriteonlyaboutthemselves.Ratheritis
thecosmic“I”ofallpeopleswhoseekfreedom,decency,anddignity,
friendshipandequalitybetweenindividualsandracesallovertheworld…the
Whitmanspiralisupwardandoutwardtowardsafreer,betterlifeforall,not
narrowingdownwardtowarddeathanddestruction.(3)
Inthe“Proem”,Hughescollective“I”signalsthebluesaesthetic,inparticularthe
exhortationoftheindividualvoiceandhowitsuccessfullyorunsuccessfullyevokesthe
collectiveconsciousness,histories,orexperiencesofitsaudience.LikeWhitman,Hughes
poemsmove“outwardtowardafreer,betterlifeforall”,connectinghisaudiencetothose
heencounters,thoseheimaginesencountering,andthosehistoricalnarrativesthatimpact
howAfrican-Americansunderstandtheirpastinthepresent.Hispersona-basedblues
aesthetictransformshistoricalnarrative,liketheexperiencesofthesinger,intoa
vacillationbetweentheindividualandcollective,thephysicalandthepsychic,thesecular
39
andthespiritual.Nocategorizationiswithoutcomplexityandinherentcontradiction.
Definingandredefiningone’shistoryisaformoffreedom,oratleastanincessantcallfor
thereconsiderationofAfrican-Americansrelationshiptoculture,religion,aesthetics,and
identity.
Challengingtheperceptionthatpeopleofcolorweresimplypassiverecipientsof
historyratherthanactiveagentsinitsdevelopment,thecentralstanzasofthepoem
discusshowthe“slave”,“worker”,“singer”,and“victim”ofracistviolence,contributedto
thecreationofcultureandindustryfromAfricatoAmerica.Inadditiontoforeshadowing
thenumberofsubjectshewillencounterorspeakforthroughoutTheWearyBlues,these
stanzasalsogesturetowardsthetemporalandspatialscopeoftheworkthatfollows.Each
stanzapresentsseeminglyunrelatedstagesofhistoricaldevelopmentandprovides
present-dayparallelsthatchallengetheerasureofblackvoicesfromtheannalsofhistory.
Ratherthanindulgerepresentationsthatsilenceorcreatediscursivestasisaroundpeople
ofcolor,Hughesisselectiveaboutwhathistoriceventsandreferentshedeploys
throughoutthevolume.Insteadoffocusingonthephysicalandpsychologicaltraumasof
slavery,heremindsthereaderthat“Caesartoldmetokeephisdoor-stepsclean./Ibrushed
thebootsofWashington.”PresentatthedawnofWesterncivilizationandthefoundingof
thenation,twoeventsthatwouldnotbepossiblewithouttheslave,thisimagetoucheson
bothphysicallaborandpsychologicalspecterofslaverythatmadenotionsof‘civilization’
and‘freedom’possible.21AsToniMorrisondiscussesinherexplorationofraceand
nineteenthcenturyAmericanculture,anon-whiteor“Africanist”presenceoffers“botha
waytotalkingaboutandpolicingmattersofclass,sexuallicense,andrepression”andan
21SeeCedricRobinson(1983),SaidiyaHartman(1997),andBalibarandWallerstein(1991).
40
opportunity“toinscribeanderase,toescapeandengage…tohistoricizeandrender
timeless”(7).Tojustifyslavery,whitewesterncivilizationcreatedaneasilydigestible
other,afigureofprimitivismthatsatisfiedthepublicdesireforbinaryrepresentationsof
race,gender,andculture(e.g.white/black,good/evil,pure/sullied,spiritual/secular,
Rome/Egypt).Toavoidthisdamagingbifurcation,HughesandmanyotherHarlem
Renaissancewriterseithereschewedslavery,orwereverycarefulaboutwhat
representationstheyendorsed.Laterinthevolume,HughesenactsareversaloftheGreat
MigrationandtheMiddlePassagethatpresentsmodernblackidentityasundoubtedly
attachedto,butnottragicallybeholdentoslavery.
ForHughes,thelargerconcernwashowmodernnotionsoftheprimitivebothbuilt
uponstereotypicalnineteenthcenturyperceptionsofAfrican-Americansanddamaged
popularperceptionsoftheblues.Forsomewithinthecommunity,W.E.B.DuBoisincluded,
therewasafeelingthatthebluesweresimplyafurtherrepresentationof“thesordid,
foolish,andcriminalamongNegroes”(TheCrisis).OutsideoftheAfrican-American
community,theseperceptionstookonevenmoreperniciousforms;bluessingers,as
conduitsforprimitivistimpulsesbecamereflectionsof“ouruntamedselves,ourid
forces—libidinous,irrational,violent,dangerous.Primitivesaremystic…Primitivesare
free…Primitivesexistatthe‘lowestculturallevels’;‘weoccupythehighest’”(8).Anatural
channelforthecontinuedexplicationofracistdiscourses,theblueswereviewedas
somehowseparatefrom‘respectable’formsofsocietyandhistory.
ThesenotionsoftheprimitivewerealsoexacerbatedbytheriseofEgyptomaniain
Americaduringtheearlytwentiethcentury.Inthisshiftfrombeing“aslave”to“aworker”,
Hughesinvokesimageryofthepyramidsanddirectlyassociatesthemwiththegreat
41
wondersoftheancientandmodernworld;“Undermyhandsthepyramidsarose./Imade
mortarfortheWoolworthbuilding.”TheWoolworthbuildingandtherapidexpanseof
Americanurbanlocalesthroughoutthetwentiethcenturysimplyrepresentedfurther
attemptstodissociateblacknessfromtheexpansionofcivilizationandthehistoryofthe
nation,bothpastandpresent.Withnotionsofprimitivismfirmlyentrenchedinpublic
discourseandEgyptfadingasasignofnationalidentity,thepermutationofEgyptian
images,figures,films,jewelry,andhieroglyphicsbecameanimportantsiteforthe
reclamationofAfrican-Americanidentity22.Whatwasaformofentertainmentforwhite
audiencesbecameapowerfulrepresentationofahistorydeniedbywhitesociety.As
ArthurSchomburgnotedinhisargumentforthecontinuedcollectionofAfricanand
African-Americanhistory,“thebigotryofcivilizationwhichisthetaprootofintellectual
prejudicebeginsfarbackandmustbecorrectedatitssource…TheNegrohasbeenaman
withoutahistorybecausehehasbeenconsideredamanwithoutaworthyculture”(237).
Egyptbecomesasiteoffurtherappropriationandimposedexile,aplacethatparallelsthe
stateofmoderncultureanditscontinuedattemptstoeraseAfrican-Americans
contributionstoitsdevelopment.
Combinedwithhisprevailinginterestinthegenealogiesandculturalimplicationsof
Egypt,theseimaginativeinterpretationsoftheplayers,dancers,andpatronsofHarlem
presentavisionofthesecularandspiritualasmuchmorecloselyalignedthanpreviously
presented.ThisismostclearlydemonstratedinhislateriterationsofEveandCleopatrain
whichheblursthedistinctionbetweenthespiritualandthesecularinanattempttocreate
22AdoptedbyAmericansthroughoutthenineteenthcentury,“theimageofEgypthadbeen
deliberatelyco-optedtoexpressnationalandimperialpower,wealth,wisdom,andtechnological
superiority…Egyptwastherootofallhumanprogress”(Giguere6).
42
aself-reflexiveandinvaluablerecordofAfricanandAfrican-Americanculturalhistory.
Onceagainatransnationalgesture,Hughesstates,“AllthewayfromAfricatoGeorgia/I
carriedmysorrowsongs./Imaderagtime.”Ahistoricalprogressionthatoccurredover
nearlytwohundredyearsandiscompressedintotwoshortstanzas,thesemusicalforms,
asseveralscholarshavenoted,reflectedthechangingstateofAfrican-Americanlife
throughoutthenineteenthandtwentiethcenturies.Blackaestheticswerenotlost,but
transformed,“carried”from“AfricatoGeorgia”,andintourbanlocalesacrossthecountry.
Hughesisdeterminedtodemonstratethatprogression,tomakeitapparentthatthe
transcendenceofthespiritualswasnotlost,butsimplymodifiedtoreflectamodern
sensibilityandidentity.Therefore,thesecularandspiritualcomplexitiesoflifearenot
dissociated,butrecognizedfortheirrepresentationaldependenceononeanother.Figures
ofEveandCleopatraarebroughtintoconversationwithoneanotherandassociations
betweentheriversofBabylonandthejazzcabarettakeonnewsignificance.The
sensibilitiesofthedancers,thejazzplayers,theaudiencemembers,andthemusic
challengeclassicinterpretationsoftheBibleandnotionsofspiritualityasitemergesin
culturalexpressionandpopulardiscourse.
However,noneoftheserevelationsarewhollyapparentuntilHughestakesupthese
topicsandtransformsthemthroughthebluesnexus.Whilehisfinalacknowledgmentisof
thatas“avictim/TheBelgianscutoffmyhandsintheCongo./Theylynchmenowin
Texas”,thewholevolumeworkstocomplicatetherealitiesofeverysubjectposition
presentedinthe“Proem.”EchoingtheHarlemRenaissance’sattemptstorethinkAfricanAmericansubjectivitythroughtheprojectionandpromotionoftheNewNegro,TheWeary
Bluesfocusesonacommunitynolongerwillingtoacceptproscriptionsfromtheoutside,
43
butwhowilldefinethemselvesandtheirhistoriesontheirownterms.Thisprocessof
reidentificationemerges,asNathanielMackeydescribesinhisarticle“Other:FromNounto
Verb,”attheintersectionbetweenartisticandsocialothering.While“artisticotheringhas
todowithinnovation,invention,andchange,uponwhichculturalhealthdependonthrive”,
socialothering“hastodowithpower,exclusion,andprivilege,thecentralizingofanorm
againstwhichothernessismeasured,metedout,marginalized”(52).TorobAfricanAmericansoftheirinnovativeandinventivecapacitiesthroughappropriation,
containment,financialexploitation,andthedenialofagencytransformsanunderstanding
ofAfrican-Americanculturefrom“verbtonoun”(52).Yet,African-Americanculture,
despitebeingsterilized,orpresentedassomehowlessinventiveorlessdynamic,has
continuedtoproduceartistswhoreacttimeandtimeagainwiththeverbprinciple,orthe
activeandactivatingforcethatreflectsblackcreativity.AsMackeynotes,“thedismantling
oftheunifiedsubjectfoundinrecentcriticaltheoryisoldnewswhenitcomestomusic”
(60).Inventionandreinvention,expressionbothwithinandbeyondtheconfinesoftheself
andtheform,arethefoundationofblackaestheticpractice.Throughtheintersection
betweenpoetryandblues,Hughesexposesnewgenericparadigms,newmethodsof
writingexperienceinwayswellknowntoAfrican-Americanmusiciansandorators.As
Mackeynotes:
…blackwriterstendtobereadracially,primarilyatthecontentlevel,the
nounlevel,asrespondingtoracism,representingthe‘blackexperience.’That
blackwritershavebeenexperimentallyandinnovativelyengagedwiththe
medium,addressingissuesofformaswellasissuesofcontent,tendstobe
ignored.Theabilitytoimpactuponandtoinfluencetheformofthemedium,
44
tomovethemedium,entailsanorderofanimacygrantedonlytowhites
whenitcomestowriting.(Mackey68)
Throughformandcontent,Hughes’activatesagencyforhimselfandhismultifarious
speakers.Hebreaksthestasis,therestrictedsubjectivityofthepastandopensituptothe
creativityofthepresent,totheworldofthemodernindividual.The“Proem”presentshis
theoriesofhistoricalcompressionandtemporalassociation,butultimatelyfallsintoa
standardizedandstaticrepresentationofculture.Icontendthathedoesthisintentionally,
thathesetshisaudienceupwithastraightforwardrelationofhistory,onlytothenbegin
improvising,reimagining,reclaiming,andreinventingthegenreheworkswithinandthe
culturehediscusses.Ratherthandemonizinghissubjectsorperpetuatingstiflingsocial
perceptions,HughesvolumeoffersendlessinterpretationsoftheAfrican-Americansubject,
theirrelationshiptothepast,andtheirrapidtransitionintoAmericanmodernity.Theblues
werenotstaticrepresentations,butvesselsforencodedcontent,awayofunderstanding
thegenre“asitreferstoanumberofdifferententities—anemotion,atechnique,amusical
form,andasonglyric”(Tracy59).AsW.C.Handynotesinhis1926anthologyoftheblues
“SuchtitlesasTheWearyBluesandWorriedBlueswereprobablymerelygeneric…forby
thattime…theblueswereessentiallyamold—filled,emptiedandreplenished,soeasytofill
thatlittletroublewastakenfillingit.Itremainedforonemusiciantotakeitup,toattempt
toputintoitsomethingoflastingvalue”(20).EverypoeminthevolumeisHughes’
individualexplorationoftheconcept,hisattempttotakeupthemajordiscursiveand
aestheticexpressionoftheperiodand,throughtheuseofpoetry,“putintoitsomethingof
lastingvalue.”
45
“TheWearyBlues”,HarlemCabarets,andtheDeconstructionoftheAncientPast
Whilethevolume’stitlegesturestowardsthebluesasametaphorforAfrican-Americanlife
attheturnofthecentury,thetitlepoemushersthereaderintotheindividualspacesand
soundsthatconstitutethebluesaesthetic.BasedonawidelyknowntunethatHughesfirst
heardwhilelivinginKansaswithhisgrandmother23,“TheWearyBlues”offersa
revolutionaryinterpretationoftherelationshipbetweenthebluesaestheticandpoetry.As
scholarStevenTracyhasdiscussed,thetechnicalmasteryofthepoem,theinfluenceof
eightandtwelve-barsblues,andthedeploymentoforalresourcesforgenrespecificityis
simplyastonishing24.Yet,Hughesability“tomovethemedium”(68),asNathanielMackey
describes,emergesfrombothfromhistechnicalmanipulationofformandhisabilityto
offeranotherperspectiveonhiscontent.Hughespersona-basedenactmentofthisblues
sceneestablisheshowthevacillationbetweendescriptionsofspace,thereplicationof
lyrics,andtheobservationsoftheunidentifiednarratorallcontributetoreimaginingof
bluescontentanditsrelationshiptoanumberofphysicalandpsychologicalenvironments.
Inparticular,theearlystanzasaremotivatedbythemoodandcadenceofthesingeraswell
asthespaceinwhichheperforms:
Droningadrowsysyncopatedtune,
Rockingbackandforthtoamellowcroon,
IheardaNegroplay.
DownonLenoxAvenuetheothernight
Bythedullpallorofanoldgaslight
Hedidalazysway….
23SeeArnoldRampersad’s,TheLifeofLangstonHughes(1986),pgs.15-18formoreinformationon
Hughesyouthandthepowerfulintersectionsbetweenthebluesandspiritualityhedrewuponfor
inspirationlater.
24SeeStephenTracy’s“TotheTuneofThoseWearyBlues:TheInfluenceofBluesTraditionin
LangstonHughes’sBluesPoems”(1993)forthesedetailedreadings.
46
Hedidalazysway….
Tothetuneo’thoseWearyBlues.(23)
Hughesknowsthereadermaybefamiliarwiththetune,butperhapsunfamiliarwiththe
spacesitemergesfromorthesubtlewaysitemotionallyengagestheaudience.The“dull
palloroftheoldgaslight”andtheeasymovementofthemanheobservestouchontwo
aspectsofbluesperformancethatcannotbecommunicatedthroughlyricsalone:physical
spaceandemotionalattitude.Theexpansionandcontractionofthelinescapturethe
cadenceofthesong,freeingthenarratortodiscusstherelationshipbetweentheperformer
andtheindividual.Thisdeploymentoftechnicalskilltomakespaceforthecommentaryof
thepoeticpersonaisfoundationaltoTheWearyBlues;itallowsHughestofreelyexplore
thespaceoftheclubanditsrelationshiptodiscoursesbothwithinandoutsideitsbounds.
Thenarratorisnotsimplyobservingthesinger,butcommentingonthesingerandthe
narrator’sreactionstothemusic:
Withhisebonyhandsoneachivorykey
Hemadethatpoorpianomoanwithmelody.
OBlues!
Swayingtoandfroonhisricketystool
Heplayedthatsadraggytunelikeamusicalfool.
SweetBlues!
Comingfromablackman’ssoul.
OBlues!(Hughes23)
Theselinesmaintainthevisualdetailandpoeticmelodyoftheearlysections,butnowshift
towardsthenarrator’sreactionstothesoundsofthepianoandtheinspiredmovementof
theperformer.Thevoicethatdrivesthepoemisnecessarilyunidentifiedand
unidentifiable;itcouldrepresentamomentofinspiredreactionorjustaseasilybereadas
“theexperienceofapoethearingabluessingerandunderstandingatbottomwhatthey
mean”(Tracy85).Vacillatingbetweenhappinessandsadness,betweentheloveforthe
47
musicandtheexperiencesthattransforma“sadraggytune”intothereflectionof“ablack
man’ssoul”,thenarrator’sintermittentexhortationsof“OBlues!...SweetBlues!...OBlues!”
speakstotheparadoxesofAfrican-Americanlifeatthattime.ThisreflectsHughesdesireto
notonlypresentthebluestohisaudience,buttocreativelydescribetheirrelationshipto
thesocial,political,economic,andculturalexperiencesfromwhichtheyemerge.Itisonly
afterthiscontextisestablishedthatHughesintegratestheunimpededvoiceofthesinger:
“IgottheWearyBlues
AndIcan’tbesatisfied.
GottheWearyBlues
Andcan’tbesatisfied—
Iain’thappynomo’
AndwishthatIhaddied.”(23)
Hissongisarepetitionofpastexperiences,anobservationonthepresent,andalongingfor
afutureinwhichheisfreefromhisblues.Havingrealizedthathismomentsofjoywere
temporaryandfleeting,thesingerdescribesthetroubleshemustcarryintheirabsence.
Althoughhementionsthereleaseofdeath,his“wish”isonlyalongingforhappiness,a
desiretobesatisfiedinthislifeand,ashesaysastanzaearlier,“putmatroublesonthe
shelf.”However,asthenarratordescribes,thebluessingercarriestheseemotionsfar
beyondthestage.Hisexperiencescatalyzehisperformance,buttheyalsofollowhimlong
afterthesongiscomplete.AsHugheswrites:
Andfarintothenighthecroonedthattune.
Thestarswentoutandsodidthemoon.
Thesingerstoppedplayingandwenttobed
WhiletheWearyBluesechoedthroughhishead.
Hesleptlikearockoramanthat’sdead.(24)
Thesinger’sbluesfollowhimbeyondtheconfinesoftheLenoxAvenuebar,intohishome,
andevenintohissleep.Itisnotjustthelyrics,buttheremembranceoftheiroriginsthat
echooverandoveragaininhishead.Thememoriesandthebluessongthatcapturestheir
48
emotiondonotstop“playing”untilhegoestobed,andeventhem,thereisnoindication
thebluesareeradicatedfromhispsyche.Thesingereithersuccumbstohisbluesandloses
thecapacityforfeeling,orhewakesonlytofindthattherepetitivecatharsisofhissongsis
whatgiveshimlife.Apointedexampleofhowpoeticpersonahighlightstheindividual
player’sprocessofreplicatingandreinventingexperiencethroughsong,“TheWearyBlues”
isamicrocosmofhowbluesaestheticsinflectthevolumethroughout.Whilethe
exhortationsofthenarratorgesturetowardsthecollective,butneverfullyexplicatethe
historiesandexperiencesthatconnecttheplayertotheaudience,asthevolumeunfolds
thereclamationsandreinventionsofthepastbegintoexpandbeyondtheconfinesofthe
playerandintoavarietyofhistoricalandtemporalgeographies.
Infact,theverynextpoeminthevolumeistitled“Jazzonia”,whichisanintentional
compressionofamodernmusicalgenrewithareferenttotheBabyloniaexile.Throughout
thevolume,andparticularlyinthefirstfifteenpoems,bluesandjazzbecomeachallengeto
thecommonbeliefin“GodastheoppositeoftheDevil,religionasthenot-secular,andthe
secularaslargelysexual”(Davis6).However,thiscommonunderstandingofthesecular
andthespiritualbeinglargelydividedthroughouttheHarlemRenaissanceismorea
convenientaccountthananaccuratereflectionofthevariousways,bothpositiveand
negative,thatwritersengagedwithreligioustropes,images,andnarrativesthroughoutthe
period25.WhiletheOldTestamentimageryofMosesleadinghispeopletothePromised
LandcarriedgreatsymbolicweightforAfrican-Americansduringthenineteenthcentury,
25AsscholarStevePinkertonnotesinhisfascinatingpiece.""NewNegro"v."Niggeratti":Defining
andDefilingtheBlackMessiah”,HarlemRenaissancewritersincludingAlainLocke,SterlingBrown,
ZoraNealeHurston,CounteeCullen,andartistssuchasAaronDouglas,RichardBruceNugent,and
WinoldReissallengagedinthereinventionofBiblicalimageryduringtheperiod.
49
HarlemRenaissancewritersweresearchingfornewparadigmsofspirituality.They
desiredthesacred,but“theirtextsnonethelessbetrayfarlessreverentnotionabouthow
togetthere”.OpposedtoformulationsoftheNewNegrothatemphasizedthespiritwhile
ignoringorshamingthebody,writerssuchasWallaceThurman,CounteeCullen,Bruce
Nugent,andLangstonHughessoughttocreatespaces“whereboundariesandlimits
becomeporous,wheresacredandprofane,angelicandforbidden,areallowedto
interpenetrateandmeld”.(Pinkerton551)Thisnewsecularspiritualitydidnotshun
sexuality,butembraceditsexpressionandexploreditsdiscursivelimits.Newvisionsof
blackidentityrequirednewpropheciesandLangstonHughes,aswewillseein“Jazzonia”
and“HarlemNightClub”,presentedthebluesastheirmediator.
Agesturetowardsthepsychologicalrepercussionsofdisplacement,“Jazzonia”
parallelstheexileoftheJewsinBabyloniawiththebluescabaretandthe
misunderstandingoftheblackculturalexpressionbythoseoutsidethecommunity.Ifwe
placePsalms137,verses1-4sidebysidewiththefirsteightlinesofHughes’poem,
immediatecorrelativesemerge:
BytheriversofBabylonwesatandwept
whenwerememberedZion.
Thereonthepoplars
wehungourharps,
forthereourcaptorsaskedusforsongs,
ourtormentorsdemandedsongsofjoy;
theysaid,“SingusoneofthesongsofZion!”
HowcanwesingthesongsoftheLord
whileinaforeignland?(NIV)
Oh,silvertree!
Oh,shiningriversofthesoul!
InaHarlemcabaret
Sixlong-headedjazzersplay.
Adancinggirlwhoseeyesarebold
Liftshighadressofsilkengold.
Oh,singingtree!
Oh,shiningriversofthesoul!
(TheWearyBlues25)
50
Asiteofexile26andanexampleofcaptorscruellyappropriatinganddesiringthesongsof
thosetheydonotunderstand,BabyloniabecomesHughesmetaphorforAmerica’s
relationshiptotheirownformercaptives.Thespaceofcabaret,similartothe“shining
rivers”ofBabylonissymbolicofculturalfreedomandphysicalentrapment.Itincitesa
remembranceofthingspastandacynicismabouttheirmusicormovementsbeingfairly
interpretedbythewhitecommunity.Themetaphoroftheriveralsoalludestothedepth
andmovementofthecaptivecommunity’ssoulandtheceaselesspatternofcaptorswho
demand“songsofjoy”withoutacknowledgingthattheyaretingedwiththesorrowofexile
andcaptivity.AsPsalmsbeautifullydescribes,“HowcanwesingsthesongsoftheLord/
whileinaforeignland?TheJewishcaptivesarenotconcernedwithotherworldlyescape,
butwiththeirabilitytocommunicatethefundamentalparadoxesthatbindapersonto
theirownculture,evenasitismocked,misunderstood,andappropriated.
Acounterpointtothevaguelydescribedplayersandthemisinterpretationoftheir
music,Hughesfocusesonayoung,blackdancerwhoseeyesemanateastrengthand
assurancethatcanonlybematchedbythe“silkengold”ofthedressshewears.Intheface
ofmiddle-classproprietythatwouldnotacceptthelook,thedress,orthe“lift”ofherdress,
thefemaledancerisrepresentedasusinghersexualityasaformofresistance.The
narrator’sinterpretationofthewoman,whensurroundedbythemetaphorofexile,not
onlychallengesdiscoursesofrespectability,butalsoallowsthepoem’smetaphorsto
‘move’thewomanfromsexualobjectintoasignofspiritualreverence.Thedancer’sability
toactwithoutbeingactedupon,tocontrolthespacesheoccupiesratherthanbeing
26BruceM.MetzgerandMichaelCoogan’sexplanationofthissectionofPsalmsfindsthat,“Exileas
aplacewasBabylonia…theinterchangeableHebrewtermsforexilearegôlâandgālût,generally
renderedinSeptuagintas‘captivity’or‘deportation.’
51
controlledbyitisarevolutionaryimageofsecularspiritualityandachallengetothe
supposed“moralchaosthatoccurswhensocialbondsandnormativevaluesarenot
cohesivelymaintainedwithinacommunity”(Vogel10).Thedancerisnotpresentedasa
proprietorofsin,butascentraltotheimageofthecabaretandsubversiveinhercontrolof
mind(“eyesofbold”)andbody(“liftshighadress”).
ThisparallelbetweenBiblicalnarrativeandthespaceofthecabaretisfurther
complicatedbyHughesplacementofthedancerinalineagethatincludesEveand
Cleopatra.Afterasecondexhortationoftheopeninglines(withslightvariation),Hughes
states:
WereEve’seyes
Inthefirstgarden
Justabittoobold?
WasCleopatragorgeous
Inagownofgold?(25)
HughespresentationofEveandCleopatraasdirectlyassociatedwiththedancerandthe
modificationofthosedescriptionsthroughrhetoricalquestionsdestabilizesnarrativesthat
surroundallofthesefemalebodies27.Asfigureshistoricallyassociatedwiththemoral
degradationofmankindandthefalloftheRomanEmpire,EveandCleopatrawere
touchstonesfortheintersectionbetweenrace,gender,Biblicalnarrative,andancient
history.TheimageofEveeatingtheforbiddenfruit,whichwaswidelycirculatedbymale
religioushistoriansasasignoffemalegullibilityandweakness,willfullyignoredother
interpretationsoftheBible,particularlythosethatviewEveasvitaltothe“ongoing
processofworldorder”(Newsome16).Insteadofpresentingthedancerasthebringerof
27SimilartothepatternsMariannaTorgovnick(1990)outlines,thecommonmythsassociatedwith
thesewomenare“typicalindeedofWesternthinkingabouttheprimitive…fantastic,collective(‘all
womenarealike’),seductive,dangerous,deadly”(156).
52
sinanddeathintotheworld,HughesassociatesherwithanalternativeconceptionofEve,
withabelief“thattobethecuriousone,theseekerofknowledge,thetesteroflimits,isto
bequintessentiallyhuman”(17).Inaskingifhereyeswere“justabittoobold?”,thedancer
isnotcondemned,butemblematicofhistoricallypersistentnarrativesthatseekto
irrationallysuppressthefemale“seekerofknowledge”and“bringerofculture”(Newsome
17).Onceagain,Hughesdoesnotfocusonspiritualityasunderstoodintheafterlife,but
integrateshisvisionoftranscendenceintohisunderstandingofbluescultureandblues
aesthetics.
Thisefforttocontrolthenarrativessurroundingfemalebodiesandinparticular
blackfemalebodiesbecomesevenmoreapparentasHughesextendshislineageintoa
discussionofCleopatra.PresentedaswhiteandGreekwhenassociatedwith“art,science,
knowledge,wit,and,pointedly,‘culture’itself”(Trafton177)anddarkerofskinwhen
discussingheraffairwithAntonyandthedownfalloftheRomanempire,Cleopatra’simage
asimpulsive,opulent,andasignofEasternexoticawasshapedtosatisfythegender
prejudiceandracialambivalenceofAmericanandEuropeanhistorians.28Toaskif
Cleopatra“wasgorgeousinagownofgold?”anddosoasaformalmodificationofhis
descriptionofablackfemaledancer,questionstheperpetualhistoricalconstructionof
womenaseitherpure,promiscuous,orproprietorsofsinanddeath.Anintersection
betweenAmericanEgyptomaniaattheturnofthecenturyandnineteenthcentury
constructionsofprimitivism,Cleopatra’simagewasfrequentlycirculatedand
overwhelminglynegativeinitsportrayalofwomenandtheAfricancontinent.Similarto
28HavingthreatenedRome’sdominance,shewasoften“depictedascompetingforauthorityand
ultimatevictory…Soafterherdefeat,Augustanepicandelegypresentedherasaconquered
adversaryoftherespublica,adrunkenEgyptianwhore”(Riad832).
53
thefetishizedethnographyof‘primitive’cultures,Cleopatra,“asafigureofracialambiguity,
socialdeviation,andsexualinversion…isregularlyexamined,repeatedlypathologized,and
repeatedlyundressed”(Trafton176)bywhitewesternculture.29Asignaloftheways
Americancultureappropriatednegativeimagesofaracialothertofurtherpropagate
nineteenthcenturybifurcationsofraceandgender,Cleopatraisbothexoticandmodern,
primitiveandasymbolofasexualempowerment.“Jazzonia”collapsesthesecategories
and,throughacombinationofspiritualandsecularimagery,embracesthebluesand
Cleopatraassignsofartisticandavant-gardemodernity30.
Asasitetemporarilyfreedfromheteronormativeorheterogeneousdiscoursesof
morality,thecabaretandHughesimagesofEvealsocontainacomplexnegotiation
betweenwhatShaneVogelidentifiesasthe“upliftbody”andthe“primitivebody”.The
spaceofcabaretalsohasapronouncedimportancethroughoutthefirstsection,asHughes
offersaglimpseintothespacesofbluesculture“thatarenotlegibleorrecognizedasvalid
bydominantdiscoursesandsocialinstitutions”(Vogel22).Openinghispoem“Harlem
NightClub”withanodtotheincreasingtempoandenergyofajazzsong,Hughesthen
immediatelyshiftstodetaileddescriptionsoftheinterracialintimaciesandexploratory
possibilitiesoftheHarlemcabaret.
Sleekblackboysinacabaret.
Jazz-band,jazz-band,—
Play,plAY,PLAY!
29AsscholarAntoniaLantdiscusses,fivefilmsversionsofCleopatraweremadebetween19081918alone,manyofwhichdealtpresentedCleopatraasasexualizedimageoftreachery.
30AsscholarRachelFarebrother(2013)notes,“InthecontextofabroaderretrievaloftheAfrican
pastamonghistoriansandsocialscientists,Egyptianmotifs,suchaspyramidsandhieroglyphics,
becameasymbolforassertionsofAfrican-Americanculturaldistinctiveness…African-Americans
turnedtoancientEgyptiansplendorasamythicsiteoforigin,butalsobearsthesignsandstrainsof
effortstodevelop‘inquiry’,association,andactivismacrossthecolorline”(225).
54
Whitegirls’eyes
Callgayblackboys.
Blackboys’lips
Grinjunglejoys.
Darkbrowngirls
Inblondemen’sarms.
Jazz-band,jazz-band,—
SingEve’scharms!(TheWearyBlues32)
Eveisonceagaininvoked,butthistimeasmetaphorforjazzanditspotentialtoreshape
theologicalnarrative.NotsimplyaspiritualdescendentofGod,sheisGodmadefleshand
todenyherofthefleshistodenyher,insomeways,ofherhumanity.Herdesiretoexplore
theboundsofsocietalrestrictions,toexplainthepleasuresandpainofthisworld,is
reflectedintheexhortation(andmetaphor)ofthenarratorasheimploresthebandto
“SingEve’scharms!”Theblues,withitsattentiontolivedparadox,embracesthe
dichotomiesofhumanexistenceandtroublestheboundariesbetweenproscriptive
narrativesofgood/evil,black/white,respectability/sexuality.Theyalsodosorepetitively
andritualistically;eachsongisavariationofthelastandeachimprovisationisa
contributiontotheindividualidentityoftheplayerandcollectiveidentityofthe
community.AsscholarJohnBartonnotesinhisdiscussionofEve’sfallfromgrace,“the
eatingofthefruitisnotasingleeventoftheremotepast,butsomethingthatisrepeated
againandagaininhumanhistory”(43).RatherthanshapeEve’snarrativeasthatofa
distant,static,andcautionarytaleofsinanditstemptations,Hughespresentsheras
embodiedinthesoundsofthebluesandmodifiedbythediscoursesthatshapeits
performanceandreception.
Adiscussionofhowthepopulardiscursiveidentificationofthebodyinpublicspace
oftenservedtoreinforcenotionsofrespectabilityortheprimitiveOther,Vogel’sargument
55
createsparallelsbetweenthe“complexnegotiationsandcontradictions”ofthemusicand
self-identificationinmodernity.
WhatwefindinHarlem’scabaretisnottheupliftbody—thebodyofproper
sexualexpenditure,middle-classcomportment,andunviolatedsurfaces—
northeprimitivebody—thebodythatexistswithinthegazeofwhite
spectatorialprivilegeandviolence,thebodyofsexualexcess,racialparody,
andappropriableidentity.Wefindinsteadbodiesandsubjectsthat
undertakethecomplexnegotiationsandcontradictionsofsexualandracial
self-definitioninAmericanmodernity.(18)
Despitetheirinnocuousbehavior(callingforoneanotheranddancingtogether),the
interracialcouplesarevisuallyindictedasprimitive,asbetrayingthemodernityof
‘civilized’,orracedandgendered,behavior.However,Hughesrefusestoreducehis
narrativeofthenightclubtoimagesof“spectatorialprivilege”or“sexualexcess”(20)
assignedprimitivism.Rather,the“Blackboy’slips”who“Grinjunglejoys”andthe“Dark
browngirls/Inblondemen’sarms”challengemodernityasapolitical,social,economic,
andaestheticdiscourseofdifference.31Thedancersarepresentedasfoilstomodernityas
itwasperpetuatedbyJimCrowpoliticsandantiquatednotionsofmorality.Theseimages
ofprimitivismdestabilizedefinitionsofmodernity,particularlythosethatrequire
discoursesofdifferenceandrepresentationsofhistoricalstasistothrive.AsHughes
31AsscholarElizabethSteebydiscusses,“JimCrowwasasystemthatbothprecludedandproduced
intimacies—somerealizedthroughcontact,otherscultivatedandlivedsolelyintherealmof
fantasy…Onlyaveryparticularsetofrelationshipswouldbecondoned(withlegitimacyreserved
forheterosexualinteractionsbetweengendernormativewhitemenandwomen),whileavastarray
ofbehaviorsandpointsofcontactweredesignatedasabnormal,unacceptable,andpunishable
perhapstothepointofdeath.(128)
56
describesinthefinallines,the“primitive”mustbeembracedasasymbolofsuspended
presumption,ofanAmericanmodernityyettobediscovered.
Whiteones,brownones
Whatdoyouknow
Abouttomorrow
Whereallpathsgo?
Jazzboys,jazz-boys,—
Play,plAY,PLAY!
Tomorrow…isdarkness.
Joytoday!(32)
Hughesencouragestheaudiencetoembracethepresentasawayofwritingthefutureand
rewritingthepast.Acounterpointtothemetaphoric“darkness”ofJimCrowlawsandan
illuminatingchallengetomiddle-classrespectabilitypolitics,LangstonHughescabaret
troublesthediscoursesthattransformthespaceintoastaticrepresentationofthe
primitiveoraseedyrepresentationofthemodern.AswillbeseeninHughespoemson
bluesdancers,thecabaretisnotasiteofstasis,butabridgeintothepastthatrefusesto
abandontheimmediacyandinnovationofthepresent.
ThisisespeciallyimportantwhenconsideringhowHughes’volumereenactsthe
“dynamicsuggestion”(Hurston35)ofthebluesthroughthehistoriesofblackvernacular
culture.AsZoraNealeHurstondescribes,African-Americandancerscapturedtheaudience
through“compellinginsinuation”and“realisticsuggestion”(35).Theyholdtheaudience
raptbecauseeachindividual“isparticipatingintheperformancehimself—carryingoutthe
suggestionsoftheperformer”(35).Thedancersbecomeanextensionoftheaudience’s
owndesires,theirownwishestoeitherreplicate,repudiate,orengagewiththe
performanceinfrontofthem.Withtheexactmovementofthedancersdifficulttodescribe,
Hughesturnstovernacularculturetoreplicatetheintricaciesofdanceperformanceand
multipleinterpretationsitelicitsfromtheaudience.
57
“Mean’mababy’s
Gottwomo’ways,
Twomo’waystododebuck!
Da,da,
Da,da,da!
Twomo’waystododebuck!”
Softlightonthetables,
Musicgay,
Brown-skinsteppers
Inacabaret.
Whitefolkslaugh!
Whitefolkspray!(26)
Incontrasttotheirphysicalsurrounding,thedancersaredescribedinalanguageofactivity
andaprocessofinvention.The“twomo’ways”thesedancershavecreatedto“dodebuck”
caninitiallybereadasadancemove,butalsodoublesasareferencetosexualtechnique.
Thisvernacularapproach,whichsimultaneouslysuggestsapublicandprivateact,canbe
tracedtheways“blackfolk,bothinslaveryandout,tookEnglishandmadeittheirown
repletewithcodesandcallsofwhichwhiteswerelargelyunawareordidnotknowhowto
respondto”(Young100).Adefactorepresentationofracialdiscourseduringtheperiod,
thepatronseitherlaughattheperformanceasaspectacleoftheprimitiveblackbodyor
theyshyawayinfeartheymayreplicatethemovementsanddefiletheirprivilegedstatus.
Ashiftfromverbtonounandbacktoverbagain,thefinalstanzaofthepoemreturnto
nuanceofdoubleentendreandtheintricacyofblackvernacularculture:“Mean’ma
baby’s/Gottwomo’ways,/Twomo’waystododebuck!”(26).
ForHughes,thesedancers,andtheirlinguisticandaestheticcodes,areanecessary
correctivetotheharshandsterileconditionsofthecity.Theycapturethespiritoftheage,
58
therestlesspaceofmachineaesthetics,andthenecessityofmusic,dance,andartasa
counterpointtotheera’smethodsofcommercializationandhomogenization.32
Transformingmetaphorsofthe“DarkContinent”intobothsymbolsofpowerand
interrogationsofracistdiscourseathomeandabroad,Hughescontinueshispersistent
focusonfemalecharactersin“NudeYoungDancer.”Ajuxtapositionoftheprimitiveand
themodern,thisdancerisyetanotherexampleofHughesdesiretoreclaimhistorical
narrativethroughanengagementwiththeintricaciesofanimaginedpastandaliving
present:
Whatjungletreehaveyousleptunder.
Midnightdancerofthejazzyhour?
Whatgreatforesthashungitsperfume
Likeasweetveilaboveyourbower?
Whatjungletreehaveyousleptunder,
Night-darkgirloftheswayinghips?
Whatstar-whitemoonhasbeenyourmother?
Towhatcleanboyhaveyouofferedyourlips?(33)
Ametaphorforboththepowerful,imaginedpastofAfrican-Americansandthe
presumptionsaboutthatpastbyEuro-Americanculture,thejunglerepresentsacultural
lineagethatthenarratorassociateswithreverenceandrespectratherthanuncontrollable
desire.Theveilandthewhitenessofthemoonsuggestthatthewoman,eveninhernudity,
cannotbeeasilyreducedtothehyper-sexualizedimageryoftheprimitive.Shedancesat
thedivisionbetweennightandday,embracingtheindefinablespacebetweenprimitive
andmodern,betweenthe“sweetveil”,“swayinghips,and“star-whitemoon”thatareher
ancestorsandthediscoursesofmodernitythatdefineherrelationtothem.Heridentity
32SeeJoelDinerstein(2003)formoreonmachineaestheticsandThomasHolt(2000)foradetailed
descriptionofFordismanditsimpactonconsumercultureduringtheearlytwentiethcentury.
59
containssexuality,butitisnotreducibletothatestimationalone.Infact,inthefinallines,it
isshethatcontrolsaccesstoherbodyandnottheobserver.AsscholarAnneBorden
discusses,“ImageryofnakednessisheavyinHughes’sdiscussionsofwomen’sidentity
struggles,suggestinganawarenessofwomen’ssexualityasasiteofresistance”(340).The
woman’slineage,althoughhavingrootsinthelandscapesofAfrica,isfarremovedfromthe
denigratingvoyeurismofwhiteaudiences.Rather,sheisindicativeofatransatlantic
exchangeandadiscourseofprimitivismthatwastransformedinthejourneyofslavesfrom
AfricatoAmerica,andinthejourneysoftheworkingclasstourbancentersacrossthe
UnitedStates.
HughesTravelPoems,TransatlanticExchange,andtheMythofthe“DarkContinent”
AlthoughmanyofthepoemsfollowinghisopeningsectionwerewrittenduringHughes
earliertravels,hetakescaretoarrangethevolumeasatransnationaljourneythatbeginsin
theheartofbluescultureandendsuponhisreturnfromEuropeandAfrica.Transientfor
muchofhisadultlifeandachingfornewexperiencesinhisyouth,Hughesearlypoetry
reflectsthedesireforpsychologicalfreedomandphysicalmobilitythatmotivatedtheGreat
Migration.Withanestimated1.5millionpeopleflockingtourbancentersacrossAmerica,
thebluesbecameasourceofAfrican-Americansocialandculturalrecord,chartingthe
“perpetuallyelusiveguaranteesofsecurityandhappiness”(Davis19)thatcamewiththese
changes.Whilescenesofmusicalperformancearerareinthelatersections,whatcanbe
notedishowHughes’earlyinterpretationsofhistory,folklore,travel,andracialinjustice
wouldinfluencehisunderstandingofthebluesandtheirrelationshiptothewiderange
60
nationalandinternationalspacesthatwillfollow.Infact,itcouldbesaidthatHughes
arrangementofthevolumeaftertheopeningbluespoems,includinghisinclusionof
severalpoemsabouttheSouthandhisjourneyintoAfrica,constituteareimagining(and
reversal)oftheGreatMigrationandtheMiddlePassage.
“TheSouth”,whichdealsdirectlywiththe“lazy,laughing”,“sunny-faced”,“child-
minded"region,aggressivelyoutlinestherelationshipbetweenSouthernsensibilitiesand
understandingsofraceinmodernity.Theregionisnotindictedasaspace,ascanbeseenin
thepoem’sbeautifultreatmentoflandscape33,itiscritiquedasanattitudeora“spell”that
mustbebrokenbeforethefuturecanbreakfreefromtheconstraintsofthepast.Nolonger
abletoexecutethespecificviolencesofslavery,theSouthhas“Bloodonitsmouth”and
spendsitstime“Scratchinginthedeadfire’sashes/ForaNegro’sbones”(54).Unableto
resurrectthe“Beast-strong”and“idiot-brained”intricaciesofslavery,Southernersare
presentedasdiggingthroughashes“foraNegro’sbones.”Areferencetotheashes,or
discoursesofslavery,andtheirplaceinjustifyingthespectacleoflynchinginthepresent,
thisimageryopenlyopposesanyfurtheractsofvictimization.Instead,Hughesshiftshis
attentiontothedenigrationoftheirformerownersbyjuxtaposingthe“honey-lipped,
syphilitic”behaviorsoftheSouthandthoseAfrican-Americans“whowouldloveher/But
shespitsinmyface”(54).Nolongerwillingtoendurethe“passionate,cruel”whimsofthe
Southerndisposition,thenarratordescribesthehopeofsomethingbetter,ofan
opportunitytogonorthward,where“mychildren/mayescapethespelloftheSouth”(54).
33“Cottonandthemoon,/Warmth,earth,warmth,/Thesky,thesun,thestars,/ThemagnoliascentedSouth.”(54)
61
Yet,this“spell”isn’teasytobreak.HugheslingersintheSouthforseveralmorepoems,
intentonengagingwithslaveryasitisunderstoodinamoderncontext.
AreferencetoboththesymbolofChristiansacrificeandtheinter-racialrelations
thatpermeatedtheSouthduringslavery,Hughespoem“Cross”subtlyreferencesinterracialrapesduringslaveryandtheirconsequencesforthosesonsanddaughtersofthe
GreatMigrationandtheHarlemRenaissance.Thepoem,whosenarratorishalf-whiteand
half-black,doesnotdeplorehiscondition,butpresentshisbackgroundasasourceof
instabilityanduncertainty.
Myoldman’sawhiteoldman
Andmyoldmother’sblack.
IfeverIcursedmywhiteoldman
Itakemycursesback.
IfeverIcursedmyblackoldmother
Andwishedshewereinhell,
I’msorryforthatevilwish
AndnowIwishherwell.
Myoldmandiedinafinebighouse.
Mymadiedinashack.
IwonderwhereI’mgonnadie,
Beingneitherwhitenorblack?(52)
Aracialhybrid,thespeakerhasspentmostofhislifewonderingwhomheshouldbeupset
withforhisstrangeorigins.Shouldhebeupsetwiththe“whiteoldman”whomadehis
existenceuntenableorhis“blackoldmother”forbeingunabletoprovidetheprotectionor
answershedesires?Morethansimplyareferencetothenarrator’sownstruggles,the
repeateduseof“old”(andnotinthevernacularform,whichisassociatedwithendearment
orcloseassociation)suggestsarelationshipbetweentheindividualandthecommunity,
betweenthehistoryofinterracialrapeandtheparadoxesofmodernity.Seemingly
exhaustedwiththeangereachproduces,thespeakerinsteadturnstoanotherquestion,“I
62
wonderwhereI’mgonnadie,/Beingneitherwhitenorblack?”.Arecordofchangeand
continuity,thepoemrevealsboththerejectionofvictimizationinthenineteenthcentury
andtheperpetuationofracistdiscourseswellintothedawnoftheHarlemRenaissance.
Despitethefactthatmanyauthorsfeltslaverywasonlyahindrancetotheemergenceof
the‘NewNegro’,asscholarDeborahMcDowellnotes,“theinsistentpronouncementthata
newdayhaddawned/wasdawningforAfrican-Americansseemedattimestobemore
fantasythanfact.Ameresixtyyearsinthedistance,slavery’slegacies,evenitspsychic
legacies,couldnotbeeasilyexorcised”(165).Hughes’juxtapositionofthehouseandthe
shackandhisreturntotheSouthasanimaginativelandscapethatimpedesonAfricanAmericans’perceptionsofself-worthindicatesaninterestinreclaimingtraumaasasiteof
empowerment.Thenarratorknowshecannotcompletelyeradicatehispastandindicatesa
willingnesstoforgivehis‘parents’,evenashewondershowtheirlegacywillimpacthimin
thefuture.
InashiftawayfromthecabaretsofHarlemandoutofthedebilitatingdiscourses
andviolenceoftheSouth,Hughes’finalsectionsaddresstherelationshipbetweennational
andtransnationalnarrativesofrace.TheseblackAtlanticexchanges,whicharesemiautobiographicalaccountsofHughes’travelstoAfricaandEurope,containwhatPaul
Gilroydiscussesas“thosehiddenexpressions,bothresidualandemergent,thatattemptto
beglobalorouter-nationalincharacter”(16).Echoingthetransientlifestyleoftheblues
playerandthegenre’sincessantcreationandrecreationoftheself,Hughesdedicatesan
entiresectionofpoemstohistimecrossingtheAtlanticandhisobservationsfromdeck
andshore.Withanexcitementforthejourneyahead,Hugheswrites“AFarewell”,
describinghowhehassetout“Withgypsiesandsailors,/Wanderersofthehillsandseas,/I
63
willgotoseekmyfortune./Withpiousfolkandfair/Imusthaveaparting.”(TheWeary
Blues72).Immediatelyidentifyinghimselfwithoutcastsandtheworkingclass,Hughes
embracesthosemarginalizedandmisunderstoodpopulationswho,likethebluessingers
anddancersinthecabaret,are“providingresonanceforexperience’smultiplicities”(Baker
7).Incontrasttothe“pious”and“fair”Americanswhowouldrestricthismovementand
rejecthislifestyle,Hughesembraceshismarginalityandthepotentialforknowledgeit
provides:“Butyouwillnevermissme—/Youwholivebetweenthehills/Andhavenever
seentheseas.”AreconsiderationoftheMiddlePassageandthejourneyfromAfricatothe
Americas,thenarratorreturnstotheoceanwitharenewedsenseofpride.Heisnow
exploringhisancestryratherthanbeingtornfromitandtravellingtoEuropewithhopesof
learningmoreabouthimselfandAmerica.
ThisjourneyacrosstheoceanallowsHughestostartagain,tohaveagencyoverhis
historyandidentity.AsHughesdescribesinhisautobiographyTheBigSea(1940),onhis
firstjourneytoAfrica,hetookallofhisbooks(notablysavingonlyLeavesofGrass)and
Threwthemoverboard.Itwaslikethrowingamillionbricksoutofmy
heart—foritwasn’tonlythebooksIwantedtothrowaway,buteverything
unpleasantandmiserableoutofmypast:…thestupiditiesofcolor-prejudice,
blackinawhiteworld,thefearofnotfindingajob,thebewildermentofno
onetotalktoaboutthingsthattroubleyou,thefeelingofalwaysbeing
controlledbyothers—byparents,byemployers,bysomeouternecessitynot
yourown.(98)
Hisbooksaresymbolicofallthehistories,emotions,prejudices,andmeansofcontrolthat
preventedhimfromreachinghisfullcapability.Tothrowthemoverboardisachanceto
64
reevaluatethepresentinlightofthepast.Representativeofaninterstitialspacebetween
entrapmentandfreedom,betweenthepsychologicaldamagesofthepastandnewvisions
forthefuture,theseabecomesareclamationoftheMiddlePassageandanexplorationof
itsintimacies.Hughesloseshisbooks,butinreturnfinds,ascanbeseeninhispoem“Long
Trip”,thattheoceanhastheabilitytocomplicateevenone’smostbasicunderstandingsof
reality:
Theseaisawildernessofwaves,
Adesertofwater.
Wedipanddive,
Riseandroll,
Hideandarehidden
Onthesea.
Day,night,
Night,day,
Theseaisawildernessofwaves,
Awildernessofwater.(73)
Aneerierecollectionofthephysicalandpsychologicalconsequencesofgoingonalong
journeyacrosstheAtlantic,thispoemisbereftoftheenthusiasmHughesdemonstratedin
hisearlier“AFarewell.”Surroundedby“adesertofwater”anddealingwiththe
disorientingmotionsofthesea,thepeopleontheboatcannotdiscernbetween“Day,night/
Night,day”.Stifledbytheirinabilitytodescribetheweather,muchlessthecoursebeing
sailedorthejourneysthatawaitthemuponarrival,thepassengersaresimplyleftwitha
feelingofendlessrepetitionandceaselessmaneuver.DescribedbyHomiBhabhaasastate
of“in-between”andPaulGilroyas“theblackAtlantic,”thesemovementscharacterize
spacesthatare“bothresidualandemergent,thatattempttobeglobalorouter-nationalin
character”(Gilroy16).Caughtbetweennationalandinternationalborders,Hughes
describesthefeelingsofphysicalandpsychicdisorientationassociatedwiththemany
blackbodiesthattraveledbetweeninternationalborders.Hisuneasyrelationshipto
65
Americaissetasideinfavorofpoemsthatarepopulatedbyfiguresandspacesthathave
historiccorrelativesinnationalandtransnationalnarrativesofrace.Thisprocessof
reconfiguration,ortemporalinterruption,asHomiBhabhaoutlines,createsaprofound
impactonhowweviewhistoryasanongoingprocess:
Theborderlineworkofculturedemandsa‘newness’thatisnotpartofthe
continuumofpastandpresent.Itcreatesasenseofthenewasaninsurgent
actofculturaltranslation.Suchartdoesnotmerelyrecallthepastassocial
causeoraestheticprecedent;itrenewsthepast,refiguringitasacontingent
‘in-between’space,thatinnovatesandinterruptstheperformanceofthe
present.(10)
Hughes“insurgentactofculturaltranslation”emergesfirstinhisarrangementofthe
volume;hissteadymovementfromthecenterofbluescultureintoEuropeandfinallyto
Africaoffersanopportunitytointegratebluesaestheticswhilestillbeingabletoaddressits
antecedentsinculturesthatextendfarbeyonditsborders.Thisdistillationofthe
relationshipsbetweenAfrican-Americanmusicalcultureandtransnationalfolklores
createshistoricalcorrelativesacrosstimeandspace.
Populatedbygypsies,sailors,seascapes,prostitutes,beggars,marketwomen,the
sick,suicidal,andyounginlove,Hughes’impressionsofEuropereflecthisinterestinthe
workingclassandthoseconsideroutsidersin‘civilized’society.Thisisparticularly
apparentinhistreatmentsofPierrot,atragicomicfigureofaclownthatwaswidely
popularinnineteenthcenturyFrenchculture.InspiredbyFrenchmodernistJules
LaForgue’streatmentofthefigureasanironiccounterbalanceto“allthatwasconsidered
healthyandnormalinmodernbourgeoissociety”(Deshmukh6),Hughespresentsasection
66
ofpoemsentitled“BlackPierrot.”34VacillatingbetweenscenesofHarlemand
reinterpretationsofthefamousfigure,Hughesclearlyintendstodrawaparallelbetween
theexpressionofthebluesandPierrot’ssociallyproscribedrepresentationof“popular,
lowbrowculturalforms”(Patterson100).Questioningthedivisionbetweenfolk
expression,popularculture,andhighart,Hughesturnstothemoralambiguitiesand
paradoxesofthebluesidiom.Inhis“Poem:TotheBlackBeloved”,hismessagethriveson
incongruity,onthemeldingoftwoseeminglyunlikecharacteristicsorqualities:Oh,/My
blackone,/Thouartnotgood/Yetthouhast/Apurity/Surpassinggoodness”(65).This
juxtapositionquestionsthedivisionbetweencategoricalimperativessuchaspure/defiled
andgood/evil.ThisimagenotonlyrevisestheoriginalstoryofPierrot,butdoessoto
createadirectanalogybetweenthepastandpresent,betweentheclass-basedideologiesof
nineteenthcenturyWesternEuropeandtheracistideologiesofcontemporaryAmerican
culture.35
Infact,itevenraisestheactofinsolenceorrebellionagainstsocialmorestoanact
ofsupreme“goodness.”Pierrotandthebluessinger,asembodimentsoflowbrowand
supposedlyvulgarculturalforms,becomewhatmodernitydefinesitselfagainst.Hughes
hopestoinvertthispresumption,orattheveryleast,demonstratethedifficultyofsuch
binarydivisions.AsW.C.Handynotesinhisdiscussionofthebluesappeal:
34FormoreinformationonHughesrelationshipwithLaForgue’sworkandhisinterpretationof
Frenchfolkculture,seeAnitaPatterson’sbookRace,AmericanLiterature,andTransnational
Modernisms(2008),pgs.95-103.
35InhissectiontitledABlackPierrotHughesalsoincludesanimageoftheEuropeanPierrot.This
poemalsochallengesthesexualrestrictionsofsocietyandthesenseofChristianproprietythat
leadstoasoullessandlovelesscondition.Seepage67ofTheWearyBlues.
67
MemphisBluescamewithanewandsubtleressence;itwastwo-sidedand,
therefore,disturbing…ithadatone,notofweakdespondencyorshallow
cuteness,butofthemocking,ironic,ordefiantdiscontentoftheoldfolkblues.Itisthisundertone,whetherrepresentedbythebluesnote,orany
otherdevice,thathascreptintoourpopularmusic,hasenrichedandstill
enrichesit,transformingitattimesfromtheexpressionofoneofmany
superficialemotionstosomethingofdeeperandmorelastingvalue.(Handy
40)
Itisthesubtlecritiqueoftheblues,the“defiantdiscontent”ofAfrican-Americanswhoare
supposedlyfree,butmustcontinuetoconfrontoppressionsasenactedbyJimCrowand
supportedbyracistideologies.Thisrevolutioninpopularmusicwasmorethanasound,it
wasanactofrebellion,aforumforexpressingindividualityinasocietythatthrivedonthe
homogenizationandexploitationofblackandbrownbodies.Theirabilitytooccupythe
spacebetweenthejoyandpain,thephysicalandthemetaphysicaliswhatleadsHandyto
describetheircontributionstoAmericancultureas“somethingofdeeperandmorelasting
value”.Elaboratingonhisearlierimageofthefamousclown,Hughes“BlackPierrot”
intentionallydefinesarelationshipbetweenthenineteenthcenturyfolkfigureandthe
modernblues.Doneinabluesidiom,thepoemrecapitulatestheambiguitiesofPierrot,but
placesintheminacontemporarycontext.Aftertwostanzasofmourninghislostlove,
Hughescharacteremergestransformed,butrenewed:
IamablackPierrot:
Shedidnotloveme,
Sowithmyoncegay-coloredsoul
Shrunkenlikeaballoonwithoutair,
Iwentforthinthemorning
Toseekanewbrownlove.(61)
68
Thenarratorhasnotforgottenhowhe“weptuntilthereddawn/Drippedbloodoverthe
easternhills”,hesimplyknowsthatdwellingonthelostpastisnoformulafor
understandingthepresentorthefuture.Likethesingerofhisopeningpoem,remembrance
iscatharsis,butcontinuingtoplayisasignofpotentialrelief.Wedonotknowwhetherthe
bluessingerdiesorsleepssoundlyin“TheWearyBlues,”nordoweknowifPierrotfinds
hislove;whatthereaderdoesknowisthattheykeeprepeatingtheirsongandkeep
searchingfortheirpeace.
Withthetitleof“OurLand”,Hughes’finalsectionshiftstowardsAfrica,but
continueshisexplorationoftherelationshipbetweencontemporarydiscoursesand
persistent,butfalsehistoricalnarratives.Ajuxtapositionofcritiqueandimagisticscenes
thatburstwithlight,color,andvitality,Hughes’finalpoemsappropriateanimaginedand
primitivepastasacommentaryontheperniciouseffectsofmetaphorsthatassociateall
peopleofcolorwiththe“DarkContinent.”AsscholarLucyJaroszoutlinesinherdiscussion
ofthispersistentmetaphor:
ThroughmetaphorssuchastheDarkContinent,Africanplacesandpeopleappearas
quintessentialobjects,ahistoricallyfrozenwithinwebsofdualitysuchaslight/dark,
found/lost,life/death,civilized/savage,known/mysterious,tame/wild,andso
on…Thusmetaphornotonlyimpartsinformationandemotion,butalsoconfirms,
legitimates,andperpetuatesstructuresofdominationandoppressionsuchas
racism,sexism,andimperialismnotthroughcoercionbutthroughitspersistence
andproliferationinvariousdiscourses.(106)
Similartohisbluespoems,Hughesremindshisreadersthatthemetaphoric“Dark
Continent”emergesfromtheprevalenceofracistdiscourse.Throughanengagementwith
69
anddevotiontothebeautyandpoweroftheAfricanlandscape,Hughesisabletooutline
thephysicalandpsychologicalpotentialitiesthatarewipedoutbytheracist“websof
duality”Jaroszdescribes.Thistransformsthe“DarkContinent”intoamovingmetaphor,or
asitethattransformsthe“ahistoricallyfrozen”subjectsofthepastintoacritiqueofboth
primitivismandmodernityasdiscursivecategories.Opening“OurLand”withasenseof
longingandadesirefortherecoveryofone’spast,Hughesstates,“Weshouldhavealandof
sun,/Ofgorgeoussun/…Ofroseandgold,/Andnotthislandwherelifeiscold”(TheWeary
Blues99).Incontrasttothe“cold”ofmodernsociety,Hughesdescribesaplaceoflight,
warmth,andcolor,aspacethatembracesthediversityoflife.Ratherthantransforming
Americaintoa“landwherebirdsaregrey”,Hughescallsfor“alandoftrees,/Oftallthick
trees/Boweddownwithchatteringparrots”.ThisdescriptionofAfricaandpresentationof
scenesassociatedwithprimitivismareembracedasacorrelativeandcorrectivetowhite,
westernsociety.Itisnolongeralandofsavageimpulseanddyingcivilizations,butaland
“Ofloveandjoyandwineandsong,/Andnotthislandwherejoyiswrong”(99).Hughesis
notcallingforaredemptionofanimaginarypastsomuchasaheiscallingfora
reconsiderationAfrica’sinfluenceonthepresentandfuture.Whenthepoemendswithhis
thenarrator’sexhortation,“Oh,sweetaway!/Ah,mybelovedone,away!”Hughesiscalling
forbothareturntothejoyofthepastandamoveawayfromthestultifyingdiscoursesthat
havemisrepresentedAfrica.
Ascanbeseeninthepoemthatimmediatelyfollows,racistconceptionsofAfrica
wereinstrumentalinstrippingpeopleofcolor,bothnationallyandinternationally,oftheir
subjectivity.AsHughespointsoutinhis“LamentforDarkPeoples”,racismjustifiedtheir
statusasanoun/objectratherthanaverb/subject:
70
Iwasaredmanonetime,
Butthewhitemencame.
Iwasablackman,too,
Butthewhitemencame.
Theydrovemeoutoftheforest.
Theytookmeawayfromthejungles.
Ilostmytrees.
Ilostmysilvermoons.
Nowthey’vecagedme
Inthecircusofcivilization.
NowIherdwiththemany—
Cagedinthecircusofcivilization.(100)
Incontrasttohisimageof“OurLand”,oranAfricanlandscapeburstingwithlightandlife,
thispoempositionsitasasiteoftransition,oraplacewhereEuropeanstransformedthat
historyintoastiflingseriesofdiscursivemetaphors.Simplyconsidered“men”until“the
whitemencame”,nativesandpeopleofcolorwereforciblytakenoreradicatedfromthe
historicallandscapesthatdefinedtheirculturalandethnicbackgrounds.Speakingina
poeticpersonathatcollapsestheindividualandthecommunity,thenarratorfinds
his/theirsubjectivityisnolongerdictatedbytheirowntraditionsandvalues.Instead,
he/theynowunderstandthemselvestobe“cagedinthecircusofcivilization”.This
metaphorofcivilizationassimilartoasideshowwherespeciesaredisplayedbereftof
contextandringmasterscreateillusionstodelightandawetheaudienceechoesHughes
earlierdescriptionofthecabaretwhere“Whitefolkslaugh!/Whitefolkspray!”(26).In
Hughesestimation,peopleofcolorview‘civilized’existenceasaplacewheretheyare
eitherobjectsoffascinationordisgust,butareobjectsnonetheless.
Havingestablishedaseriesofmovingmetaphorsthatallowhimtoreflecttheblues
inboththeirembodimentofliteralmovementandasasitethroughwhichtounderstand
thediscursivecontextsthatinformtheirreceptionandperception,Hughesendshisvolume
71
withapoemwrittenwhilewaitingforaboatthatwouldtakehimfromGenoa,Italybackto
NewYork.36ReturningtotheWhitmanesque,universal“I”ofthe“Proem”,Hughes
proclaims,“I,too,singAmerica./Iamthedarkerbrother.”(TheWearyBlues109)In
contrasttoAmerica’spersistenteffortstoignorethehistoriesthatconnectwhite
communitiesandAfrican-Americans,theopeninglinesinsistonasharedhistoryandfate.
Atonceanindividualandarepresentativeofthecommunity,anobserverandaperformer,
atravellerandapoet,awriterofsongsandaninterpreteroftheirmeanings,Hughespoetic
personaembracesthetwo-nessthathascometodefinehim,evenashechallengesitbasis.
ThisvoiceisnotsimplyareplicationofWhitman’sinfluence,butan“‘I’thatnotonlyfolds
‘inward’asWhitmanassertsbut‘outward’aswelltoincludeotherselvesandcultureas
fundamentalconstituentsoftheself”(Naylor107).Although“theysendmetoeatinthe
kitchen/Whencompanycomes,”Hughes’narratorassertsthattheseindividualinstances
ofracismcanonlylastsolong,thefuturewillcome“likeaflame”,changingnotonlyhis
situation,butallofthosewhoarephysicallyandpsychologicallyrestrainedbythecolorof
theirskinandtheideologicalpresumptionsthatcreatean‘other’whoisperceivedas
somehowless.WhenHughesmakeshisfinaldeclarationthat“I,too,amAmerica”(109)the
readerfinallyunderstandsthatthebluesarehisvehicle,nothisultimateaim.Theyarehis
bridgetothepastandhispathtowardsthefuture.
Conclusion
FIRE…flaming,burning,searing,andpenetratingfarbeneaththesuperficial
itemsofthefleshtoboilthesluggishblood.
FIRE…acryofconquestinthenight,warningthosewhosleepand
revitalizingthosewholingerinthequietplacesdozing.
36SeeArnoldRampersad,LifeofLangstonHughes(1986),pg.95
72
FIRE…meltingsteelandironbars,pokinglividtonguesbetweenstone
aperturesandburningwoodenoppositionwithacacklingchuckleof
contempt.
FIRE…weavingvivid,hotdesignsuponanebonborderedloomand
satisfyingpaganthirstforbeautyunadorned…thefleshissweetand
real…thesoulaninwardflushoffire….Beauty?…fleshonfire—onfire
inthefurnaceoflifeblazing…
“Fy-ah,
Fy-ah,Lawd,
Fy-ahgonnaburnmysoul!(Fire!!!1)
Morethanacallto“burnupalotoftheold,deadconventionalNegro-whiteideasofthe
past”(TheBigSea235),Fire!!!wasapropheticrepresentationofashiftingcurrentin
African-Americanliteraryandpoliticalaestheticsattheendofthe1920sandthroughthe
30sand40s.Alreadydeeplyentrenchedinthedebatesbetweenhighandlowculture37,
LangstonHughesreleasedTheWearyBlues(1926)todrawattentiontotheexperiences
andmusicoftheAfrican-Americanworkingclass.Thefirstinaseriesofincreasingly
experimentalandradicalwritings,hisdebutvolumefocusedonthedialect,folklore,music,
andlocalitiesofthoseplacesandpeoplegenerallyhiddenfromviewormisrepresented.
WhileArnoldRampersaddescribesthevolumeassaturatedwith“conventionallyrics
aboutnatureandloneliness,orpoemsinwhichtheexperienceofthecommonblackfolkis
framedbyconventionalpoeticlanguage”,heoverlookshowHughes’useofbluesformand
descriptionsoftheworkingclasswereanaturalsegueintothedialectandmusicofFine
ClothesthetheJew(1927)andopenradicalismofFire!!!.Likehisfellowcontributors38,
Hughesunderstoodthatbeneaththe“superficialitems”oftheHarlemRenaissance;the
37SeeHughes’essay“NegroArtistandtheRacialMountain”(1926);W.E.B.DuBois’“Criteriaof
NegroArt”(1926);GeorgeSchulyer’s“TheNegro-ArtHokum”(1926);ZoraNealeHurston’s
“CharacteristicsofNegroExpression”(1933)formoreonthedebatesbetweenhigh/lowculture.
38WallaceThurmanwastheeditor,andAaronDouglas,JohnP.Davis,BruceNugent,ZoraNeale
Hurston,andGwendolynBennettallcontributedworkandmoneytothemagazine.
73
popularityoftheCottonClub,thewhitepatrons,andlavishparties,therewasapeoplewho
“sleep…inthequietplacesdozing.”AsmanyAfrican-Americanauthors,musicians,artists,
andpoliticianswouldagreewithacrossthe1930s,itwastimeforanewmovementto
begin“burningwoodenoppositionwithacacklingchuckleofcontempt”.AlthoughThe
Messenger(1917-1928)hadbeenpromotingmaterialistandsocialistanalysisoftheblack
workingclassthroughoutthedecade,theGreatDepressionandhighlypublicized
ScottsboroCasebroughttheseideologiestotheforefrontofAfrican-Americanliteraryand
politicsthought.Inthe1930s,HughesbecameamemberoftheJohnReedClubinNew
York,travelledandworkedinRussia,releasedhissatiricalstoriesTheWaysofWhiteFolks
(1934),andwasregularlyreleasingsardonicandpoliticalpoemsintheNewMasses,a
publicationsupportedbytheCommunistWorker’sPartyofAmerica(WPA).
Bytheendof1939,thenon-aggressionpactbetweentheUSSRandNaziGermany
hadbeensigned,andHughes,likemanyothers,begantodriftawayfromhisaffiliationwith
theCommunistPartydespitestillbeinginsupportofsocialism.AsHughesbiographer
ArnoldRampersaddiscusses,Hughespositionwasdrivenbybotheconomicsand
aesthetics;“Toalargeextent,hegaveupinradicalismnotonideologicalgrounds,butasan
impracticalinvolvementthatendangeredhiscareerasawriter.Radicalismpaidverypoor
inAmerica;italsotendedtoestrangehimfromtheblackmasses”(375).Rampersadalso
suggeststhattheimmediatefinancialandliterarysuccessreceivedbyRichardWrightafter
hisreleaseofNativeSonin1940wasapointofcontentionforHughes.Whilehepraisedthe
novel,HugheswasstillshockedbyWright’s“almostunrelieveddistasteforblacks,onone
hand,andhisevidentlove-hatredofwhites,ontheother”(Rampersad383).Hughes
continuedtoworkthroughoutthe1940s,buthealsodistancedhimselffromthesocial
74
realismofhisearliercareerandhiscontemporaries.Although,hewoulddealextensively
withmusicagaininhis1951releaseofMontageofADreamDeferred,thenextchapterwill
explorehowthesocialrealismofthe1940sdeployedmusicasmethodofcomplicatingand
critiquingquestionsofclassandgenderinMarxistthought.
75
Chapter2
RichardWrightandAnnPetry:TheIntersectionBetweenMusicandPoliticsin1940s
African-AmericanRealism
Despitebeingretroactivelydenouncedasaperiodofmodernistopulencebymany
withinthemovement39andhistoricizedaseffectivelyhaltedbythedevastatinglossof
industrialandmanufacturingjobsthataccompaniedthestockmarketcrash40,theHarlem
RenaissancewasinnowaydivorcedfromtheriseofAfrican-American‘socialrealism’in
the1930sand40s.Asseveralscholarshavenoted,theshiftfromthe“modernist
burlesque”ofthetwentiestothe“proletarianthirties”(Retman40)wasnotanintellectual
revelationoftherelationshipbetweenrace,class,gender,andcapitalism,butwas
characterizedbyashiftinaestheticsandaffiliation.41Astheeconomywitheredanda
growingnumberofAmericansbegantoadoptsocialistandMarxistideals,theCultural
Frontemergedasagroupofartistsandwriterscommittedtocapturingworkingclass
experiencesaslaborers,consumers,andpoliticalcollectivities.42Organizedaroundthe
principlesofa“laboristsocialdemocracy,anti-fascism,andanti-racism”(Denning4)and
39AsStacyI.MorgannotesinherbookRethinkingSocialRealism(2004),writerssuchasW.E.B.
DuBois,LangstonHughes,WallaceThurman,andAlainLockeallcritiquedtheefficacyoftheHarlem
Renaissance.Morgan’stextarguesthatthisisindicativeofashiftingaestheticratherthanarecord
ofthemovement’sineffectiveness,notingthatthis“castigation…doesofferanimportantindicator
ofhowkeyfigures…conceptualizedtheirownintentionalityasartists,writers,andcritics”(4).
40Highlightingthevastunemploymentandeconomicdegradationthattookplacebytheendof
1930,DavidLeveringLewis’bookWhenHarlemWasinVogueequivocatesthesocialandeconomic
intricaciesoftheGreatDepressionasindicativeoftheHarlemRenaissance’swaninginfluenceon
African-Americanliterature.
41SeeSonnetRetman(2011),pgs.38-41andMichaelDenning(1997),pgs.38-50formore
informationonthetransitionfromthe1920sintothemoreacutelysocialrealisttendenciesofthe
1930sand1940s.
42MichaelDenningdefinestheCulturalFrontasit“referredtoboththecultureindustriesand
apparatuses—a‘front’orterrainofculturalstruggle—andtotheallianceofradicalartistsand
intellectualswhomadeupthe‘cultural’partofthePopularFront”(xix).
76
aninvaluablepartofthePopularFront’sefforts43,theCulturalFrontdependedonthe
“notionofdirectandimmediateexperience”(Stott77)todescribethecontradictionsof
capitalismandthepossibilitiesforclass-basedsolidarity.AlthoughAfrican-American
authorsandartistsincludeddocumentarydetailintotheirwork,manywerecommittedto
complicatingtheseclassdriveninitiativesthroughanincreasedfocusonissuesofraceand
gender-basedoppression44.Emergingastwotoweringfiguresinthedevelopmentof
Americansocialrealism,RichardWrightandAnnPetrywerebothcommittedtowriting
narrativesthatweremateriallyimmediate,visceral,anddirectlyassociatedtothe
ideologiesofracialcapitalism45thathavebeenbothlong-standingandpersistentintheir
adaptability.Respondingtoanerathatwas“richintheproductionofpopularfantasyand
trenchantsocialcriticism”(Dickstein4),Wright’s12MillionBlackVoices(1941)andPetry’s
TheStreet(1946)bothexpressagrowingconcernwiththeplaceofcultureinthestruggle
forsocial,economic,andpoliticalfreedom.Whilebothoftheirtextsaddressthemulti
43AsDenningdefinesit,thePopularFrontwas“bornoutofthesocialupheavalsof1934and
coincidingwiththeCommunistParty’speriodofgreatestinfluenceinUSsociety…becamearadical
historicalblocunitingindustrialunionists,Communists,independentsocialists,community
activists,andémigréanti-facistsaroundlaboristsocialdemocracy,anti-facism,andanti-lynching”
(4).
44AsMichaelDenningdiscusses,thisincludesbutisnotlimitedtotheAmericanLaborParty,the
AmericanWorkersParty,theNationalNegroCongress,theFederalTheaterProject,Hollywood
Writer’sMobilization,theHollywoodAnti-NaziLeague,theInternationalWorkersOrder,andthe
manyorganizationsdedicatedtoworker’srightsandCommunistpoliticsacrosstheSouth(see
RobinKelley;HammerandHoe,1990).However,IamalsocontextualizingWrightandPetry’swork
inrelationtothemuralsofJohnBiggerandCharlesWhite,thegraphicartofElizabethCatlettand
PrentissTaylor,themusicandactivismofPaulRobeson(seeStacyMorgan,RethinkingSocial
Realism,2004)andtextssuchasGeorgeSchuyler’sBlackNoMore(1931),WallaceThurman’s
InfantsoftheSpring(1932),LangstonHughes’TheWaysofWhiteFolks(1934),W.E.B.DuBois’Black
Reconstruction(1935),C.L.R.James’BlackJacobins(1989),andNellaLarsen’sQuicksand(1928).
45IintendheretoapplyCedricRobinson’s(1983)definitionofracialcapitalismas,“the
development,organization,andexpansionofcapitalistsocietypursuedessentiallyracialdirections,
sotoodidsocialideology.Asamaterialforce,then,itcouldbeexpectedthatracialismwould
inevitablypermeatesocialstructuresemergentfromcapitalism.Ihaveusedtheterm“racial
capitalism”torefertothisdevelopmentandtothesubsequentstructureasahistoricalagency”(2).
77
faceted,layered,andprofuseinfiltrationofcapitalismintotheeverydaylivesofAfricanAmericans,itismusical/oralcultureandspacesofculturalproductionthatanchortheir
textsandmakeapparenttherelationshipbetweenthematerialpresentandthehistorical
narrativesofraceandcapitalismthatproducetheseconditions.AddressinghowAfricanAmericans’prolongedengagementwithcapitaliststructuresandbourgeoisideologieshas
eitherfacilitatedrevolutionaryculturalformsorneuteredthemfromthesourceswhich
givethemmeaningandvalue,thesetextsdemonstratehowthealigned“aesthetic
ideologies”(Denning202)oftheinterwarperiodoftenproduceddisparateinterpretations
ofculture’srelationshiptocapitalismanditsabilitytoenactsocialchange.Carefulto
discernbetween“culturalpolitics”,orartistsvaryingdegreesofpoliticalaffiliation46,and
theartisticworkitproduced,Denningdefines“aestheticideologies”as:
…theconsciousandunconsciouswayofvaluingthataculturalformation
developsandinculcates,its“aesthetic,”itssenseofwhatisgood,true,and
beautiful.Thisaestheticideologyisrarelystraightforwardand
uncomplicated.Oneusuallyfindsacontradictoryjuxtapositionofexplicitly
formulatedvaluesandprescriptions,aselectedtraditionofvaluable
precursors,ahierarchyofmoreorlessimportantformsandgenres…andthe
tracesofestablishedtastes,acquiredinaparticularhabitus,markedbyclass,
ethnic,andgenderdistinctions.(Denning202)
46Critiquingwhatheidentifiesasarepeatedtendencytoviewtheperiodthrougha“core-
peripherymodel,oneinwhichthecorewastheCommunistPartyandtheperipherywasthe
surroundingcirclesof‘fellowtravelers’withgreaterorlesserdegreesofaffiliation”Denning
encouragesscholarstofocusonthespecificitiesofanyparticularworkratherthanover-reaching
for“theMoscowgoldthatkeptitallrunning”(xviii).
78
ApredecessortoCedricRobinson’scritiquesofracialcapitalism,blackfeminism’s
discussionofintersectionality47,theBlackPowermovement’smaterialistphilosophies,and
hip-hop’sfocusonspaceandtheexpressionofnihilism(amongstmanyothertopics)48,
bothtextsareinterestedinhowcultural-materialistcritiquesinteractwithpoliticaland
socialmeta-narrativestocreatea“senseofwhatisgood,true,andbeautiful.”Creating
directassociationsbetweenthepastandthepresent,musicisnottheonlyfocusofthese
texts,butitistheirlynchpin,theiropportunitytoofferalternativeinterpretationsofhow
racism,Americannarrativesofcapitalistprogress,andlivedconditionshavemodified
African-Americanspsychologicalunderstandingsoftheselfandtheirrelationshipto
ideologiesofreligiousfealtyandAmericanindividualism.
Speakingasthecollective“we”oftheAfrican-Americanworkingclass,Wright’s
photo-textdocumentarynarrates350yearsofhistory,frequentlydrawingconnections
betweenthematerialconditionsofthephotographsandtheideologicalremnantsofracial
capitalismdescribedinthenarrative.Thecreativeextensionofideaspresentedinhis
famousessay“BlueprintforNegroWriting”(1937)49,12Millionpresentsvernacular,
folklore,sermons,andthebluesasbothatrans-historicalrecordofeverydayresistance
andagenealogicaliterationofcapitalism’scontradictions.AradicalassertionofMarxist
historiographyandculturalnationalism,thetextsuggeststhatAfrican-Americans
47See“CombaheeRiverCollective”(1979);HomeGirls(1983);Women,Race,andClass(1982)
48ThisisnottosaythatwritersoftheHarlemRenaissanceand19thcenturywerenotconcerned
withtheseissuesorcontributedtoWrightandPetry’saestheticdevelopment,butthatthesetwo
authorsarecloselyalignedwithmanyradicalpoliticalandaestheticformationsacrossthe20th
century.
49WhileWrightneverexplicitlydiscussedtherelationshipbetweenthesetwotexts,readingthem
side-by-sideclearlydemonstratestherelationshipbetweenhisearlyMarxisttheoriesandthislater
workofcreativenon-fiction.
79
prolongedengagementwithChristianityandracialcapitalism(asbothcommoditiesand
workers)resultedinthedevelopmentofalatent,butrevolutionarysocialconsciousness.
Arguingthattheseaesthetictraditionscanmakeclear“theuneasilytiedknotofpainand
hopewhosesnarledstrandsconvergefrommanypointsofspaceandtime”(12Million11),
WrightpromotesaradicalblackChristianityandviewofthe“wholeculture”as
foundationaltoaccessingasocialdemocraticvisionoffreedomthatliesbeyondthebounds
ofcapitalism.
IfWright’stextarguesforself-determinationandtherevolutionarycapacityof
culture,Petryisfarlesscomfortablewithculture’sabilitytoassuagetheravagesof
capitalism.ToldfromtheindividualperspectiveofLutieJohnson,asinglemotherin
Harlem,TheStreet(1946)presentsspace,andinparticularspacesofculturalproduction,
assiteswherematerialconditionsandideologiesoftheAmericanDreaminteracttoisolate
theindividualandexacerbatealienation.AttentivetowhatMaryPatBradydescribes,asa
“toorigidbinarybetweenthematerialandthediscursive”(6),thetextemploysvividand
relentlessmaterialdetailtodemonstratethedetrimentalrelationshipbetweenideologies
oftheAmericanDreamandsystemicformsofracialexploitationandoppression.Forlarge
partsofthenovel,LutiebelievesintheAmericanDream,intheideathatshe“canstakeout
apieceoflifeforherself”(TheStreet187)throughhardworkanddiligence.However,in
everyjobsheisconfrontedbythematerialcontradictionsofthisideology.Offeredlimited
opportunitiesforworkbecauseofherraceandgender,constantlyunderthethreatof
sexualassault,andentrappedbytheverymoneysheneedstoescape,Lutiedesperately
clingstoa“promiseofprosperityandsocialmobility”(Dicksteinxxi)thatbeganwith
BenjaminFranklinandhaspersistedwellintothe20thcentury.Withanearobsessive
80
internaldialogueaboutmoneyandanattempttoescapethe“dirty,dark,filthytraps”(The
Street73)ofHarlem,Lutieoptimisticallyjumpsattheopportunitytobecomeasingerand
finallyescapethestreet.However,whensherealizesthatsingingissimplyanotherformof
entrapment,allofthefantasiesandvisionsshehasofconstructingabetterlifeforherself
andhersoncomecrashingdown.Thisinteractionwithmusicleadstoherviolentand
tragicdownfall,suggestingthatculture,whilecontainingthepossibilityforprofoundly
expressingthecontradictionsofcapitalism,itisstillcomplicitwithitsmachinationsand
powerlesstotofundamentallyalterthesystemitdescribes.
Byaddressingeachauthor’sstylistictechniquesandmanipulationofgenreform,
andthischapterseekstoenhanceourunderstandingoftheinteractionbetweenculture
andrepresentationsofracialcapitalismduringtheinterwarperiod.Whilethischapter
doestakeintoaccountWrightandPetry’spoliticalthought,itdoesnotprioritizeitas
necessarytoeitherdrawacomparisonbetweenthemorprovideahistoricalmaterialist
readingoftheirtexts.WhatinterestsmeishowWrightandPetry’salignedaesthetic
ideologiesnarratemusic/oralculturetoexplicatetherelationshipbetweenthegenealogies
ofracialcapitalismandcurrentmaterialenvironments.
RichardWright’sDialectic:A“BlueprintforNegroWriting”,CulturalNationalism,
andMobilizingCultureinServiceofPolitics
Revolutionaryintone,emphaticingesture,anddedicatedtonarratingtheAfricanAmericanexperiencethroughacombinationofsweepinghistoricalgestures,
documentariandescription,andphotographicevidence,RichardWright’s12MillionBlack
Voices(1941)reflectsitsinfluenceswhilestillpresentinganascent,butradicaltheoryof
historicalmaterialism.Pioneeredinthelate1930sbyErskineCaldwellandMargaret
81
Bourke-White’sbookYouHaveSeenTheirFaces(1937),thephoto-textdocumentaryorthe
“documentarybook”asWilliamStottidentifiesit,oftenpresentedtenantfarmersand
migrantworkersasmiredinawidespreadhopelessnessthatprovokedboth
sentimentalismanddemandsforsocialjustice.50Commissionedin1935topublicizeand
gainpopularsupportforNewDealinitiatives51,theFarmSecurityAdministrationbegana
vastphotographicarchivethatwasmadeimmediatelyavailableforcirculationto
governmentagencies,newspapersandthedailynewsreels.Whilethesephoto-textsoften
generalizedtheexperienceofthoseitsoughttodescribe,thefrequentinsertionof
photographsmade“thevieweralmostaneyewitness”(Stott76)tothematerialconditions
oftheGreatDepression.Meanttocreateasenseof“equivalence,proof,veracity,and
legality”,documentaryimagespromisedthereaderasenseofthesubject’s“empirical
identity,referentiality,andvalidity”(Goodwin273).Ifviewersheldontothebeliefthat
photographsweremechanicalandlackingbias,theyencounteredthetextorcaptioning,
whichwasoftenegregiouslyoverwrought,foremotionalorvisceralcues.Identifiedby
WilliamStottasamethodof“vicariousorconfessional”writing,thetextencouragedthe
audiencetoempathizewiththewriter’simpressionsofthesubjects.Ifthewriteris
50SeeWilliamStott,DocumentaryExpressionandThirtiesAmerica(1973),pgs.211-238fora
carefulconsiderationofseveralphoto-textsandtheirstylistictendencies.Hisanalysisincludes
JamesAgeeandWalkerEvansLetUsNowPraiseFamousMen(1941),H.C.Nixon’sFortyAcresand
SteelMules(1938),ArchibaldMacLeish’sLandoftheFree(1938),andDortheaLangeandPaul
Taylor’sAnAmericanExodus(1939).SeealsoMichaelDenning;TheCulturalFront:Laboringandof
AmericanCultureintheTwentiethCentury(1997),pgs.118-123.
51NotableNewDealpoliciesincludethecreationoftheSecuritiesandExchangeCommissions
(SEC),theCivilianConservationCorps(CCC),theFederalEmergencyReliefAdministration,the
SocialSecurityAct,andtheWorksProgressAdministration(WPA).SeeMichaelHeale(2002),pgs.
16-44formoreinformationonthesepolicies.
82
outragedorsad,thereadermustbesoaswell.52Althoughinfluencedbythegenre’s
documentarianaesthetic,RichardWright’stextattemptstotransformtheFSAphotographs
intoacallforculturalsolidarityandrevolutionarymaterialism.Disinterestedinlanguage
asempathy,12MillionBlackVoicesrepresents,inthegrandiosevoiceoftheAfricanAmericanworkingclass,theexperiencesofblackpeopleintheUnitedStatesfromthe17th
centuryforward.53Incontrasttotheimmediacyofthephotos,itisWright’stextthat
troublestheabilityofthephotographtoobjectivelyandtransparentlyproduceknowledge
oftheracialsubject.Insistentuponhistoricizingthepolitical,social,andculturalactions
andreactionsthatledtothecircumstancesofthecurrentphotographs,12Millioncreates
whatJeffAllreddescribesasanewformof“historicalinquiry”:
BlackVoicesembodiesthisethic,promotingadocumentaryaestheticthatat
onceestrangesitsreadersfromthesubjectandoffersawaybackthrough
captioning,imaginedasasocialandhistoricalmappingoftherelationships
betweendisparatesociallocationsandsubjectpositions.(Allred553)
Takenalone,thephotographsofferanincompletepictureofAfrican-Americanlife;itistext
that“offersawayback”andcreates“asocialandhistoricalmapping”oftheideologicaland
materialconditionsthatconnectthecommunityacrosstemporalandspatialboundaries.
TextualrecordalsogivesWrightanopportunitytocreativelyengagewiththeencoded,
flexible,andever-evolvingrecordofAfrican-Americanlinguisticandmusicalinvention.
52SeeWilliamStott(1973),pgs.33-36formoreontheideaof“persuasion”and1930sphoto-texts.
Ashenotes,“Thismethodgivesthefactsindirectly,throughanintermediary.Amemberofthe
audienceisn’tputintheplaceofthefirsthandexperiencer;thisroleistakenbysomeoneelse,
whosereactionstothefactsareoftenasinfluentialasthefactsthemselves.”(33)
53JoelWoller’sarticle“First-PersonPlural:TheVoiceoftheMassesinFSADocumentary”outlines
themultiplecritiquesRichardWrightreceivedafterthereleaseof12MillionBlackVoices.
83
ParticularlyinterestedintherelationshipbetweenculturalaestheticsandAmerican
capitalism,Wrightpresentedlanguageasasourceofpotentiallypowerfulpolitical
collectivities.AsJamesGoodwinnotesinhisdiscussionofthecreativerelationship
betweenWrightandRosskum:
WhileWrighthadbeeneagertocollaborateonthisphoto-text,12Million
BlackVoicesultimatelyprovestomakeanoperative,categoricaldistinction
betweenpicturesasadescriptive,mechanical,folkloricrecordandwords
withtheirvitalcapacityfordouble,evenmultiple,voicingthroughirony,
conceptualization,abstraction,andexhortation.(287,italicshis)
ManyphotographicdepictionsoftheDepressioneraportray“thepeoplearepinnedlike
socialspecimens,frozenintoposturesthatallowlittlemovement,noescape”(Dickstein
36).WrightjuxtaposesthephotographswiththemultiplemeaningembeddedinAfricanAmericansermons,blues,vernacular,andmusic.Dependentontone,cadence,rhythm,
metaphor,doubleentendre,andsignifying(amongstmanyotherpractices54),thesecultural
expressionscreatedasharedhistoryofaesthetics,assimilation,andrebellion.Throughoral
andmusicalculture,African-Americanscreatedmultipleandoftencontradictory
interpretationsoflanguage,utterancesthatmadeitpossibletospeakofcapitalist
contradictionwithoutfearofreprimandfromslaveholders,overseers,businesses,orthe
government.
Encouragingacontinuedshiftfromhistoricalsubjectstohistoricalagents,Wright’s
famousessay“BlueprintforNegroWriting”callsforincreasedattentiontothis“cultural
54SeeJamesWeldonJohnson’sintroductiontoGod’sTrombones(1927),ZoraNealeHurston’s
“ChracteristicsofNegroExpression”(1934),andStephenHenderson’sUnderstandingtheNew
BlackPoetry(1973)formoreontheintricaciesofsermons,blackvernacular,andmusic.
84
nationalism”,orexpressionsthatcouldgrantAfrican-Americans“accesstoawidesocial
visionandadeepsocialconsciousness”(“Blueprint”46).FrustratedbytheCommunist
Party’spatternofwriting“anideologyfortheworkingclassesratherthanoftheworking
classes”(Robinson305),WrightadoptedLenin’stheorythattheproletarianshouldbe
definednotonlybytheirclass,butalsobytheparticularitiesoftheirstruggleswithforms
ofbourgeoisoppression.55InWright’sview,Marxism“hadoversimplifiedtheexperienceof
thoseitsoughttolead”(“ITriedtobeaCommunist”);notallworkersexperienced
capitalisminthesameway,nordidtheyalwaysattempttomobilizeduetoclass
antagonisms.Encompassingthemovementfromslaverytosharecropping,migration,and
eventualequalityandfreedom,12Millionattemptstocapture“awholeculture”,oraseries
ofhistoricaleventsandaestheticsthat“helpedtoclarify[thecommunity’s]consciousness
andcreateemotionalattitudesthatareconducivetoaction”(“Blueprint”46).The
integrationofphotos,historicalnarratives,asermon,blueslyrics,anddiscussionsof
vernacularareattemptstonotonlytracethepersistentrelationshipbetweenraceand
capitalism,butalsotoillicitafeelingofpossessionoverculturalpracticeamongstthe
community.AnticipatingCedricRobinson’slaterworkonculturallyspecificformsof
everydayresistance56,Wright’stextarguesforblackaestheticsasamethodfor
55AsLeninnotesinhisessay“ThesesontheNationalandColonialQuestion”,“Inconformitywith
theitsfundamentaltaskofcombatingbourgeoisdemocracyandexposingitsfalsenessand
hypocrisy,theCommunistParty,astheavowedchampionoftheproletarianstruggletooverthrow
thebourgeoisyoke,mustbaseitspolicy,inthenationalquestiontoo…onapreciseappraisalofthe
specifichistoricalsituationand,primarily,ofeconomicconditions;second,onacleardistinction
betweentheinterestsoftheoppressedclasses,ofworkingandexploitedpeople,andthegeneral
conceptofnationalinterestsasawhole,whichimpliestheinterestsoftherulingclass…”
56AsRobinsondiscussesinhisinvestigationofmarronageandblackradicalism,“Whenseparation
wasnotpossible,openrevoltsmightfester;whererebellionwasimmediatelyimpractical,the
peoplepreparedthemselvesthroughobeah,voodoo,Islam,andBlackChristianity.Throughthese
theyinducedcharismaticexpectations,socializingandhardeningthemselvesandtheiryoungwith
85
communicatinghistoricalnarrativewhilechallengingthegenealogyandoppressivebiasof
itspreviousiterations.
Dividedintofoursections,eachrepresentinganimportantpointofdeparturefor
WrightinthenarrationofAfrican-Americanhistory57,thetextbeginswithananalysisof
thedialecticalrelationship58betweencapitalistenterprise,race,andhumanistphilosophies
ofenlightenment.Vitaltothelaterunderstandingofthesermonasaformofradical
resistance,thissectiondiscusseshowtheEuropeanmind“flushedwithanewandnoble
conceptoflife,ofitsinherentdignity,ofitsunlimitedpossibilities,ofitsnaturalworth,
thesemenleapedupontheroadofprogress;andtheirleapwasthewindfallofourtragedy”
(12).59TakingwhatscholarDavidG.Nichollsidentifiesasa“tabularasaapproach”60tothe
aftermathoftheMiddlePassage,WrightdisengagesfromtheAfricanpasttocreatea
theoryofculturalnationalismthatspecificallyaddressestheparadoxofAmericanliberty,
Christianideology,andracialcapitalism:
beliefs,myths,andmessianicvisionsthatwouldallowthem,someday,toattempttheimpossible.
(310)
57HebeginswiththejourneythroughtheMiddlePassageandabriefexplicationofthehumanist
philosophiesthesupportedslavery,thenmovesintothedynamicsofsharecroppingandthe
impetusfortheGreatMigration.Thethirdsectionaddressestheurbanexperiencesaftermigration,
whilethefinalsectionlookstowardsthefutureoftheraceandtheirmovementtowardssocial,
political,andeconomicfreedom.
58DerivedfromMarxistphilosophiesofhistory,myuseofthedialecticsreflectsscholarMoyra
Haslett’sassertioninher2000book,MarxistLiteraryandCulturalTheories:“…whiledialecticsis
generallyheldtomeantheinteractionbetweencontradictoryoroppositeforces,itsisalsocrucially
aconsiderationofprocess,theconstantchange,motion,transformationwhichcharacterizehistory
andsociety,andthetracingofinternalcontradictionsthatmakeacoherentwholeofthisprocess.
(37)
59Inthissection,WrightalsodiscussesthecomplexityofAfricancultureswho“ironed,danced,
mademusic,andrecitedfolkpoems…spuncottonandwool…minedsilverandgold…hadourown
literature,ourownsystemsoflaw,religion,medicine,science,andeducation…centuriesbeforethe
Romansruled,welivedasmen”(13).
60Althoughherefutesit’spurpose,NichollsdescribesWright’snarrationasfollows:“Thenewly
arrivedslavewasaculturaltabularasawhoserawandnumbedbodywillbegivenanew
consciousnesswithwhichtounderstandtheimagesandsymbolsoflifeonAmericanshores.”(117)
86
CaptivityunderChristendomblastedourlives,disruptedourfamilies,
reacheddownintothepersonalitiesofeachoneofusanddestroyedthevery
imagesandsymbolswhichhadguidedourmindsandfeelingsinaneffortto
live.Ourfolkwaysandfolktales,whichhadoncegivenmeaningandsanction
toouractions,fadedfromconsciousness.Ourgodsweredeadandanswered
usnomore.(15)
WhilemanyscholarshavedisputedorflatoutreputedtheideathatAfricantraditionswere
erasedinthetraumaticjourneythroughtheMiddlePassage61,Wrightsoughttocreatea
specificminorityoutlook62,aculturalperspectivethat,becauseitwas“lackingthe
handicapsoffalseambitionandproperty”(“Blueprint”46),couldarticulatenotonlythe
relationshipbetweenraceandcapitalism,butalsoofferarevolutionaryvisionforchange.63
ForWright,oncetheAfricanpast“fadedfromconsciousness”andtheir“godsweredead
andansweredthemnomore”,African-Americans’culturalandreligiouspracticesbecame
inextricablyboundtotheparadoxesofChristianideology,Enlightenmentideals,and
systemsofracialcapitalism.Promisedtoallcitizens,butdemarcatedforthefew,the
promiseof“Liberty,Equality,andFraternity”(17)alwayshingedontheologically
rationalizedformsofracism:
61SeeHenryLouisGatesJr.(1988);LeroiJones(1963);PaulGilroy(1993);SaidiyaHartman(1997)
62ThisapproachbyWrightalsoechoesGeorgeLukacs1923essay“TheStandpointofthe
Proletariat”.SeeHistoryandClassConsciousness(1968),pgs.149-223.Itcouldalsobesaidthat
Wrightviewshimselfasan“organicintellectual”intheveinofAntonioGramsci.SeePrison
Notebooks(1971),pgs.3-24,44-52.
63Developedwithsomedisregardforhistoricalaccuracy,Wright’spresumesthatthecollective
“we”oftheAfrican-Americanvoiceisexclusivelyproletarian.SeeCarlaCappetti(1985)formore
informationofWright’srelationshipwiththeChicagoSchoolandSociologyanditsrelationshipto
thedocumentariantoneofWright’sworkthroughoutthelate30’sandearly40’s.
87
ToevadetheprevailingChristianinjunctionthatallbaptizedmenarefree,
andtocheckourgrowingrecordofrevolt,theyculledfromtheBiblea
thousandquotableversesadmonishingusslavestobetruetoourmasters.
Thereupontheyfeltthattheyhadsquaredconsciencewithpractice,andthey
extendedChristiansalvationtouswithouttheboonoffreedom.Thisdual
attitudecombinedwiththeloveofgoldandGod64,wasthebeginningof
America’spaternalisticcodetowardsherblackmaid,herblackindustrial
worker,herblackstevedore,herblackdancer,herblackwaiter,herblack
sharecropper;itwasacodeofcasualcruelty,ofbrutalkindness,ofgenial
despotism…thatdominates,insmallorlargemeasure,allblackandwhite
relationsthroughoutthenationuntilthisday.(18)
Byideologicallyjustifyingtheirgreedandracismthroughreligion,slavetraders,
governments,andindividualsmanagedtocreatea“paternalisticcode”that“squared
practicewithconscious.”Other-worldlyfreedomwasgrantedwhilebasiccivilandhuman
rightswereignored.Thejuxtapositionofsentimentssuchas“casualcruelty”and“brutal
kindness”mimicsracialcapitalism’srationaleandinterrogatesitsalignmentwiththeology
asaformoffreedom.Apolitical,social,andeconomicmeta-narrativethatmadepossible
thedesignationofAfrican-Americansasslavesoraperpetualproletariat,thisideologyis
stillfeltinthematerialconditionsofthe“industrialworker”ofthecity,the“sharecropper”
inthesouth,the“maid”inprivatehomes,andthe“dancer”onpublicstages(allofwhom
arepresentedinthephotographs).Transformingthephotographsfromstatic
64EchoingW.E.B.DuBois’spronouncementin“OftheWingsofAtalanta”that“Atalantaisnotthe
firstmaidenwhomgreedofgoldhasledtodefilethetempleofLove…andinallourNation’s
strivingisnottheGospelofWorkdefiledbytheGospelofPay?”(60).
88
representationstoanopportunityto“seethelivingpastlivinginthepresent”(12Million
46),thenarrativecompressestheexperiencesofthepresentintoasuccinctiterationofthe
past.Thisisanearlyattempttodemonstratehowtheversatilityoflanguageinthepresent,
canoffertoarevolutionaryandtrans-historicalconsciousness.Inindividualexchanges
betweenfriendsorfamily,infolklore,spirituals,andtheblues,African-Americans’ability
tomaster,thendrasticallyalterthelanguageandmusicoftheoppressorscreatedcultural
expressionsthatoftenservedasbothprotectivemasksandsubversivecritiques.65As
Wrightnotes,inthefaceofracistsocialandeconomicconditions,thecommunitywasable
toexpressacoherentcollectiveidentity:
Andwechargedthismeagerhordeofstolensoundswithalltheemotions
andlongingswehad;weproceededtobuildourlanguageininflectionsof
voice,throughtonalvariety,byhurriedspeech,inhoneyeddrawls…by
assigningcommon,simplewordsnewmeanings,meaningwhichenabledus
tospeakofrevoltintheactualpresenceoftheLordsoftheLandwithout
theirbeingaware!Oursecretlanguageextendedourunderstandingofwhat
slaverymeantandgaveusfreedomtoourbrothersincaptivity;wepolished
ournewwords,caressedthem,gavethemnewshapeandcolor,aneworder
andtempo…untiltheybecameourwords,ourlanguage.(12Million40)
Incontrasttothebelief“thatblackmenandwomenaremis-speakers,bereftofhumanity”
(Baker21),Wright’stextfocusesontheefficacyoffolkcultureasarecordofthe
relationshipbetweenideologicalmeta-narrativesandcurrentmaterialconditions.Through
chiasmus,metaphor,doubleentendre,andshiftsinrhythm,tone,speed,andbodilygesture,
65SeealsoLouisChude-Sokei(2005);EricLott(1993);KevinYoung(2012).
89
wordsbecameaculturalaestheticthatcouldexpressthelong-standingandever
transformingrelationshipbetweenraceandcapitalism.
Anextensionoffolkcultureandaninvaluablesiteforcommunityorganizationand
politicalsolidarity,thechurchoccupiesacentralplaceinthetext.Anattempttoreconcile
thespiritualandthesecular,themindandthebody,thematerialandthediscursive,this
sectionemploysoralandmusicalculturetoexplicatetherelationshipbetweensermons,
spiritualsandtheblues.Placedatthecenterofthebook,Wrightbrieflyintroducesthe
readertothetraditionsofpreparingforchurch,thenimmediatelyturnstothesermonas
capableofcommunicatingasharedhistoricalunderstandingor“vision”:
Thepreachertellsofdayslongagoandofapeoplewhosesufferingswere
likeours.HepreachesofHebrewchildrenandfieryfurnaces,ofDaniel,of
Moses,ofSolomon,andofChrist.Whatwehavenotdaredfeelinthe
presenceoftheLordsoftheLand,wenowfeelinchurch.Ourheartsand
bodies,reciprocallyactinguponeachother,swingoutintothemeaningof
thestorythepreacherisunfolding.Oureyesbecomeabsorbedinavision…”
(12Million68)
Evenasthereaderislookingatphotographsandscenesofthechurch,Wrightimplores
themtocreateanew“vision”throughlanguage,tosearchfornew“meaning”inthe
cadence,tone,andnarrativeofthepreacher.Thechurchisnotsimplyarefugeforthesoul,
butasitewherethebodyandsoul,“reciprocallyactinguponeachother”cancreateavision
ofblackradicalChristianity.Justasthesoulcannotbeseparatedfromthematerial
conditionsitencounters,thelanguageofthepreachercannotbedissociatedfromthe
90
everydayrealitiesitaddresses.AsCornelWestwilllaternoteinhisinvestigationof
propheticAfro-Christiantheology:
ForpropheticChristianity,thetwoinseparablenotionsoffreedomare
existentialfreedomandsocialfreedom…Socialfreedomistheaimof
Christianpoliticalpractice,apraxisthatflowsfromthedivinegiftofgrace;
socialfreedomresultsfromthepromotionandactualizationofthenormsof
individualityanddemocracy.Existentialfreedomempowerspeopletofight
forsocialfreedom,torealizeitspoliticaldimension.Existentialfreedom
anticipateshistoryandisultimatelytranshistorical,whereassocialfreedom
isthoroughlyamannerofthisworldlyhumanliberation.(West18)
Asnotedearlier,Wrightisdeterminedtoblurthearbitrarydivisionsbetweenthebodyand
thesoul,betweenrecognizingthenecessityforfreedomandactinguponthatneed.A
combinationofpoliticalpraxisandadeep,abidingfaithinthepossibilitiesforthefuture,
Wright’ssermon“markstheemergenceofanewcultureintheshelloftheold”(“Blueprint
48).MimickingasermonthatJamesWeldonJohnsondescribedin1927asbothfamiliar
and“generallypreached”,Wrightrelaysanarrativethat“beganwiththeCreation,rambled
throughthetrailsandtribulationsoftheHebrewChildren,andendedwithJudgmentDay
andawarningandexhortationtosinners”(Johnson1).Choosingtoitalicizethesermon
andprovidenopunctuationtoslowthemomentumofthelanguage,theaudiencemust
decidewhentopause,whentobreathe,whataccentuationtomake,andwhatmeaningto
derivebetweenthesermonandtheimages.Whenthepreacherdescribesmankind’sfall
andthat“GodseeingthisdecreesthatManshallliveinLawnotLoveandmustendureToil
andPainandDeathandmustdigforhisbreadinthestonyearth”(71),itisintendedthatthe
91
audiencewillbothreflectontheirindividualexperiencesinthechurchandhowtheyrelate
tothematerialconditionsofthegroup.Relayingimagesofspeakingandlistening,singing
andpraying,exhortationandcalmreflection,thephotosareenergizedbythetextthat
accompaniesthem.Representedintheswayingmotionofthepreacherandthesingingof
thechoir,theimagesaremeanttopullthereaderfromsociologicalabstractionintoarecreationofexperience.Thereaderisnolongerexperiencingthesephotosasanempathetic
gesture,butareparticipatinganexperienceoftranscendentvision.Theyarenotintended
tobepassiverecipientsofthissermon,butactiveparticipantsinaccessingthepresentasa
powerfulreimaginationofthepastandfuture.AscanbeseeninWright’sfinallinesofthe
sermon,thedescriptionoftheSecondComingcommunicatesalatent,althoughvaluable,
iterationofcapitalistcritique.ThisvisionofradicalblackChristianityreanimatesthepast
tomodifyhowweunderstandthepresentandenvisionthefuture.
92
Hewillcomeforasecondtimebringingnotpeacebutaswordtoroutthe
powersofdarknessandbuildanewJerusalemandGodthroughhisprophets
saysthatthefinalfightthelastbattleArmageddonwillberesumedandwill
endureuntiltheendofTimeandDeath…(72).
EnabledbyGod,butexecutedbythememberssinging,speaking,andlisteningtohisword,
thesermonoutlinesthemomentinwhichexistentialandsocialfreedomare
simultaneouslyrealized.Freeingthebodyandsoulfromthetemporalboundariesofdeath
andtraditionalgenealogies,thefinallinesimplorethecongregationtooverthrowtheir
circumstancesand,likethenarrativeofArmageddon,createa“newJerusalem”witha
“swordtoroutthepowersofdarkness.”Itisonlyatthismoment,whenthematerialityof
thepresentcomesintodirectconversationwiththepast,thatthelatentiterationsofa
capitalistcritiqueandthefirststepstowardsactioncanbetaken.AsWrightdescribes:
Herearethosevitalbeginningsofarecognitionoflifeasitislived…Andat
themomentthisprocessstarts,atthemomentwhenapeoplebegintorealize
ameaningintheirsuffering,thecivilizationthatengendersthatsufferingis
doomed.(“Blueprint”48)66
Thesermonismorethanacollectionofwords,itisaculturalaestheticthatenables
African-Americanstoseea“meaningintheirsuffering”.Wrightdoesnotsimplywantthe
congregationtofeelreleasefromdailystruggles,buttounderstandthatreleaseas
reflectiveoftheircapacitytochangetheirmaterialrealitiesandgenuinelypossess
66AsMarxnotesinTheCommunistManifesto,“Whenpeoplespeakoftheideasthatrevolutionize
society,theydobutexpressthatfactthatwithintheoldsocietytheelementsofanewonehave
beencreated,andthatthedissolutionoftheoldideaskeepsevenpacewiththedissolutionofthe
oldideasofexistence”(73-74).
93
freedom.Thisformofsocialandrevolutionaryconsciousnessbeginsinthesouland
emanatesoutwardintothebody,intothematerial.ThisiswhyWrightemergesfromthe
preacher’snarrativeintoadescriptionofthebody,ofthereactionsofthecongregation
afterthispropheticvisionofstrugglethatleadstoanewfuture:
…thepreacher’svoiceissweettous,caressingandlashing,conveyingtousa
heighteningofconsciousnessthattheLordsofLandwouldratherkeepfrom
us,fillinguswithasenseofhopethatistreasonabletotheruleofQueen
Cotton(12Million73).
Implyinganorgasmicintensitythatemergesfromthevitalityofthesermon,thepreacher’s
voiceis“caressingandlashing”thecongregationasit“increasesinemotionalintensity.”As
theygrapplewithafreedomexistentiallyfelt,butyettobesociallyrealized,the
congregationentersintoaclimaticmomentinwhichtheyforget“whoweare,whatweare,
orwhereweare”(73).Renewingasenseofhopethatpermeatesthebodyandempowers
themind:“Wegohomepleasantlytiredandsleepeasily,forweknowthatwehold
somewherewithinourheartsapossibilityofinexhaustiblehappiness…”(73).This
temporaryassuageholdsthepossibilityforpermanence,foran“inexhaustiblehappiness”
thatcanemergefromAfrican-Americanaestheticsandtheircapacityforalternative
historicalnarratives.AsWrightwouldlaterdiscussina1961interview:
Protestantministershaveputtoreligioususethesexualpowerofconvulsive
songsandhavechanneledaphrodisiacmusicintospirituals…Inspirituals
andinRayCharles—Irepeat—thereisthesameeroticexultation.Thisaspect
ofblackmusichasbeendeniedforwaytoolong.Thefaithofmysticsandof
94
mostblackshasasexualingredientwhichwellmeaningpeoplearetootimid
todareadmit,butwhichmustbeproclaimed(Tenot242).
Despitethemultiplewaysthecommunity,bothwhiteandblack,triedtocreateadivision
betweenthemiddle-classrespectabilityofthespiritualsandtheloosemoralsoftheblues,
Wrightrefusesthecompulsiontocategorize“thewholeculture”heisattemptingto
narrate.Inthesamewayacongregationmemberisnotashamedto“floatonatideof
passion”duringthesermon,noristhecommunity“ashamedtogoofaSaturdaynightto
thecrossroaddancehallandslowdrag,ballthejack,andCharlestontoanoldguitarand
piano”(12Million73).Itisnocoincidencethatonthepageimmediatelyfollowingthe
congregation,Wrightdocumentsablueslinesthattroublesthesupposeddivisionbetween
thespiritualandthesecular;“Iloveyouonce/Iloveyoutwice/Iloveyounextto/Jesus
Christ”(74).Emergingfromthedifferent,butequallyharshconditionsofmigrationandthe
urbancitiesoftheNorth,theblues“representedfreedominmoreimmediateand
accessibleterms”(Davis7).Nolongeranimpossibilitytoachievematerialfreedom,blues
artistsrarelyfocusedonthe“other-worldly”aspirationsofthepreviousgenerations.
Insteadtheyindicatedashiftfromonevisionoffreedomtoanother,fromaspiritual
longingforreleasetoanopenandbluntdeclarationofmaterialfreedom.Additionally,they
tracedashiftintheparticularitiesofracialcapitalism.AsWrightdescribes:
Ontheplantationsoursongscarriedastrainofother-worldlyyearning
whichpeoplecalled“spiritual”;butnowourblues,jazz,swing,andboogiewoogieareour“spirituals”ofthecitypavements,ourlongingforfreedom
andopportunity,anexpressionofourbewildermentanddespairinaworld
whosemeaningeludesus.(12Million128)
95
ForWright,thesetwoexpressionsarenotfundamentallyseparate,butindicateashiftin
consciousnessthatcouldbeharnessedtofacilitaterevolutionarychange.Offeringa
photographicparallelbetweenthespaceofthechurchandthespaceofthejukejointor
cabaret,EdwardRosskum’sphotographscaptureasimilarsentiment,acapacityfor
communaljoythat“banishesthefearoflonelinessanddeath”andallowsfora“reservoirof
humanfeeling”(12Million73).Despitebeingmisrepresentedandmisunderstoodbywhite
audiences,thewomenphotographedbelowexpressthepotentialforbodilyormaterial
freedomwhenexistentialfreedomorasharedunderstandingofthepastempowersthem.
Incontrasttothewhiteaudiencewhomayengagewiththebook,eachphotocontainsan
impliedorfullyrenderedAfrican-Americanaudiencewhocouldtransformcultural
solidarityintorevolutionaryaction.Folklore,music,orality,andreligioncompressthepast
96
andpresent,offeravisionofthepresentandfuturethatrestfirmlyinanunderstandingof
thepast.Yet,ultimatelythisknowledgemustleadtoaction,mustnecessitatechangesthat
restbeyondtheconfinesoflanguage.AsWrightnotesinthefinal,grandiose
pronouncementofthetext:
…hundredsofthousandsofusaremovingintothesphereofconscious
history.Wearewiththenewtide.Westandatthecrossroads.Wewatcheach
newprocession.Thehotwirescarryurgentappeals.Printcompelsus.Voices
arespeaking.Menaremoving!Andweshallbewiththem…(12Million147)
JustasAfrican-Americanaestheticsrestsatthe“crossroads”ofthespiritualandthe
secular,African-Americanworkersmustrecognizetheir“wholeculture”(“Blueprint”46)
asarecordthatmovesthecommunityfromreflectionsofoppression“intothesphereof
conscioushistory.”Gesturingtowardstheprintculture,photographs,radiotransmissions,
andpoliticalvoicesofthetime,thefinallinesembracetheaestheticideologiesoftheperiod
whilegesturingtowardstheircapacitytoincitenewformsofhistoricalnarrativeand
revolutionarychange.12MillionBlackVoicesbelievesinthepowerofmaterialist
aesthetics,butrefusestobecontainedbyMarxistnarrativesofahomogenousworking
class.Wright’stextinsistsonculturalspecificityasastrength,asawaytorenewthe
principlesofMarxismwithoutoverlookingthehistoricalspecificitiesofthoseit
characterizes.Theever-growingculturalapparatusesofthenationservetomakethese
historicalresonancesclear,tofacilitateadiscussionoftherelationshipbetweenthepast,
thepresent,andrevolutionaryhopesforthefuture.
RepresentationsofSpaceandtheAlienationoftheAmericanDreaminAnnPetry’s
TheStreet
97
RatherthansituatingcultureasarevolutionaryhistoricalforceinthelivesofAfricanAmericans,AnnPetry’sTheStreetpresentsmusicandspacesofculturalproductionas
simplyanothersiteinfiltratedbytheinterlockingoppressions67ofracialcapitalism.
CenteredaroundLutieJohnson,asinglemotherdeterminedtopullherselfoutofpoverty,
andasmallcastofcharacterslivinginthecrowded,industrialcentersofthenorth,the
novelappliesrelentlessdocumentariandetailasamethodforbreakingdownwhatscholar
MaryPatBradydescribesasthe“toorigidbinarybetweenthematerialandthediscursive”
(6).JuxtaposingLutie’sinternaldialogueofhardworkwiththeracedandgendered
machinationsofherexternalenvironments,thenovelisnotonlyshapedbythetangible
qualitiesofthespacesLutieencounters,butbythediscursiveideologiesthatenabletheir
existence.AsBradydiscussesinherworkwithChicanafiction:
Literaturethrivesontheintersectionsbetweentheshapingpowersof
languageandtheproductivepowersofspace…itusesspaceandspatial
processesmetaphoricallytosuggestemotions,insights,concepts,characters.
Italsoshapesthewayspaceisperceived,understood,andultimately
produced…Takingtheperformativityofspaceseriouslyalsomeans
understandingthatcategoriessuchasgender,race,andsexualityarenot
onlydiscursivelyconstructedbutspatiallyenactedandcreatedaswell.(8)
Suggestingthatphilosophiesoftheself-mademanhavefundamentallyalteredhow
African-Americansunderstandtheirmaterialrealitiesandthepossibilitiesforescaping
thoserealities,thenovelpresentsspaceasasitewherethematerialandideological
67FootnoteblackfeministrenderingofthisconceptandgesturetowardsPetry’splacein
constructingthatnarrative.
98
paradoxesofcapitalismcomeintodirectconflictwithoneanother.Beginningwitha
visceralanalogybetweenthemicro-aggressionsofspaceandtheideologiesofracial
capitalism,thenovelimmediatelydrawsattentiontothe“discursivelyconstructedbut
spatiallyenacted”specificitiesoflivingonthestreet.TheonlytimePetrynarratesascene
freefromanindividualcharacter’sthoughtsorfeelings,theopeningparagraphsestablish
notonlythedocumentarianaestheticofthenovel,buttheconcernwithcreatingphysical
spacesthatreverberatewiththeactiveandactivatingforcesofcapitalistideology.
Characterizedashindrancetonearlyeverycitizenlivingthere,Petrydescribesthestreetas
aplacethathindersmovementandmakeseventhesimplestoftasksdifficult:
TherewasacoldNovemberwindblowingthrough116thStreet…itdrove
mostpeopleoffthestreetintheblockbetweenSeventhandEightAvenues
exceptforafewhurriedpedestrianswhobentdoubleinanefforttoofferthe
leastpossibleexposedsurfacetoitsviolentassault…Fingeringitswayalong
thecurb,thewindsetthebitsofpapertodancinghigherintheair,sothata
barrageofpaperswirledintothefacesofthepeopleonthestreet…Itfound
allthedirtandgrimeonthesidewalkandlifteditupsothedirtgotintotheir
noses,makingitdifficulttobreathe;thedustgotintotheireyesandblinded
them;andthegritstungtheirskins.Itwrappednewspaperaroundtheirfeet
entanglingthemuntilpeoplecurseddeepintheirthroats,stampedtheirfeet,
kickedatthepaper.Thewindblewitbackagainandagainuntiltheywere
forcedtostoopanddislodgethepaperwiththeirhands.Andthenthewind
grabbedtheirhats,priedtheirscarvesfromaroundtheirnecks,stuckits
fingersinsidetheircoatcollars,blewtheircoatsawayfromtheirbodies…The
99
windliftedLutieJohnson’shairawayfromthebackofhernecksothatshe
feltsuddenlynakedandbald…(TheStreet1-2)
Animatedbyanunseen,butpowerfulforcethestreetconstantlyproducesviolencesthat
theresidentsfeel(“thegritstungtheirskins”),butcannottracebacktotheirorigins.A
powerfulanalogybetweenthemicro-aggressionsoflivingonthestreetandtheideologies
ofracialcapitalism,thewindisdescribedasbothafeatureoftheweatherandapersonality
withouthumanity.Withcompletedisregardfortheinhabitantscomfortorwell-being,the
wind“entangles”peopletothepointofrage,“blinds”themwithpaper,dirt,anddust,
“discourages”theirmovement,andoftenmakesit“difficulttobreathe.”Ittransformsthe
street“frompassivenoun(asobject)toactiveverb(asdoing)”(Brady5),makingevery
“oldenvelope”,“chickenbone,”pieceofscrappaper,and(notinconsequentially)
“newspapers”ahindrancetomovementandanobstructionofsight.(Petry1)Evenasthe
residents“stoop”topreventthesepublicforumsfrom“entangling”them,theyfindtheir
personalprotections;theirhats,scarves,andcoatsareunderanequallyviciousattack.
Offeringnospaceforreprieve,it“grabbed”,“pried”,and“stuckitsfingersinsidetheircoat
collars”untiltheactcollapsesthedivisionbetweenpublicandprivateandbecomes
naturalized,orsimplyput,anotherdayonthestreet.
Seamlesslytransitioningfromthisgeneralanalogytotheexperiencesofthe
individual,thewind“liftedLutieJohnson’shairawayfromthebackofhernecksothatshe
feltsuddenlynakedandbald”(TheStreet2).Confrontedbytheprospectoflivinginan
apartmentbuildingwherethehallwaysaredark,thewallsarethin,therentisinflated,and
thesignclaiming“reasonable…couldmeanalmostanything”(4),Lutieviewshertimeon
thestreetasatemporaryimpedimenttotheultimatesuccesspromisedbytheAmerican
100
Dream.Althoughsheknowstherewillbea“rattling,clangingnoiseintheradiators”,
“drunkandloudmouthandquarrelsome”tenants,andwallsso“flimsy”that“thegood
people,thebadpeople,thechildren,thedogs,andgodawfulsmellswouldallbewrapped
together”,shegoestotheapartmentinthehopesofdistancingherselffromherfather,who
isadrunk,andhernow-estrangedhusband,whowasunabletofindwork.Despiteher
initialhesitance,Lutieagreestotourtheapartmentand,undertheleeringeyesofthe
superintendent,beginstothinkofhergrandmotherand“allthosetalesaboutthingsthat
peoplesensedbeforetheyactuallyhappened.Talesthathadbeenhandeddownanddown
anddownuntil,ifyoutriedtotracethembackyou’dendupGodknowswere—probably
Africa”(TheStreet16).Incontrastthedetaileddescriptionsofthetenantsandthefeatures
ofthebuilding,Lutieisquicktodismissthe“tales”thatconnecthertoherrecentand
distantancestors.Isolatedfromthefamilialstructuresandculturaltraditionsthathad
previouslygivenherlifestability,Lutiemustfocusonherimmediatematerialrealities.Itis
onlywhenshepausesforamomenttoobservetheapartmentthatshebeginsto
subconsciouslyhum:
Shestartedhummingunderherbreath,notrealizingshewasdoingit.Itwas
anoldsongthatGrannyusedtosing.‘Ain’tnorestin’placeforasinnerlike
me.Likeme.Likeme.’Ithadanicerecurrentrhythm.‘Likeme.Likeme.’The
hummingincreasedinvolumeasshestoodtherethinkingaboutthe
apartment.(TheStreet17)
Althoughsheremembershergrandmother’sabilitytorecallhundredsofthesesongsand
tales,Lutiesimplyrecallsthissongasaforceofhabit.Despitehergesturetowardsan
Africanpastandherrecitationofaspiritual,shedoesnotunderstandhowthesong
101
commentsonAfrican-Americansmovementfromplacetoplace,orhowthe“nicerecurrent
rhythm”ofthemusichistoricallyechoesthevoicesofthose“likeme”whoalsosuffered
fromoppressivematerialconditions.Thesongissimplysomethingtopasstimeas“she
stoodtherethinkingabouttheapartment.”Infact,immediatelyaftershehasthismoment
ofsubconsciousmemory,the“queer,muffledsound”oftheSupernearbyfillshermind
withvisionsofapotentialsexualassault.Staringatherandactingstrangesinceherarrival,
thesuperintendentpresentsaloomingthreattoLutie’spersonalsafety.Somuchsothat
Lutiecannotpreventthinkingofwhatmayhappen:
‘Whatwasthat?’shesaidsharply,thinking,MyGod,supposeI’ddropped[the
flashlight],supposeI’dbeenleftstandinghereinthedarkofthislittle
room…Supposehestartedwalkingtowardme,nearerandnearerinthedark.
AndIcouldonlyhearhisfootsteps,couldn’tseehim,butcouldhearhim
comingcloseruntilIstartedreachingoutinthedarktryingtokeephimaway
fromme,tryingtokeephimfromtouchingme…(17)
Prioritizingsightoversound,Lutiepanicsatthethoughtoftheapartmentobstructingher
visionandmakingitimpossibletoobjectivelyevaluatehersituation.Incontrasttothe
promised“proof”and“veracity”ofdocumentaryfilmandthe“appealingfantasiesto
countersocialandeconomicmalaise”(Dickstein8)incommercialcinema,thisscene
thrivesonthelossofsight,onthethreatsthatemergefromLutie’sinabilitytotrulyseethe
imminentthreatsheknowsexists.ThematerialconditionsthatLutieconfrontsareso
threateningandimmediatethattheimaginedsoundsofthesuperintendentcoming
towardshersupersedeherremembranceofsongsandtalesfromherchildhood.
Suggesting,throughthisexchangebetweenLutie’spastandpresent,thatAfrican-American
102
culturalmemoryisbeingslowlyoverwhelmed,oratleastmuffled,byoppressivematerial
realities,Petrythenturnstothenarrativesofconsumerismthathavetakentheirplace.
Returningtoanaestheticofvision,PetryintroducesthereadertoLutie’smemories
throughtheimageofacommodity,oraseeminglysimpleadvertisementonthesubway.In
anerawhen“theassemblylinebecameacommonmetaphorforanimpoverished,brutal
worklife,andmassproductionananalogyforunindividuatedpersons”(Dinerstien139),
commercialinterestsstillmonopolizedhowmanycitizensunderstoodAmericanidentity
andDepression-erapolitics.Throughthecontinuedpermutationofadvertisingagencies
andindustrialdesigners,massculturebecamethemouthpieceforbigbusinessandwhite
heteronormativevalues.Often“constrictingtheirviewoftheaudiencetoamereprojection
oftheirowncultured,educated,cosmopolitanself-image”(Marchand83),advertising
agenciesignoredconstituenciesthatwereeithersystemicallyeliminatedfromorrestricted
accesstotheprivilegesofupperandmiddle-classwhitefamilies.68AsPetrysopoignantly
demonstrates,Lutie’sengagementwiththeadvertisementrevealsacomplexintersection
betweenconsumerism,race,andcapitalism:
Fortheadvertisementshewaslookingatpicturedagirlwithincredibly
blondehair.Thegirlleanedclosetoadark-haired,smilingmaninanavy
uniform.Theywerestandinginfrontofakitchensink—asinkwhose
porcelainsurfacegleamedunderthetrainlights.Thefaucetslookedlike
silver.Thelinoleumofthefloorwasacrispblack-and-whitepatternthat
68AsMarchandpointsout,thiswasoftentothedetrimentofthecompaniesadvertiserswere
workingfor.However,sincesalesweresosubjective,advertisersbegintolookinward,towardsthe
“secondaryaudiences”oftheircolleagues,withwhomtheycouldrelate,andnottheexperiencesof
theconstituenciestheymightbeactuallyadvertisingto.SeeAdvertisingtheAmericanDream,pgs.
80-83formoreon“secondaryaudiences.”
103
pointedupthesparkleoftheroom.Casementwindows.Redgeraniumsin
yellowpots.Itwas,shethought,amiracleofakitchen.Completelydifferent
fromthekitchenofthe116thStreetapartmentshehadmovedintotwo
weeksago.ButalmostexactlyliketheoneshehadworkedininConnecticut.
(Petry28).
RatherthanacknowledgeeconomicdisparitybetweentheapartmentLutielivesinandthe
“miracleofakitchen”sheobserves,bigbusinessdemocratizedgoodsthroughmoney69,
naturalizingtheprocessofconsumptionasbothareflectionofAmericaningenuityanda
promiseforthefuture.Thisimageremindsthereaderthatwhiletheidealsofthefamily
andhouseholdarepromotedtoallpeoplealike,racialcapitalismisdesignedtomaintain
white,heteronormativefamilysystemswhiledenyingthatsamestabilityforblackworkers.
Uponseeingthe“porcelainsurface”ofthesinkandthe“casementwindows”decorated
with“redgeraniums”,LutierecallshertimeasadomesticworkerfortheChandler’s,a
wealthywhitefamilywhoownahomeinsuburbanConnecticut.WiththeriseofFordism
andthegrowingnecessityto“subduetheimminentthreatofclassantagonismthatwas
amplifiedduringtheGreatDepression”(Decker99),advertisersreturnedtoanidealized
past,butwithanincreasedfocusontheuniversalequalityofconsumption.Bypromising
communalaccesstothematerialtrappingsoftheAmericanDream,butdisplacingtheonus
foracquiringthembackontotheindividualcharacterofanygivenperson,capitalism
continuedtoexploitcitizensbasedonraceandgenderwithoutacceptinganyresponsibility
fortheirperpetualplaceassecond-classcitizens.Lutieseesthekitcheninthe
advertisementandalthoughsheknowsitis“completelydifferent”fromherlifeinthe
69SeeRolandMarchand,AdvertisingtheAmericanDream(1985),pgs.217-219
104
small,crampedapartmentofthecity,shestillflashesbacktoatimewhenshewas
convincedthatshecouldhavethatkitchenaswell.Acommonphilosophyamongst
advertisersintheinterwarperiod,this“parableoftheDemocracyofGoods”(Marchand
217)isamajorforceinLutie’seventualdownfall.AsscholarRolandMarchanddescribes:
…byimplicitlydefining‘democracy’intermsofequalaccesstoconsumer
products,andthenbydepictingtheeverydayfunctioningofthat‘democracy’
withregardtooneproductatatime,thesetableauxofferedAmericansan
invitingvisionoftheirsocietyasoneofincontestableequality.(Marchand
217-218)
SincecitizenscouldnowvisualizeandpurchasetheAmericanDreambeingpromisedby
consumerculture,theaccumulationofmoneybecameanendinitself,awaytoproveboth
theefficacyandequalityofcapitalism.ForLutie,whoworksasadomesticlaborerandlater
asinger,moneybecomestheonlytangiblemeansofacquiringthematerialconditionsshe
sodesperatelydesires.Eagertopayherfamily’smortgageandfrustratedbyherhusband’s
inabilitytofindajobdespitethefactthathe“huntedforone—desperately,eagerly,
anxiously”(30),LutietakesthejobwiththeChandlers.Despitethefactthattakesher
severalhoursawayfromherfamilyfivedaysaweek70andthatLutierefusestocomehome
ontheweekendsinanefforttosavemoney,sheviewsthisastheonlyviableoptionfor
supportingherhusbandandson.Confinedtothejobssuchasdomesticwork,laundry,and
fosteringchildrenforthestate,LutieisdefinedbywhatAngelaDavisdescribesastheera’s
“tautologicaldefinitionofblackpeopleasservants”(94).Whilethewagelaboreris
70AlthoughPetryonlymentionsthatLutieandherfamilyliveinJamaica,duetothedistanceto
Lyme(114miles)andthecontextofthenovelwouldindicatethatherhusbandandfatherlivein
Jamaica,Queens,NewYork.
105
consideredtobe“ahumanbeingpossessingatleastamodicumofindependencefromher
employerandherwork”(Davis97),Lutiepositionasablackfemaledomesticworker
offershernoretreatintotheputatively‘private’spaceofherownhomeorthepublic
sphereofleisure.ItisnotuntilshereceivesaletterfromherfatherinformingherthatJim
is“takingupwithanotherwoman”(Petry52)thatLutiefinallyquitsandreturnstomove
herandherson,Bub,tothestreet.Thinkingaboutitlater,Lutiecannothelpbutobserve
theparadoxofthesituation;shehadbeenforcedto“cleananotherwoman’shouseand
lookafteranotherwoman’schildwhileherownmarriagewenttopot”(Petry30).
Yet,evenasLutieisalienatedfromherownfamily,sheisdeeplyinfluencedbyMr.
Chandler’stalkofbecoming“filthyrich”anddoingsoquiteeasily.AsPetrydescribes,“After
ayearoflisteningtotheirtalk,[Lutie]absorbedsomeoftheirsamespirit.Thebeliefthat
anybodycouldberichifhewantedtoandworkedhardenoughandfigureditoutcarefully
enough”(TheStreet43).ConvincedthattheonlydifferencebetweentheChandler’sand
herselfistheirabilitytoworksmarterandharder,Lutiebeginstocarefullyplanherfuture
aroundtheacquisitionandaccumulationofmoney.Asshenotedinhertimewiththe
Chandlers,moneyresolvesfeelingsofalienation;itmadesuicidesturnintoaccidents,
alcoholismintoanonissue,unhappymarriagesintoacomfortablefaçade,andahome
unlikeLutiehadeverknownintothe“children’shouse”(37)inthecountry.
Despitethefactthattheoriesofthe“self-mademan”andthenewlyformed
invocationoftheAmericanDreamprovedtobe,inparticularforminoritiesand
immigrants,afalsehood71,Lutiecan’tsuppressheroptimismasshewalksdownthestreet
withhergroceries.ComparingherselftoBenjaminFranklin,LutiereflectsmanyAmericans
71SeeJeffreyDecker(1997),pgs.97-10;MorrisDickstein(2009);ThomasHolt(2000),pgs.57-86
106
“ecstaticfaithinthenation’sheroicpastandawillingnesstosacrificeforitsfuture”
(Decker97).Ascanbeseeninherinternaldialogue,thebeliefinAmericanindividualism
andprosperityhasadeepinfluenceonherbehavior:
…feelingthehardroundnessoftherollsthroughthepaperbag,she
immediatelythoughtofBenFranklinandhisloafofbread.Andgrinned,
thinkingYouandBenFranklin…shecouldn’tgetridofthefeelingofselfconfidenceandshewentonthinkingthatifBenFranklincouldliveonalittle
bitofmoneyandprospersocouldshe.(TheStreet63-64)
Atoneandthesametime,moneybecomesamethodforobjectifyingLutie’sreality(the
rolls)andimagininganalternativelifeforherself.AlthoughBenjaminFranklinhadonce
beenpoorandhadnothingtoshowforitbutbread,he,likeLutie,stillmaintainedabelief
inhisownabilitytopullhimselfoutofpovertyandintoaffluence.72Echoedinideologiesof
AmericanindividualismandtheAmericanDream,Franklin’sstaunchbeliefsinfrugality,
morality,self-reliance,andentrepreneurshipwereanexcellentpanaceatohedgethe
anxietiessurroundingtheeconomicdepression.AsEricDeckerpointsoutinhis
investigationofthemodernindividual,Franklin’sautobiography,withitsmeticulous
schedulesandparablesforsuccess,providedauniqueinsightintotheformationof
America:“Together,democracyandindustrialcapitalismdemandedthetransformationof
theindividualalongtheparadoxicallinesofautonomyandfreedomontheonehand,
efficiencyandatomizationontheother.”(xviii)WhileLutiebelievesinherability,orthe
72InFranklin’sautobiography,uponfirstarrivingtoPhiladelphia,hebuysthreerollswiththelast
ofhismoney,eatsoneandgivestheothertwotoamotherandherchild.Itissymbolicforbothits
representationoffrugalityandgenerosity,butalsobecauseitreflectsFranklin’sceaselessoptimism
andfaithinhimself.(Franklin42-43)
107
“freedom”toacquiremoney,herjobasadomesticworkeratomizesherfamilyand
displacesheralienationontotheplaceswhereshelivesandworks.Unlikethefactory
worker,whomustfacetheobjectsoftheirproductionas“hostileandalien”(“Economic”
87)73,Lutieproducesnotangiblegoodsinthemarket.Thereforesheisnotconfrontedbya
singularobject,butalienatedbythe“socialpower”ofmoneytocreatefantasiesofmaterial
affluence.74
This“socialpower”,ortheabilityof“theprivatepowerofprivatepersons”to
transformspaceinto“aself-sufficientpoweropposite”ofLutie(“Economic”87)ismost
tangiblyconveyedinthefigureofJunto,theowneroftheapartment,Casino,andbarwhere
themajorityofthenoveltakesplace.InnamingJunto,andhisbar,afterBenjamin
Franklin’s“clubformutualimprovement”(97),Petrysubtlyinvestigatestherelationship
betweenpublicspaceandthepeoplewhocontrolthegrowthanddevelopmentofracial
capitalism.Madeupofwhitebusinessmenworkingindiverseindustries,Benjamin
Franklin’sJuntowascreatedtoimprovenotonlythemoralcharacterandbusinessesofits
members,buttoinstillthevaluesofindustryandvirtuethroughoutPhiladelphiaandthe
newlyemergingAmericancolonies.75Althoughthesocietywassecretandlimitedtoonly
73AsMarxobservesinthe“EconomicandPhilosophicManuscripts”,“Alltheseconsequencesfollow
fromthefactthattheworkerrelatestotheproductofhislaborasanalienobject…themorethe
workerexternalizeshimselffromhiswork,thepowerfulbecomesthealien,objectiveworldthathe
createsoppositehimself…Theexternalizationoftheworkerinhisproductimpliesnotonlythathis
laborbecomesanobject,anexteriorexistencebutalsothatexistsoutsidehim,independentand
alien,andbecomesaself-sufficientpoweroppositehim,thatthelifethathehaslenttheobject
affrontshim,hostileandalien.”(87)
74AsKarlMarxobservesinCapital,Volume1,capitalismtransformsmoneyinto“aradicalleveler,it
erasesalldistinctions…moneyisitselfacommodity,anexternalobjectcapableofbecomingthe
privatepropertyofanyindividual.Thusthesocialpowerbecomestheprivatepowerofprivate
persons”(Capital229-230).
75SeealsoStevenForde,“BenjaminFranklin’sAutobiographyandtheEducationofAmerica.”
AmericanPoliticalScienceReview86.2(1992):357-368.
108
twelvemembers76,Franklin’svisionofinfluencewasfulfilledinspades;asscholarPatrick
Allittpointsout:
Fromthe1720stothe1770stheJuntoandmanysubsequentgroupslikeit
campaignedsuccessfullyfortheintroductionofpapermoneyinto
Philadelphia,alongwiththefoundingofalibrary,afiredepartment,afire
insurancescheme,aphilosophicalsociety,acityhospital,anacademy,an
improvedplanforstreetrepair,andamilitiatoprotecttheQuakercolony
(“LightsofPhiladelphia”).
ThroughtheseeconomicandpublicworksprojectsFranklinreflectedanationalidentity
thatpromotedtheconceptofdemocracyforwhitemaleswhileeitherignoringthe
experiencesoforexploitingwomen,minorities,NativeAmericans,andslaves.Apersonand
abar,JuntorepresentsthematerialparadoxesofAfrican-Americanexistence.Itisa
promisefreelygiven,butdeftlymanipulatedtodenyminorities’accesstothesocialand
economicfreedomsofthenation.AsPetrynotes,thereisadistinctdifferencebetweenthe
JuntoasabarforworkingclassAfrican-Americansandasawhitemanwhoownsthatbar.
Desperateforanescapefromher“smalldarkroom”and,likealltheothersinthebar,
unableto“beartolookatwhattheycouldseeofthefuturesmackinthefacewhilelistening
totheradioortryingtoreadtheeveningnewspaper”(145),LutiegoestotheJuntoto
escapethepressingproblemsofherlivedenvironments(whichJuntoalsoowns).After
arriving,Lutieordersabeerandrespondstothejukeboxplaying‘SwingIt,Sister”;“She
76AsFranklinnotesinhisautobiography,“Wehadfromthebeginningmadeitaruletokeepour
institutionasecret,whichwasprettywellobserv’d;theintentionwastoavoidapplicationsof
improperpersonsforadmittance,someofwhom,perhaps,wemightfinditdifficulttorefuse”
(159).
109
hummedasshelistenedtoit,notreallyawarethatshewashummingorwhy,knowingonly
thatshefeltfreeherewheretherewassomuchspace”(TheStreet146).Inspiredbythis
fleeting,butpleasantfeelingoffreedomfromthecrampedspacesofherapartment,Lutie
purchasesanotherbeerandthenimmediatelyadmonishesherselfforruininghercarefully
plannedandbarelyviablebudget.Thisconflictbetweentheinternaldesireforfreedomand
theexternalpressureofmaterialforcescomesintoevenclearerviewwhenLutie,once
againunawareofherbehavior,continuestosingafterasonghasfinishedonthejukebox:
Themenandwomencrowdedatthebarstoppeddrinkingtolookather.Her
voicehadathreadofsadnessrunningthroughitthatmadethesong
important,thatmadeittellastorythatwasn’tinthewords—astoryof
despair,ofloneliness,offrustration.Itwasastoryallofthemknewbyheart
andhadalwaysknownbecausetheyhadlearneditsoonaftertheywereborn
andwouldgoonaddingtoituntilthedaytheydied.(TheStreet148)
Atemporarystayfromtherelentlessmaterialityofthenovel,thissceneacknowledgesthe
powerofmusictocaptureandexpressAfrican-Americanstories“ofdespair,ofloneliness,
offrustration”thatareoftenillegibletowhiteaudiences.Incontrasttotheinformation
transmittedthroughnewspapers,radio,andmovies,itiswhat“wasn’tinthewords”that
compelsthepeopleinthebartopauseandtakenoteofLutie’svoice.Petrygestures
towardshervoiceasaformoftranscendencethatconnectstheexperiencesofthe
individualtothegroup,butalsosuggeststhatthesenarrativeshavebeennaturalizedas
widespreadandinevitablepartsoftheAfrican-Americanexperience.Singingasong“they
hadlearned…soonaftertheywerebornandwouldgoonaddingtountilthedaytheydied”,
themusicdoesnotinciterevolutionarychange,butpointstowardsthepersistent
110
adaptabilityofdiscoursesthatisolateandexploitAfrican-Americancommunitiesbasedon
raceand,oftentimes,gender.Thisisprovenwhen,justasLutiefinisheshersong,Boots
Smith,Junto’srighthandmanappears,buysherdrinks,andasksifsheeversangfora
living.Althoughsheisawarethat“OldManJuntowasstudyingherinthemirror”,Lutie’s
ignoresthesexualexploitationthatisaconstantpressureinhereverydaylifetoconsider
thepossibilityofleavingthestreetbybecomingasinger.77Intentonprotectingherself
fromJunto,butstilldesperatetofulfillherdreamofmiddle-classsuccess,Lutiefocuseson
thepotentialofsingingwithBoots’bandatthecasinoandtheincomeitcouldprovidefor
herandBub.Appearingasanowner,butalsoapartiallydisembodiedrepresentationof
thosewhocontrolthemoneyandthereforetheconstructionofpublicandprivatespaces,
Junto,andthepowerhemaintains,blendsintothesurroundingsofthebar.AsBoots
internallyarticulates:
ForJunto’ssquat-bodiedfigurewasallgray—graysuit,grayhairgrayskin,
sothathemeltedintotheroom.Hecouldsitforeveratthattableandnobody
wouldlookathimtwice.Allthosepeopleguzzlingdrinksatthebarnever
glancedinhisdirection.Theonesstandingoutsideonthestreetandwalking
backandforthweredeaf,dumb,andblindtoJunto’sexistence.Yethehad
themcomingandgoing.Iftheywantedtosleep,theypaidhim;iftheywanted
todrink,theypaidhim;iftheywantedtodance,theypaidhim,andnever
evenknewit.(TheStreet275)
77AsLarryR.Andrews(1995)notes,“Asanattractiveblackwomanonherown,Lutieissubjected
tothelustfullooksofwhitemen,thehostilestaresofwhitewomen,thesexualpropositionsofJunto
andMrs.Hedges,andtheattemptedrapesbyBootsandtheSuperJones”(200).
111
Aninvisibleinfluenceontheeverydayactivitiesofthepeoplebothwhentheyareinthebar
andoutsideofit,Juntosymbolizesthosewhocontroltheconceptofvalue,andthe
objectifiedformofvalue,money.Hiddeninplainsight,Junto,likeBenjaminFranklin’s
privategroup,isonlyfullyrealizedinthematerialrealitiesofthoseinhiscasinos,bars,and
apartmentsbuildings.Intheprivatespacesintendedforrestandthepubicsitescreatedfor
leisure,theinfluenceofmoneyissopervasivethatthepeoplelivingonthestreet“were
deaf,dumb,andblind”tothefactthatitisallfunneledthroughoneman’shands.Even
Lutie,whorecognizeshispower,cannotavoidpayinghimateveryturn.AsDavidHarvey
observesinhistextConsciousnessandtheUrbanExperience,despitethefactthatmoney
“arisesoutofconcretesocialpracticesofcommodityexchange”,thetransienceofits
meaningandinfluencemakeitdifficulttodescribe:
Moneyissimultaneouslyeverythingandnothing,everywherebutnowhere
inparticular,ameansthatposesasanend,theprofoundestandmost
completeofallcentralizingforcesinasocietywhereitfacilitatesthegreatest
dispersion,arepresentationthatappearsquitedivorcedfromwhateveritis
supposedtorepresent.Itisarealorconcreteabstractionthatexistsexternal
tousandexercisesrealpoweroverus.(Harvey3)
LikethefigureofJunto,withhis“graysuit,grayhair,grayskin”(TheStreet275),money
influenceseverydecisionthatLutiemakesfromdaytoday.Notonlyissheconstantly
referencinghowmuchitcostsforgoodsorhowmuchmoneyshewillhaveleftover,italso
servestocreateabstractfantasiesofspacesthatexistbeyondthedailypressuresexerted
bycapitalistforces.Whilemuchofthenovelisconcernedabouttheintersectionbetween
moneyasaphysicalrepresentationofvalueandanabstractionofreality,itisthe
112
“succulent,tantalizingbait”(TheStreet151)ofculturethatrevealsthepotentiallytragic
consequencesofwhatHarveyidentifiesasa“concreteabstraction.”
BytransformingLutie’svoiceandbodyintoacommoditythroughsinging,Petry
bringsthe“concrete”materialconditionsofthepresentintodirectconversationwiththe
historical“abstractions”ofAmericanprosperity.Filledwithanticipationandexcitement
aboutthepotentialmoneyshecanmakesinging,Lutieattendsherfirstrecitalatthecasino
determinedtowinthejobasasingerinBoots’band.Unlikeherwhitecounterparts,who
associatedculturewithleisure78,Lutieescapesthespaceofthestreetonlytobeconfronted
bythepresumptiveeyesofthebandmembersandtheaudienceinthecasino.Immediately
awareofthebandmembers’whispersandglares,Lutieobservesthat“Itwasquiteobvious
whattheyweresayingtothemselvesandtoeachother,Yeah,Bootshasgothimselfanew
chickandthissingingbusinessistheoldcome-on”(TheStreet221).ObjectifiedbyBoots
andthebandandcommodifiedbyJunto,Lutieisconfrontedbyanalienationthatforcesher
inward,orbackintoherferventbeliefthatsingingcanfreeherandBubfromthestreet:
Thoughshewassangthewordsofthesong,itwasofsomethingentirely
differentthatshewasthinkingandputtingintothemusic:shewasleaving
thestreetwithitsdarkhallways,itsmean,shabbyrooms;shewastakingBub
awaywithhertoaplacewheretherearenoMrs.Hedges,noresignedand
disillusionedlittlegirls,nohalf-humancreaturesliketheSuper.SheandBub
weregettingawayandtheywouldnevercomeback.(TheStreet222)
78SeeRobinD.G.Kelley(1997),pgs.44-46andSusanCurrell(2010),pgs.1-11,75-100formoreon
turnofthecenturycultureandtheperceptionsofleisureasaspacethatcouldhelppeopleescape
fromtheeverydaypressuresofcapitalism.
113
Culturalexpression,ratherthanenablingrevolutionaryaction,becomesafantasizedmeans
ofescapeforLutie,awaytofreeherselffreefromthepotentialprostitutionofferedbyMrs.
HedgesandthethreatofrapeassociatedwiththeSuper.Similartothesceneinthebar,
PetryplacesanincreasedimportanceonLutie’sabilitytosing“thewordsofthesong”,but
visualizeherselfdoing“somethingentirelydifferent.”Althoughthemusicprovidesa
temporarycatharsisfromhereverydaypressures,itisultimatelymotivatedbyanescape
fromhermaterialconditions,byadesireto“leavethestreetwithitsdarkhallways.”
WhetherLutieissingingasongoffrustration,loneliness,loss,orevenoutrightprotest,it
doesnotguaranteeanysocialchangeorshiftintheenvironmentsshemustfaceupon
leavingthecasinoandreturningtoherhome.Infact,hersongonlyfurtherrevealswhat
RobinD.G.Kelleywilllateridentifyas“theamazingresilienceandelasticity”ofthe
market.79Despitehistorical,printed,drawn,photographed,visibleproofofinequality,
PetrypresentsLutie’ssonganditspotentialtoliftheroutofpovertyasdoingverylittleto
addresssystemicformsofoppression.AsPetrywouldlaterpointoutinabrief1988
autobiography,“Thesad,terribletruthaboutTheStreetisthatnowforty-oneyearslaterI
couldwritethatsamebookaboutHarlemoranyotherghetto.Becauselifehasn’tchanged
thatmuchforblackpeople.”(ContemporaryAuthors265).SimilartoKelley,Petrystills
believesintheabilityofculturetoprofoundlyexpressthecontradictionsofcapitalism,she
79AsKelley(1997)pointsoutinhisdiscussionofhip-hopcultureandtherevolutionarycapacityof
music,“Iaminnowaysuggestingthatthiskindofself-commodificationofplayisemancipatory,
revolutionaryorevenresistive.Rather,itcompromisesarangeofstrategieswithincapitalism—
somequiteentrepreneurial,infact—intendedtoenableworking-classurbanyouthtoavoiddeadend,low-wagelaborwhiledevotingtheirenergiestocreativeandpleasurablepursuits.These
strategiesdonotunderminecapitalism;profitsgeneratedbythemostsuccessfulventuressimply
buttresscapitalandillustrate,onceagain,itsamazingresilienceandelasticity,evenwhenthe
commoditiesthemselvesofferideologicalchallengestoitsbasicpremise”(45).
114
simplyquestionsits’potentialtoalterthesystemitencounters.AsPetryexpressestime
andtimeagain,Lutiebelievesinthepossibilitiesforfreedom,butcanonlyrealizeit
throughthediscursiveandmaterialideologiesofcapitalism.Whenshedaydreamsabout
leavingthestreet,allshecanpictureis:
Bubgrowingupinsomeairy,sunnyhouseandherselffreefromworryabout
money.Shehadbeenabletopicturehimcominghomefromschooltosnacks
ofcookiesandmilkandbringingotherkidswithhim;andthenplayingsomewherenear-by,andallshehadtodowaslookoutofthewindowandseehim
becauseshewashomeeverydaywhenhearrived.(TheStreet311)
BuiltupbyhertimewiththeChandler’sandcarefullynurturedbyBoots’promiseofa
singingcareer,herdreamisapictureperfectreflectionofmiddle-classsuccess.Similarto
animagestraightoutofanadvertisement,Lutieimaginesascenarioinwhichshecanstay
athomeandgivehersontheprivilegesofapatriarchalwhitefamily.80Thisimageof
stability,space,andfreedomoffersLutiehope;whenshereturnstothecasinothenext
nighttoperformagain,sheentersintothespacewitharenewedsenseofself,aconfidence
thatshehasfinallyfoundherwayintotherightwork,theworkthatwillallowherto
realizeherimageoftheAmericanDream.However,whenshebroachesthesubjectofa
salaryatintermission,shecomestofindthatBootsandtheownerofcasino,Junto,never
80DespiteLutie’sdeepdesiretorecreatetheimageofwhitefemaleprivilegesheobservedwhen
workingortheChandler’s,herroleasablackfemaleisoftendissociatedfromtheseimages.Tracing
thispatternbacktoslavery,AngelaDavisobservesthat“Astheideologyoffemininity—abyproductofindustrialization—waspopularizedanddisseminatedthroughthenewladies’magazines
andromanticnovels,whitewomencametobeseenasinhabitantsofaspheretotallyseveredfrom
therealmofproductivework…‘Woman’becamesynonymouswith‘housewife’andboth‘mother’
and‘housewife’boreafatalmarkofinferiority.ButamongBlackfemaleslaves,thisvocabularywas
nowheretobefound.Theeconomicarrangementsofslaverycontradictedthehierarchicalsexual
rolesincorporatedinthenewideology”(12).
115
hadanyintentionsofpayingherwithoutheraffectionsoffthestagealsobeingpartofthe
package.Exercisingthesocialpowerlinkedtohisaccumulationofwealth,Juntomakes
moneyinaccessibletoLutiewithoutamediator.Inanearlierdiscussion,Juntoreminds
BootsnottopursueLutieandexplicitlytellshim“Don’tpayherforsingingwiththeband.
Giveherpresentsfromtimetotime…Thiswillmakeiteasierforyoutoarrangeformeto
seeher.”(TheStreet274)Aneverpresent,butrarelyvisiblepresence,Juntoalwaysexpects
somethinginreturnforhisinvestment,andinthiscase,itisnotonlyLutie’svoice,buther
body.Shecannotindependentlysustainherselfthroughhertalents,butmustgiveupmuch
moreinreturn.OnceLutierealizessheisbeingtreatedasacommoditytoboughtandsold
byBootsandJuntoalike,herdreamsofmiddle-classsuccessarenolongersustainable.The
imaginedrealityshecarefullycraftedthroughideologiesoftheAmericanDreamandmade
tangiblethroughthecommodityformofmoneyhadbecometertiarytotheprobabilityof
realizingthatfantasy,ofactuallybeingabletoescapetheconditionssheencounters.Even
moredisturbingisthewayLutiereactstohernowemotionallyandpsychologicallybroken
perceptionoftheworld.RatherthanblamingBootsorJuntodirectly,shedisplacesthefault
forthisbackontoherselfandherfailuretosuccessfullyrealizethepitfallsofAmerican
individualism:
Thetroublewasher.Shehadbuiltupafantasticstructuremadefromsoft,
nebulous,cloudystuffofdreams.Therehadn’tbeenasolid,practicalbrickin
it,notevenafoundation.Soofcourseithadcollapsed.Itneverexisted
anywherebutherownmind.Shemightaswellfacethefactthatshewould
havetogoonlivinginthatsamestreet…Theywouldhavetolivesoclosetoa
narrowmarginthatitwouldn’treallybelikeliving;nevergoinganywhere,
116
neverbuyingthesmallestitemthatwasn’tabsolutelyessential,even
examiningessentialonesandeliminatingthemwhereverpossible.(308-309)
WhileLutieviewsherdisappointmentasaproductofherownmaking,asareality
constructedinhermindandnothingmore,herreturntothestreetdemonstratesthe
efficacyofcapitalismincreatingandsustainingtheexploitationofAfrican-Americans.By
recyclingBenjaminFranklin’snarrativeofperceivedequalitythroughculturalindustries
suchasadvertising,film,radio,andmusic,Juntoandotherslikehimcreate“afantastic
structure”thatsustainstheirfurtherexploitationoftheworkingclassandminorities.By
keepingLutie“soclosetoanarrowmargin”thatshecansurvive,butbarelydoso,then
surroundingherwithimagesofabetterlife,capitalismsustainshopewhileavoiding
systemicchange.81
Frustratedandangeredbyherinabilitytomovebeyondthestreets,Lutiereturnsto
herapartmentthinking“Thiswasworsethanbeingbackwhereshestarted,becauseshe
hadn’tbeenabletopreventthegrowthofabrightoptimismthathadpicturedashining
future”(305).Therealityshehadimaginedandcarefullycraftedthroughtheoptimismof
theAmericanDreamnowgone,Lutiehasnothingtomediatetherelationshipbetweenher
materialconditionsandhersenseofalienation.FollowingherconversationwithBoots,and
Bub’sarrest,whichismanipulatedbytheSuperafterhisfailedattempttorapeher,Lutieis
confrontedbytheneedformoney,butthistimewithouttheillusionofsustaininganykind
ofpermanentfreedom.SinceBootsandJuntoaretheonlypeopleLutieknowswhocan
81AsscholarThomasHolt’s(2000)revealsindiscussionofFordisteconomies,“theworkerwasa
consumeraswellasaproducer;andinorderforthesystemasawholetobeviable,workersmust
havewagesadequatetobuytheproductstheyproduced.Massproductionrequiredmass
consumption”(63).
117
affordalawyer,sheturnstothemonlytofindherselfonceagainanobjectofgendered
violence.EncouragingLutietoentertainaconversationwithJunto,Bootsremindsherthat
thesacrificeofherbody“paysoffbetterthananythingIknow”(421).However,whenshe
looksatJuntosittingonthesofa,allshecanthinkis“Iwouldliketokillhim.Notjust
becausehehappenstobenamedJunto,butbecauseIcan’teventhinkstraightabouthimor
anybodyelseanymore.Itisasthoughhewereapieceofthatdirtystreetitself,tangible,
closeathand,withinreach”(422).Petry’srenewedfocusonthenameofJunto,onthe
referencetoBenFranklin’ssecretclubofbusinessmen,andherconstantreferencetoJunto
assomehowhiddenuntilthispenultimatesceneinthenovelmakestherecentanddistant
pastimmediatelypresentinthespaceofLutie’smindandBootsapartment.Flashingback
tohertimeworkingatthecasino,Lutieremembershowshewasoften
…strainingtohearathinthreadofmusicthatkeptgettinglostinthebabble
ofvoices,theclinkofglasses…sothatsometimesshewasn’tcertainthemusic
wasreal.Sometimesitwasthereandthenagainitwasdrownedoutbyother
sounds”(421).
Althoughshewantstobelievethatthemusicsheissingingandhearingisameanstowards
atangiblereality,thesoundsofconsumerismandprivilegedformsofleisureoverrideher
abilitytobelievethemusic“wasreal.”Itisasthoughtheinfiltrationofcapitalisminto
musichas“drownedout”Lutie’sabilitytotrulyhearorunderstandthecultural
expressionssheperforms.Overwhelmedbythelossofherideologicalbeliefandfrustrated
byherinabilitytorealizethatthemusicwouldalwaysbesupersededbyherstruggleswith
materialenvironments,LutieinsiststhatJunto,andherhopeforherselfandherson,leave.
118
DisappointedinherrefusalofJuntoanddeterminedtoexactsomekindofrevenge
forhislossofface,Bootsdecidesto“Let[Junto]gethisafterward.I’llhaveminefirst”
(428).UnderyetanotherthreatofsexualviolencefromBoots,Lutie’sfinallybreaksand
lashesoutagainsthermaterialrealities.“Unabletoseestraight”fromthelackofmoney,
thesmellsofgarbage,thesoundsofneighbors,andthecontradictoryimagesofsuccess
promotedbyfilms,radio,andadvertisers,LutiefightsbackagainstbothBoots;after
slappinghimandgettinghitback,shepicksupacandlestickfromthenearbymantleand
beginsbeatinghimuntilheisunrecognizable.Anobjectifiedrepresentationofeverything
shehasendureduptothispoint,Bootsbecomes“ahandy,anonymousfigure—afigure
whichherangryresentmenttransformedintoeverythingshehadhated,everythingshe
hadfoughtagainst,everythingthathadservedtofrustrateher”(429).Havingnowrealized
thathermaterialrealitiescannotbealteredbyanyofthepeoplelivingonthestreet,Lutie
“wasstrikingatthewhiteworldwhichthrustblackpeopleintoawalledenclosurefrom
whichtherewasnoescape…shewasdestroyingthem”(430).Unfortunately,thisviolent
outburstonlyremindsLutiethatherviolencewillbemetwithnothingbuttotalisolationin
return.Herhusband,Bub,theChandlers,thestreet,andtheapartmentareallgone,with
theonlyperceptiblefuturebeingmorestreetsinanotherplace,andmoreworkwithonly
slightlydifferentresults.Thisscene,asscholarMarjoriePrysepointsout,notonlyreveals
thepsychologicalcomplexityofLutie’scharacter,butalsoatteststothestrengthofPetry’s
narrativevoice:
ForeventhoughweknowmuchmorethanLutiedoes—theeffecthereisto
placetheeverydayreader,whetherwhiteorblack,inthepositionofwhite
societylookinginontheworldofthestreet—andeventhoughwearenot
119
surprisedwhenLutiefailstoraiseherselfandherson,wearestillsurprised,
evenshocked,attheextentofherfallbythenovel’send.(117)
Thesilentsadnessofthefinalscenes,inwhichLutieabandonshersonandleavesfor
Chicago,emergesfromthereader’srealizationthatveryfewpeople,ifany,canemerge
fromthehorrorsofracialcapitalismfullyintact.Petry’sabilitytojuxtaposetheideological
trappingofcapitalismthroughsomanyspacesthroughoutthenovelleavesthereader
feelingemotionallystunnedandexhaustedbyitsconclusion.Reflectiveofdocumentary’s
tendencytoelevateemotion,thesilencebecomespalpable;thereader“knowsanother’s
lifebecauseonefeelsit;oneisinformed—onesees—throughone’sfeelings”(Stott9).82Yet,
justasPetryelicitsemotionthroughhercultureproduct,sheimmediatelyquestionsits
abilitytocreatesomethingbeyondthevisceralandtheemotive.Closingthenovelwitha
memoryfromLutie’schildhood,Petrygesturestowardstheroleofthewriterorcultural
producerinbeingabletoactuallychangetheconditionstheyexpress83:
Onceagainshecouldheartheflat,exasperatedvoiceoftheteacherasshe
lookedatthecirclesLutiehadproduced.‘Really,’shesaid,‘Idon'tknowwhy
82Talkalittleabout“primacyoffeeling”,pgs.8-9
83WritinginresponsetothepopularityofTheStreetinher1950essay“TheNovelasSocial
Criticism”,Petrywasappalledatthe“fashionsinliterarycriticism”(32)thatlabeledhernovel,and
manyothersoftheperiod,aspropaganda,problemnovels,orsociologicalnovels.Outliningher
feelingthat“likeallotherformsofart,willalwaysreflectthepolitical,economic,andsocial
structureoftheperiodinwhichitwascreated”(33),Petryseekstocreateagenealogyofworkthat
extendsfarbeyondherowntimeperiod.MentioningtheBible,Shakespeare,CharlesDickens,
GeorgeEliot,LeoTolstoy,JohnSteinbeck,andRichardWright,sheseekstopositionherworkasan
enduringlegacyofcraftsmanshipandcarefullyconstructednarrative.Asshetakescaretoexplain,
“Themomentanovelistbeginstoshowhowsocietyaffectedthelivesofhischaracters,howthey
wereformedandshapedbythesprawlinginchoateworldinwhichtheylive,heiswritinganovelof
socialcriticismwhetherhecallitthatornot”(Writer’sBook33).Despiteherdesirenottobe
affiliatedwithCommunism,oranyotherpoliticalgroups,Petryfeltthatliteraturehasalwaysbeen
“formedandshaped”bythepolitical,social,andeconomicforcesthatcharactersmustnegotiatein
theirjourneytomakesenseofan“inchoateworld”.
120
theyhaveusbothertoteachyourpeopletowrite.’Herfingermovedoverthe
glass,aroundandaround.Thecirclesshowedupplainlyonthedusty
surface.Thewoman’sstatementwascorrect,shethought.Whatpossible
goodhasitdonetoteachpeoplelikemetowrite?(TheStreet435-436)
Despitethefactthatthecreation,popularity,andimpactofthenovelitselfundercutsthis
notion,Petry‘smetatextualreferenceforcesherreadertonegotiatewiththeideathat
Lutie’sconditionsarenotchangedsimplybecauseherstoryistold.Theaestheticvalueof
thenovelisnotdiminishedbyLutie’sreflection,butstrengthenedbyherabilitytoboth
createandcritiquethesocialrealistanddocumentaryimpulseoftheperiod.Evenasthe
Americancultural,political,andsocialapparatusemployeddocumentary,photograph,and
filmtocapturetheexploitationoftheworkingclassinwaysyetunexplored,Petrydoubts
theefficacyofartincreatinglastingandsystemicsocialchange.
Conclusion
AlthoughAnnPetry’sshortstory“SoloontheDrums”wasonlyreleasedayearafterthe
successofTheStreet,Petrywasalreadytiringofthosecriticswhoidentifiedherworkas
protestartorsocialcriticism.Afterspendingthefirsthalfofthe1940slivinginNewYork
andworkingasaneditorandreporterfortheradicalLeftnewspaperthePeople’sVoice,
Petryquietlywithdrewherselffromthepublicspotlightduringthesecondhalfofthe
decade.ShemovedbacktoherhometownofOldSaybook,Connecticut,andwhileherwork
continuedtocritiquethepopularrepresentationsofAfrican-Americansinpostwarculture,
shewasalsovehementlyopposedtocritics“whoalmostreflexivelyemphasizedthework’s
politicalengagementswhenofferingtheirassessmentsofvalue(Brown9),orothers,who
feltblackwriterseitherhadanobligationtosolvetheproblemofrace,oratleastmakeit
121
themainfocusoftheirwork.84Asshedeclaresinherlittlediscussed1950essay“TheNovel
asSocialCriticism”,“Themomentanovelistbeginstoshowhowsocietyaffectedthelives
ofhischaracters,howtheywereformedandshapedbythesprawlinginchoateworldin
whichtheylive,heiswritinganovelofsocialcriticismwhetherhecallitthatornot”
(Writer’sBook33).Simplybecauseshefelthercharacterswere“shapedandformed”bythe
cultural,political,social,andeconomicfactorsoftheirlives,shedidnotwantherwriting
discursivelyconfinedbytheliteraryfashionsofthetime.Rather,sheviewsmuchgreat
writingastheabilitytoprofoundlyreflectthespiritoftheageinwhichthoseauthorslived
andthematerialconditionstheyendured.ThislistincludestheBible,Shakespeare,Charles
Dickens,LeoTolstoy,JohnSteinbeck,GeorgEliot,andRichardWright.Additionally,therise
ofMcCarthyismandtheRedScarewasbeginningtobecomeathreattoanyauthor
affiliatedwiththeLeft.
AlthoughRichardWrighthadbeenamuchmorevehementsupportofCommunist
principlesandtheAmericanpoliticalleftearlyinhiscareer,theracialtensionsofpostWorldWarIIAmericadrovehimtoPariswhereseveralAfrican-Americanauthors,
includingJamesBaldwin,GeorgePadmore,andChesterHimes,werealsolivingand
working.AsscholarsRichardMackseyandFrankE.Moorerdiscuss,Wrightmovedaway
because“hewouldhavebeentoopainfullyclosetotheproblemofraceasitweighedon
himandtheonesheloved;anditarguablywouldhaveconsumedmostifnotallofhis
creativeenergies”(12).Wright’sworkduringthe1950s,whichculminatedinhisreleaseof
WhiteMan,Listen!in1957,alsoindicatesashiftfromanationalfocusonracetoan
84SeealsoLawrenceP.Jackson’sTheIndignantGeneration(2011),pgs.219-250andthecollection
RevisingtheBlueprint:AnnPetryandtheLiteraryLeft,ed.AlexLubin(2007)formoreontheliterary
cultureofthelate1940sandthroughtheColdWar.
122
internationalrenderingofthosestrugglessharedbypeopleofcoloraroundtheglobe.Ashe
notes,thehistoryofAfrican-AmericansinAmericais“thehistoryofWesternManwrit
small…TheNegroisAmerica’smetaphor”(72).WhilehestillunderstoodMarxismasa
valuablemethodologyforunderstandingtheexperiencesofpeopleofcolorglobally,his
insistenceonthedevelopmentofarevolutionaryblackconsciousnessthroughthecreation
ofliteratureandartwashighlyinfluentialinthedevelopmentofBlackArtsMovement
philosophies.AsCedricRobinsonpointsout,andaswillbediscussedmoreinthe
conclusiontothefollowingsection,writerssuchasW.E.B.DuBois,C.L.R.James,and
RichardWrightspenttheirwholecareersearchingfor“asynthesisofMarxistandBlack
Nationalistthought…inthem,onecandiscoveranindependentandrichlysuggestive
critiqueofthemodernworld—acritiquewhosevoiceisthemostauthenticsoundingofthe
brutaldepthsofWesterncivilizationanditshistory.Therelies,inthoseworks,the
beginningofBlackRevolutionarytheory”(305).
123
Chapter3
Performance,Memory,andtheAffectiveTransmissionofHistoryin
AnnPetry’s“SoloontheDrums”
AsIhaveshownintheworkofLangstonHughes,RichardWright,andAnnPetry,the
inclusionofmusic,sitesofmusicalperformance,andoralcultureactasscenesfor
reclaimingorrupturinghistoricalnarrativethroughtemporalcompression.Unlikethe
previousworksdiscussed,AnnPetry’sshortstory“SoloontheDrums”(1947)is
constructedasaproseperformancethatattemptstoreplicatethevariationsintempo,
rhythm,andmoodthatcharacterizelivejazzperformance.Short,visceral,non-linear,and
episodic,thistechniquecreatesacorrelativebetweensoundandmemorythatfocuseson
theinternaldialogueofKidJonesasheattemptstovoice,throughsound,hisrelationshipto
therecentanddistantpast.Asheremembersthelossofhiswifetothepianoplayerthat
morning,Petry’snarrativestylemimicsperformance,butdoesnotallowthereaderto
dissociateKidJonesfromhisinteractionswiththebandorthosepeoplehisnarrative
recallsandreimagines.
Relianttheabilitytotellastorythroughsound85,thisjazznarrativerevealsthe
artist’sdesiretomakeinvisibleemotionsvisible,tocommunicateastorythatdoesnot
ignoreone’spersonalhistory,butreanimatesittocreateanewunderstandingofthepast
and,consequently,one’sself.KidJones’identityisinextricablyboundtohisexchangeswith
85AsscholarWaltonMuyumba(2009);“Jazzmusicianscreateandextendmusical‘conversations’
amongthemselveswhileinperformance,largelybybuildingimprovisedsolosthat‘tellstories.’The
abilityto‘saysomething’throughone’splayreliesonatightnetworkofunderstandingjazzhistory
andmusicologicaltheories,rigorouslyshapedpersonalaesthetics,andawillingnesstointerrogate
personalidentitythroughperformance”(18).RalphEllison(1953)andKevinYoung(2012)also
discussthenecessityofjazzmusiciansbeingableto‘speak’or‘story’throughtheirperformance.
124
thebandandtohismemoriesofothers,butisnotexclusivetooneortheother.Unableto
communicatesoundthroughstylealone,Petryalsorecreatestheaestheticsofjazz
performancethroughaffect,orwhatscholarsGregorySeigworthandMelissaGregg
describeasastatethat:
…arisesinthemidstofin-between-ness:inthecapacitiestoactandbeacted
upon…affectisfoundinthoseintensitiesthatpassbodytobody(human,
nonhuman,part-body,andotherwise),inthoseresonancesthatcirculate
about,between,andsometimessticktobodiesandworlds,andinthevery
passagesorvariationsbetweentheseintensitiesandresonancesthemselves
(14).
Focusedontheaffectsofthemusic,orthewaysthebodycan“actandbeactedupon”in
scenesofpublicperformance,thenarrativejuxtaposesKidJonesinternaldialoguewithhis
interactionstheaudienceandtheotherbandmembers.Challengingpresumptionsthatjazz
issolelyanexpressionof“rebellion,sensuality,andsexualliberation”(Dinerstein13),
Petryworksinthe“passages”ofexperienceand“resonancesthatcirculateabout”as
musiciansgrapplewiththeemotionalintensitiesoftheirpastandpresent.Describedby
RalphEllisonasthe“themosteloquentexpressionofidea-emotionsthroughthetechnical
masteryoftheirinstrument”(189),jazzisdependentonthecreativityoftheindividualand
theinterchangesbetweentheband.Theplayermustpracticetheirinstrumentuntilit
becomesanextensionofthemselves,untiltheir“ideas”become“emotions”andtheir
emotionsbecomeexpressionsoftheir“self-determinedidentity”(Ellison209).
ForwriterssuchasPetryandEllison,whoclearlyunderstoodtheintricaciesofthe
music,these“idea-emotions”couldnotbecharacterizedassimplyabi-productofmass
125
cultureoraprimitivistcurefortheanxietiesofindustrialization.86AsAmiriBaraka
discussesinhisfamousessay“JazzandtheWhiteCritic”,jazzexpressioncannotbe
condensed“toastrictsociologicalapproach…thenotesmeansomething;andthesomething
is,regardlessofitsstylisticconsiderations,partoftheblackpsycheasitdictatesvarious
formsofNegroculture”(139).Intheoccasional,butimportantshiftsbetweentheinternal
machinationsoftheplayerandthereactionsandperspectiveoftheaudience,Petryoffersa
glimpseinto“theblackpsyche”asitcontendswithnotonlysociologicaltheories,buta
commodityculturethatobscurestheoriginsandmeaningsofblackculturalexpression.
DespitethefactthatKidJones’musicalwaysemergesfromacombinationofcultural
tradition,individualexperiences,memoriesoftherecentanddistantpast,andinteractions
withtheband,Petry’snarrativeiscarefultodenoteimportantwayshispersonaisshaped
bythewiderpublicaudienceandtheirrelationshiptoconsumerculture.Asacommodity
thatappearsonstageandemergesfromagenrewidelycirculatedandconstantly
appropriated,KidJones’musicmustnegotiatethetensionbetweenwhatSoyicaDiggs
Colbertidentifiesas“hypervisibilty”and“blackhistoriography”:
…hypervisibilitybecomesaconstitutiveelementofblacknessthat
overdeterminesblackpeople’sphysicalbodiesandunderminestheir
psychological,intellectual,andemotionallives.Thestereotypethatblack
peopleintheUSintrinsicallyexcelatsinginganddancing,forexample,stems
fromalonghistoryofdisplayingnotonlyblackpeoplebutalsopeopleof
colorintheAmerica’smoregenerally.(7).
86SeeMarkLaver;"RebelsandVolkswagens:CharlesMingusandtheCommodificationofDissent"
(2014)formoreinformationontherelationshipsbetweenjazz,commerce,andcultureinduring
themid-century.
126
KidJonesvisibility,hisnameonthemarqueeoutsidethetheater,thecolorofhisskin,and
hisperformanceunderthelightsofastage,constitutesanenvironmentwherewhite
audiences“uninhibitedlookingparticipatesintheproductionofblackness”(Diggs7).In
thiscase,soundgetsconflatedwithracistvisualsignifiers;whiteaudiencesexperiencehis
lust,butcannotequivocateitwiththefeeling“ofallthosegirlsthatblendedintothatone
girlthatwashiswife.”Theyhearhishatred,butcannotseethatitisanattempttofulfilla
senseofloss,ofirrecoverablejoy.Thistensionbetweenvirtuosoperformance,orthe
players’abilitytotellhisstory,andtheobfuscationsoftheracedmarketplaceallowsfora
commentaryontheincreasingdissonancebetweentheperformerandtheapparatusesof
commodityculture.AlthoughKidJonesperformanceemergesfrom“thesubtleand
rhythmicalshapingofanidea”(Ellison189),theaudiencestillimagineshimasa
transhistoricalsymbolofblackness,oratragicomicfiguretheyhavecreatedoverthelast
twohundredyearsandnowappearsbeforethemas“analienatedartistlivinginthesordid
worldofjazzandurbannightlife”(Lopes1470).Eveninthefinalscenes,whenKidJones
acknowledgesthat“hehadtoppedallotherperformances”,hestillcannotshakethefeeling
thatthisperformance,likeallhisothers,weresimplyactsof“sellinghimselfalittlepieceat
atime”(169).AsStuartHallnotesinhisacclaimedessay“Whatisthis‘black’inblack
popularculture?”:
…popularculture,commodifiedandstereotypedasitoftenis,isnotatall,
whatwesometimesthinkofit,thearenawherewefindwhowereallyare,
thetruthofourexperience.Itisanarenathatisprofoundlymythic.Itisa
theaterofpopulardesires,atheaterofpopularfantasies.Itiswherewe
discoverandplaywithidentificationsofourselves,whereweareimagined,
127
wherewearerepresented,notonlytotheaudiencesouttherewhodonot
getthemessage,buttoourselvesforthefirsttime.(113)
KidJonesentranceintopublicspace,likethatofthemanyAfrican-Americanmusiciansand
performersbeforehim,ispregnantwithrepresentativepower,bothforhimselfandthe
audiencethatviewsandinterpretshiswork.“SoloontheDrums”constructsthestageasa
siteofsymbolicandtemporalinstability,wherenarrativesthatconflatethevisualand
affectivewiththeauralandpoliticalaredestabilizedthroughtheperformer.Byanalyzing
thestorychronologically,orfollowingtheebbsandflowsofKidJonesnarrativeasit
emerges,thischapterhopestofurtherexplorethecomplexitiesoftemporalcompressions
intheintersectionsbetweenAfrican-Americanliteratureandmusic.Iwillalsobe
commentingonhowtheystylisticchoicetowritethisshortstoryasaproseperformance
shiftshowtheaudienceengageswithtimethroughoutthepiece.
Performance,Affect,andMemoryinVirtuosoJazzPerformance
Aconstantnegotiationbetweenpublicspheresandprivatethoughts,“SoloontheDrums”
opensuponKidJonesarrivaltothe“week’sengagementattheRandlertTheaterat
BroadwayandForty-secondstreet”(“Solo”165).Followingthedrummer’sthoughtsfrom
theinstantheseeshisnameonthemarqueeuntilheentersthedressingroomandstepson
stagewiththeband,theseearlyscenesexemplifythetensionbetweenhowKidJonesfeels
andhowheappears.AsheapproachesthetheaterKidJonesremembershow“therehad
beenatimewhenhewouldhavebeenexcitedbyit…hisname—upthereinlightsthat
dancedandwinkedinthebrassysunlight”(165).However,withthelossifhiswifetothe
pianoplayerthatmorningKidJonescannothelpbutfeelthatheisnotthesameman
128
representedinonthemarquee.Thismisrecognitionbytheaudience,ortheirinabilityto
dissociatehimfromhispersonaasapaidperformer,causesKidJonestofeelalienated
fromthenameonthebillboard.AsscholarArthurKnightdiscusses,thecommodificationof
jazzobscurestherelationshipbetweenperformanceandtheperformer:
Undermassmediation,musicdoesnotsimplyfloatassoundcarriedthrough
airawayfromitsgiving,producing,socialbodies;itiscapturedandcarried
away,tobere-presentedundercircumstanceswhoserelationtothesound’s
‘original’affiliatedsightandstorymaybeverydifferent.(6)
Takenupasasymbolofrebellion,sexuality,loosemorals,primitivism,orasapanaceafor
theangstofmodernity87,jazzandjazzmusicianswereconstantlybeing“re-presented”in
contextsoftendistantfromtheperformer’smotivations.Frustratedthattheaudience’s
gazecreatesanarrativehecannotcontrolKidJonessitsdowninfrontofthemirrorinhis
dressingroomwishinghisemotionscouldbetransformedintovisualsignifiers;“Hehadn’t
changedany.Sameface.Nofatter.Nothinner.Nograyhair.Nothing.Hefrowned.Because
hefeltthatthethingsthatwereeatinghimupinsideoughttoshow.Buttheydidn’t”(165).
Longingtodistancehimselffromtheidentityonthebillboard,KidJonesexamineshisbody,
hopingthathisinternalstruggleswillsomehowbecometangibleinhisoutward
appearance.Thismethodofimaginingidentitythroughvisualsignifierschallengesthe
hypervisibilityofhispersonaasaperformer.
87AsdescribedbyLawrenceW.Levineinhisessay“JazzandAmericanCulture”;“…jazzwas
often…praisedandcriticizedforbeinginnovativeandbreakingwithtradition.Itwaspraisedand
criticizedforbeingaformofcultureexpressingtheid,therepressedandsuppressedfeelingsofthe
superegowhichenforcedthatattitudesandvaluesofthebourgeoisculture…Itwas,inshort,
praisedandcriticizedforbeingalmostcompletelyoutofphasewiththeperiod’sconceptof
Culture”(438).
129
However,itisonlyafterheleavesthedressingroom,stepsontothestage,and
beginstoperformthatthenarrativeactivelyblursthedistinctionbetweenKidJones’
externalenvironmentandtheinternalmachinations.Althoughhedoesnotengagewith
anyoneinthebandverbally,itdoesnottakelongbeforehe“madeamentalnoteofthefact
thattheboyswereworkingtogetherassmoothlyasthougheachonehadbeenoiled”(165).
RegardlessofhisinternaltumultandhisfeelingsofpersonalhatredfortheMarquisof
Brund,thecountlesshoursofpracticesandmanyperformancestogetherreflect“the
marvelofsocialorganization”(Ellison189)thatconstitutesgroupimprovisation.When
Petrydescribeshow“Thelonggraycurtainsparted.Onemomenttheywereclosed.And
thentheywereopen.Silently.Almostlikemagic.”(165),shesignalsaninvocationof
performativeritualthattiesthebandtotheaudience,oneanother,andlong-standing
traditionsofAfrican-Americanculturalexpression.Thiscouldbeanytheater,anystage,or
anysetofmusicians,butwhenthecurtainsopenthereisalwaysapossibilityfor
transcendence,orasoundthatexposesthelimitsoftheself.Thetechnicalmasteryofthe
instrumentandanunderstandingoftone,timbre,andscalearevitaltojazzmusicians,but
thepossibilityforspatialandtemporaltranscendenceemergesfromwhatscholarTravisA.
Jacksondescribesasthe“ritualization”ofAfrican-Americanmusical-oralaesthetics.Rather
thancreatedirectcorrelationsbetweennarrativesofpastandpresentorbetweenthe
individualandthegroup,African-Americanmusicaltraditionsthrivesoncreating“different
waysofunderstandingandinterveningintheworldaroundthem”(Jackson143).The
musicisaformofentertainment,butitisalsoaculturalrepositorywheresoundbecomesa
narrativeofinternalandexternalenvironments.AsJacksonargues:
130
…thesharedinterpretivemovesofperformersandotherparticipantswith
otherperformers…arenotsomuchsignsofsomethingprior,butsignsthat
mighthavedemonstrableconnectionstosomething.Thatis,theymobilize
events,actions,andunderstandingsexternalbutrelatedtoaperformancefor
resignification,intheprocessremakingtheritualizedactivityandproducing
ritualizedsocialagentsandsocialbodies.(153)
Byprioritizingtheexpressionofindividualidentityandcreativityinrelationshiptothe
group,blackaestheticpracticeconverseswiththepastthroughtheimmediacyof
experienceinthepresent.KidJonesisconsumedbyhisownmemoriesandemotions,but
whenheentersintothe“ritualizedactivity”ofperformancehemustexpressnotonlyhis
ownnarrative,butrevealits“connectionsto”theband,theoutsideworld,andblack
aesthetictraditions.Althoughtherewasoftenaconstantstrivingamongstbebopmusicians
to“transcendconscious,rationalthought”(Floyd140),Petrystrivestodestabilizeher
reader’sperceptionofthemusicorthesubjectivityoftheplayersasequivalentto“magic.”
Boundtobothimprovisationandculturalmemory,themusicis“almost”beyond
explanation;traditioninformstheperformanceevenifitisnotimmediatelyregisteredby
theaudience.
Infact,astheperformancebegins,Petryhighlightstheinterplaybetweenthe
membersofbandasvitaltotheprocessofrememberingandrecreatingthepast.Capturing
theephemeralqualityofmusicthroughlanguage,shedescribeshowKidJones“hitthe
drumslightly.Regularly.Abarelydiscernablerhythm.Abackground.Arepeatedemphasis
forthehornsandthepianoandtheviolin”(166).Bymimickingthesubtlerhythmic
changesofthedrumsthroughslightlyvariationsindescription,PetryfocusesonKidJones
131
roleasbothamediatorbetweenplayersandaparticipantinthecreationoftheir
narratives.88Whenthetrumpetbeginstoplay“sohighthathisstomachsuckedinagainst
himself…untilhewasfilledwithitandsighingwithit”KidJonesengageswithhisownpast
asthoughitwereembodiedinthesoundofanother.Thememoryissovisceralandthe
soundsopowerfulthat“Hewantedtocoverhisearswithhishandsbecausehekept
hearingavoicethatwhisperedthesamethingoverandoveragain…‘I’mleavingI’mleaving
I’mleaving”(166).Repeatedmultipletimesthroughoutthenarrative,thephrase“I’m
leaving”anchorstherelationshipbetweentheauralandtheaffectiveinPetry’snarrative.
Themusiccausesuncontrollablephysicalreactions,remembrancesofwordshewould
ratherforget,andcarrieshim,againsthiswill,“straightbacktotherainthathadcomewith
themorning”(166).Nolongerabletodistinguishbetweenthe“longbluenoteofthe
trumpet”andthe“rainandwind[that]criedsoftlyoutsidethewindow”,KidJoneslets
himselfbemetaphoricallycarriedawayfromthetheaterandthesoundaltogether.
Hehalfclosedhiseyesandrodeuponit.Ithadstoppedbeingmusic.Itwas
thatwhisperingvoice,makinghimshiver.Hatingitandnotbeingabletodo
anythingaboutit.‘I’mleavingit’stheguywhoplaysthepianoI’minlove
withhimandI’mleavingnowtoday.’Raininthestreets.Heatgone.Food
gone.Everythinggonebecauseawoman’sgone.It’severythingyouever
wanted,hethought.It’severythingyounevergot.Everythingyoueverhad,
88AsscholarJoachim-ErnstBerendtnotes,“Unlikethemetronome,whose‘tick-tock’rigidlystays
onitsownpath,thejazzdrummerholdsthetempoandalsofunctionsasapartofthehighly
nuancedinteractionbetweenmusicians—afactorthathelpstocreateanddefinethequalityof
improvising.Drummersarelikethenavigatorsofjazz.Theydonotmerelyaccompany;rather,they
alsopointtheway,definethecourse”(468).
132
everythingyoueverlost.It’sallthereinthetrumpet—painandhateand
troubleandpeaceandquietandlove.(166)
Likethe“naturallyveiledandhalfarticulate”(DuBois185)messagesofthespiritualsand
theelongatedphrasesoftheblues’note89,jazzmusicplacesanemphasisontheabilityof
theperformertocommunicateanarrativeand,indoingso,connecttheirownexperiences
tobothblackaesthetictraditionandtheexperiencesofothers.Contestingtheboundaries
betweenlanguageandsound,thenarrativefocusesonKidJones’memoryatthemoment
thesound“hadstoppedbeingmusic.”Fromthe“shiver”thatappearsashereplaysthe
sceneoverandoveragaininhismindtothefeelingsof“painandhateandtroubleand
peaceandquiet”thathecannotseparateorescapeinthatinstant,thetrumpetcomesto
signifyexperienceevenasittriestoreachbeyonditsboundaries.Whattheexperienceof
hiswifeleavingeradicatesfromhisbody(“Heatgone.Foodgone.Everythinggone.”),the
musicreturnsthroughmemoryandattemptstotranscendthroughsound.Hiswifeisno
longersimplyanagentinhisownemotionaldistress,butbecomesasymbolfor
“everythingyoueverhad.Everythingyoueverlost.”Describedas“storying”byscholar
NickYoung,thismethodofcreation“isbothatraditionandaform;itiswhatlinks
artfulnessasdiverseasasolobyLouisArmstrong—which…brilliantlytellsastory—with
anyofthenumberofstories(ortalltalesor‘lies’orliterature)blackfolkstellamongand
aboutthemselves”(17).Thepotentialthatthe“you”ofthissentencecouldbedirectedat
89W.C.Handydescribestheelongatednoteassuch:“Intheexamplefirstgivenitwillbenotedthat
eachlineofthewordsoccupiesconsiderablylessthantheallottedfourbars,leavingalongwait
beforethenextsentenceandphrasebegin.Thisistypical,andimportant.Itaffordstheimproviser…
aspaceinwhichhisnextideamaygothroughitsperiodofgestation…Buttousitisoffargreater
interestthat…hecanutilizethisspace,notasahold,butasaplay-groundinwhichhisvoiceor
instrumentmaybeallowedtowanderinsuchfantasticalmusicalpathsashepleases…”(8).
133
KidJones,thereader,ortheaudiencealsoindicatesthesubtlewaysPetryshapeslanguage
toindicatethemultiplicityofmeaningsthatcanemergefromanyonejazzperformance.
ThisisparticularlyimportantassheshiftsfromtheinternaldialogueofKidJonesto
oneofthefewmomentsinthestorywheretheaudience’sperspectiveisaddressed.The
audiencewho,aswehaveseenearlier,havesustainedfeelingsofhappinessorexcitement
whentheythinkofKidJonesorseehisnameinlights,comestotheperformancewitha
preconceivednotionofwhoKidJonesisandwhathismusicstandsfor.Suggestingthat
thesepresumptionsareoftenlinkedtovisualsignificationinpublicforums,Petryfocuses
onthestageasasiteofobfuscation,oraplacewheretheaudienceisnotconcernedwith
hisindividualsubjectivity,butthepublicpersonatheyhavecreatedintheirmind.
Thelongbeamofwhitelightstruckthetopofhisheadandturnedhimintoa
patternoflightandshadow.Becauseofthecream-coloredsuitandshirt,his
bodyseemedtobeencasedinlight.Buttherewasashadowoverhisface,so
thathisfeaturesblendedanddisappeared.Hishairlinerecedingsofarback
thathelookedlikeamanwithafacethatneverended.Amanwithahigh,
longfaceanddark,darkskin.(167)
JustastheaudienceissupposedtocompletelyaffixtheirattentiononKidJones,the
spotlighttransformshimintoasimplifiedanddichotomousrepresentation,or“apatternof
lightandshadow.”Thisexemplifiestheparadoxicalrelationshipbetweenjazzasa
commodityformassconsumptionandatraditionofindividualcreativityand
improvisation.Incontrasttotheformoftherecord,whichis“enclosedandcompleted”and
“amenabletoappropriationasacommodity”,jazzperformanceintroducesthelistenerto
134
“thetransientanddisembodiedform”ofthemusic(Johnson3).90KidJonesappearance
underthespotlighthighlightsthetensionbetweenthesetwoformsofrepresentationby
treatinghimasbothanobjectofreverenceandamisrepresented,transhistoricalsubject
whoseimageiscreatedandmaintainedbyconsumerculture.Tomanyintheaudience,he
simplylooks“likeamanwithafacethatneverends.Amanwithahighlongfaceanddark,
darkskin.”ThishomogenizationofKidJonesimageintoavague,featurelesscharacter
gesturestowardstheproblemof“seeing”inaculturewhereAfrican-Americanmusicians
arefrequentlyconflatedwithproblematic,butwidelycirculatedtropesaboutjazzandjazz
performance.91
However,asPetryremindsusinherreturntoKidJonesperspective,sightoften
beliessound.Justasthejazzensembleemphasizes“simultaneousexpressionsofmultiple
approachestoasinglemusicalidea”(Jimoh28),Petry’sinversionoftheaudience’s
speculativegazerevealsmultifariousaffectiveresponsestotheband’smusic.
Thetheaterthrobbedwiththeexcitementofthedrums.Amansittingnear
thefrontrowshivered,andhisheadjerkedtotherhythm.Asailorputhis
armaroundthegirlsittingbesidehim,tookherhandandheldherfacestill
andpressedhismouthoverhers.Close.Close.Close.Untiltheirfacesseemed
melttogether…Akidsneakedinthroughthesidedoorandslidintoanaisle
90Focusedonthemanywaysjazz“ishighlyresistanttocommodification”,Johnson(1993)also
addresseshowtechnologicalreproductionandthediscoursesofModernityhavedeformedthe
processesofjazztoeithercommodifyorcanonizetheart.
91AsPaulLopes(2005)discusses,the1920sand30srepresentationsofjazzasasymbolofmoral
devianceandrebelliontookonaslightlydifferentcharactersinthe1940s:“Blackbeboppers
rearticulatedthetropefollowedbyacommunityofhipstermusicians…thistropewouldarticulate
thesecodesasembeddedinthemoralboundariesofpulpfiction,filmnoir,andcrimejournalism—
asrebellionversusconformity,asdeviancyversusnormalcy,asauthenticityversus
professionalism,andastriumphversustragedy”(1469).
135
seat.Hismouthwaswideopen,andheclutchedhiscapwithbothhands,
tight,andhardagainsthischestashelistened.(167)
Intherapidandsuccessivedescriptionoftheaudiencemembers,Petrydemonstrateshow
theunifying“excitement”ofthedrumsanditsrepetitiverhythms(“Close.Close.Close.”)
havetheabilitytoproducehighlyindividuatedandoftencontradictoryresponsestothe
music.Punctuatedbyunpredictablephysicalmovements,sexualinnuendo,andanactof
breakingintothetheater,thisscenemimicsthe“strangedoubleconsciousnessofromantic
rebellionandpotentialdanger”(Lopes1469)perpetuatedbyimagesofjazzincommodity
culture.Despitethefactthatjazzaestheticsinsistonspaceswherethesebinariescan
productivelycoalesce,theaudienceisengagedin“atheaterofpopularfantasies”(Hall113)
thatobscuretherelationshipbetweenKidJonesnarrativeandtheirownexperiences.
AlthoughthetwoloversshareavagueassociationtohimandhiswifeandbothKidJones
andthemaninthefrontrow“shiver”atthesoundofthetrumpet,theobfuscationsofthe
markethavemadeitimpossibleforthemtoclearlycommunicatethosesharedyearnings.
ItispreciselyatthismomentofrepresentativetensionthatPetryturnsher
attentiontothebreak,orKidJonesfirstsolo.DescribedbyAlbertMurrayas“the
disjuncturewhichisthemomentoftruth”(112),thistemporarydisruptionofthesong’s
formalconstraintsfreeseachindividualartisttoexploretheteleologicalboundariesof
theirownidentity.AsFredMotenarguesinhisbookIntheBreak:TheAestheticsofthe
BlackRadicalTradition(2003)blackperformanceemergesfromnarrativesofdiscontinuity
andrupture,ormomentswhentheperformerreachesbeyondtheirobjectifiedand
commodifiedstatetowardsan“uncontainableoutside”(26).Momentarilyfreedfromthe
perceptionsoftheaudienceandtheconstraintsofgroupensemble,KidJonesreturnstothe
136
memoryofthatmorning,butthistimehe“forgothewasinthetheater.Itwasonlyheand
thedrumsandtheywereveryfaraway.Longgone.”(167).Morethananarrativeofhis
wifeleavingoraremembranceoftherainasit“drippeddownthewindowpanes”,the
musicallowsKidJonestointegratetheimmediacyofthepresentandintoacomplexand
layeredrecollectionofthepast.Petry’snarrationofthisscenesuggeststhatcreatinga
linearorcoherentimageofthepastinthepresentisextremelydifficulty.AsKidJones
plays,hismemoriesbecomefeelings,sensationsthathecannotescapeasheattemptsto
makesenseofhisidentity:“HewasholdingLulu,Helen,Susie,Mamiecloseinhisarms.And
allofthem—allthosegirlsblendedintothatonegirlwhowashiswife.Theonewhosaid
‘I’mleaving.’Shehadsaiditoverandoveragain,thismorning,whileraindrippeddownthe
windowpanes”(167).Althoughhecannotcompletelyarticulatetheconnectionsbetween
thesewomen,theremembranceofthemgesturestowardsasharedintimacy,alovethat
“blended”fromonewomantothenextuntiltheyallbecomeanechooftheonewomanhe
can’tforget,theonewomanwhorepeatedlysays,“I’mleaving.”Thismomentduringthe
breakallowsKidJonestocompressthepastandpresent,tounderstandthesewomenasan
invocationoftheselfwhichhasvariedgreatly,butcombinedtocreatethesenseofselfheis
currentlycommunicatingthroughsong.
Asthepresentbeginstoonceagainintrudeonhisdream-likerecollectionofthe
past,KidJonesabandonsthenarrativesofthewomenfromhispastandbeginstofantasize
aboutkillingtheMarquisofBrund.Bydirectlycorrelatingthesoundofthedrumsas“they
leapedwiththefurythatwasinhim”withhisvisionof“puttingaknifecleanbetween[the
Marquis’]ribs”(168),Petryattemptstocapturetherangeofemotionsthatgointothe
musicandtheflexibilityoftimeintheconfinesofthebreak.Themusicincitesrecollection,
137
butitalsoenablestheplayertovisualizethefuturewithintheconfinesofthepresent.Itis
alsopossiblethatthisscenecapturesthefantasiesofsubversionthatjazz,andparticularly
bebop,attemptedtocommunicateduringthistime.92DescribedbyEricLottasagenreof
“calculatedhostility”(462),bebopinsistedon“blindingvirtuosity”astheprimaryweapon
inthefightagainstthecontinuedappropriationandexploitationofblackcultural
producers.94KidJonesmayonlybethinkingabouthimself,butthecombinationofhis
visualpresenceandtheauralaffectsofhismusic(love,pain,hate,desire,etc.)havethe
potentialtobetakenupbyothermusiciansortheaudienceinanynumberofways.As
Petrynotes,eventhebriefexplorationofthisauralrageproduces“afaintastonishment”in
themembersoftheband.LikeKidJonesearlierremembrance,theyunderstandthe
emotion,buttheycannotdecipheritsconnectiontothespecificnarrativeitattemptsto
communicate.
Returningtothebreak,KidJonesmemoriesbegintotaketheformofvisionsthat
combineofhisownpastwithhisimaginationofexperiencesthattookplaceinvastly
differentspatialandtemporallocalities.
Thedrumstookhimawayfromthem,tookhimback,andback,andbackin
timeandspace.Hebuiltupanillusion.Hewassendingoutthenews.
Grandmadied.Theforeignerinthelitterhasanolddiseaseandwillno
92WhileauthorPaulDevlin(2015)attemptstocorrelateKidJoneswithadrummerfromCount
Basie’sbandinthemid-late1940’s,hedoessowithoutevidencefromthetext,onlyfromthetime
period.SincePetryneverdiscussesthistopic,itisimpossibletoknowifitisbasedonareal
characterandevenmorepresumptuoustoassumeyoucan.Iampresentingbebopasapossibility,
asagesturetowardsthedynamicsofmusicatthetime,butinnowayendorsemyviewastheonly,
orinfact,thewhollycorrectopiniononthesubject.
94Lookforasourceortwothattalksaboutthecommodificationofswingandthetransitioninto
bebop.[Dothisinfinalreadthrough]
138
recover.Themanfromacrossthebigwaterissleepingwiththechief’s
daughter.Kill.Kill.Kill.Thewargoeswellwiththemenwiththebadsmell
andtheloudlaugh.Itgoesbadlywiththechiefswiththeroundheadsand
peacock’swalk.(168)
Bydescribingthereactionsofthelisteningaudienceandthenofferinganarrativeofthe
multifariousandintersectingoriginsofthesound,Petry’sstorymodelsnewwaysforthe
readertohearblackperformance.95Blendingtogetherthenarrativeofhisgrandmother’s
death,hiswife’sadultery,andthemeta-narrativeofNewWorldexplorations96,thisscene
relaystheabilityofmusictocreateconnectionsheretoforeunacknowledgedbyKidJones
orthereadingaudience.Whilethefailedintimacywithhiswifecauseshimtocreate“an
illusion”ofthepast,thiseventuallygiveswaytoamoreprofoundcommentaryonthe
collectivepast,orthelossesandfragmentationsthatconnectAfrican-Americanstogether
regardlessofindividualexperience.Aseriesofveiledanalogies,KidJonesnolongerspeaks
ofhiswifeandtheMarquis,butof“themanacrossthebigwater[is]sleepingwiththe
chief’sdaughter”andtheimpulseto“Kill.Kill.Kill”thatemergesfromthisinteraction.The
repetitionofthewordkillalsoechoesthesentimentofKidJonesearlierviolentfantasies
andthereplicates,withrevision,the“Close.Close.Close”facesoftheaudiencedescribed
earlier.Yet,beyondtheseimaginingsamuchmoreprofoundnarrativeemerges.Whilethe
95JoshKun’s(2005)observationsabouttheactoflisteninginJamesBaldwin’s“Sonny’sBlues”are
alsorelevanthere;“Baldwinurgesustobecomealistener…Bylisteningtohisbrotherplayinalive
jazzband…thestory’snarratorcomestounderstandtheimportanceoflisteningasan
emancipatoryperformance…theactofperformanceisawayoflivingthroughmusic,ofsurviving
throughmusic,ofgraspingliberationthroughmusic”(91).
96AsGaylJonesnotesinherreadingofthisscene,“Thebroadersocial-historicalcontext,significant
totheintentofthestory,reclaimsanaestheticwhichreinforcesthenarrativeanddramaticvision
oftheNewWorldstory”(97)FromLiberatingVoices(1991)
139
“wargoeswell”andcontinuestogowellforthosethewhiteaudienceswhocontrolthe
representationofblacksubjects,fortheartist,ortheancientlineageofthechief“itgoes
badly.”Nomatterhowgoodhisstyle,or“peacock’swalk”is,KidJonesunderstandsthathis
narrativewillstillemergewithinandbecontrolledbytheracedandgenderednarrativesof
theNewWorld.
Offeringnoindicationofhowthesesoundmusingsarereceivedbytheaudienceor
theband,PetryremainsinthemidstofKidJonespsycheashismemoriesshifttheoverall
toneandmoodofthemusic.Fromcolonialismanditsafterlifetothefirsttimehemeetshis
wife,thereadermustadjust,withKidJones,tothechangingsceneryofhismind:
Itiscoolinthedeeptrackintheforest.Coolandquiet.Thetreestalksoftly.
Theyspeakofthedancetonight.Theyounggirlfromacrossthelakewillbe
there…ThenthewordshewantedtoforgetwereallaroundKidJonesagain.
“I’mleaving.I’mleaving.I’mleaving.”Hecouldn’thelphimself.Hestopped
hittingthedrumsandstaredattheMarquisofBrund—along,malevolent
look,filledwithhate.(168)
Thismomentaryrespitefromtheintenseemotionalinteractionsthathavecharacterized
thenarrativeindicateKidJones’desiretoreplicateadifferenttimeandanotherimageof
hiswife.Yet,hecannotgetpasttheimmediacyofthemoment;therepeatedphrasesofthe
morningandthepresenceoftheMarquisshattertheillusionsandmemorieshehasbuilt
upinhismind.AsPetrydescribes,“Hecouldn’thelphimself”;playingnolongerprovides
thereconciliationheseeks,sohestopstostareattheMarquis“withalongmalevolentlook,
filledwithhate.”Forasplitsecond,KidJonestoyswiththeideaofaction,ofa
communicationindependentfromtheactofperformance.However,thesilencecreatesa
140
tensionintheaudience,ora“restless,uneasymovement”(168)thatthreatenstodisrupt
thedivisionsbetweentheirexpectationsofblackperformanceandtheactualrealitiesthat
informthoseexpressions.ThisdiscomfortonlylastsasplitsecondbeforeKidJones
“rememberedwherehewas”andentersbackintoanexchangewiththetrumpetplayer.
Afterseveralriffs,KidJonesrealizeshemustonceagainenterintothebreak:“He
knewamomentofpanic.Hehadtosoloagainandhewasn’tsurehecoulddoit”(168).In
ordertotakethefragmentsofthepastandcreateanewarticulationoftheselfinthe
present,KidJonesmustwrestlewithfeelingsoffearanduncertainty.AsAlbertMurray
describes,thismomentoftensionisbothanecessaryandimportantfeatureofthebreak:
Thebreakisanextremelyimportantdevicefromboththestructuralpointof
viewandfromitsimplications…Themomentofgreatestjeopardyisyour
momentofgreatestopportunity.Thisistheheroicmoment…Itiswhenyou
establishyouridentity;itiswhenyouwriteyoursignatureontheepidermis
ofactuality.Thisishowyoucometotermswiththevoid…(112)
Whenenteringintothe“invagination,rupture,collision,augmentation”(Moten26)that
characterizethebreak,theartistmustengagewithtemporalandrepresentational
instability.Inthefaceofaestheticandracialhomogenization,KidJonesmustcreateaspace
wherehecan‘write’hisownstoriesandestablishhisowngenealogies.Foritisinthose
moments,whenvisualanddiscursiverepresentationsnolongersuffice,thatyou“establish
youridentity”,ortakeyoursoundand“writeyoursignatureontheepidermisofreality.”
WhenKidJoneshitsthedrumsforhisfinal,andgreatest,solo,heimmediatelyfeels,
…asthoughthedrumsweretalkingabouthisownlife…Heforgotthetheater,
forgoteverythingbutthedrums.Hewasweldedtothedrums,suckedinside
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them.Allofhim.Hispulsebeat.Hisheartbeat.Hehadbecomepartofthe
drums.Theyhadbecomepartofhim.(168)
Atthisvitalmoment,KidJonesbeginstofeelasthoughhehasbecomethemechanismof
hisexpression.Heisnolongerspeaking,butitisdrumsthatarecommunicatinghis
narrative;theybecome“hispulsebeat.Hisheartbeat.”Evenifonlyforamoment,KidJones
mustforgethisbodyinordertoremember.Heisnotdissociatedfromthefear,love,hate,
violence,andsadnessofhisnarrative,butisabletounderstandhowtheyhaveshapedand
arecontinuingtoshapehisidentity.AsscholarGayleWaldenotesinherresearchon
African-Americanperformance,“musiciansmayperformtranscendence,buttheydonot
transcendtheirbodies;rather,theycomeintofullerpossessionofthem,realizingtheir
musicalpossibilities”(690).InorderforPetrytocapturetheephemeralandintense
momentofimprovisation,sheneedstodescribethefeelingofdisembodiment,orthe
momentwhenthenarrativeofperformancebecomes“welded”intosound,intosomething
beyondspeech.Oncehiswife,theMarquis,theaudience,hismother,allthewomenheever
loved,thechiefs,thetrumpet,andthepainaretemporarilyassuaged,hecanissuebackto
somethingelse,towhatRalphEllisoncallsthose“indefinableaspectsofexperiencewhich
neverthelesshelpmakeuswhatweare”(198).
Hemadethebigbassrumbleandreverberate.Hewentalittlemadonthebig
bass.Againandagainhefilledthetheaterwithasoundlikethunder.The
soundseemedtocomenotfromthedrumsbutfromdeepinsidehimself;it
wasasoundthatwasbeingwrenchedoutofhim—aviolent,raging,roaring
sound.Asitissuedfromhimhethought,thisisthestoryofmylove.Thisis
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thestoryofmyhate,thisisallthereisleftofme.Andthesoundechoedand
re-echoedfarupundertheroofofthetheater.(169)
WhilethelisteningaudiencehearstheemotionsofKidJonesthroughthedeep,
reverberating,repetitionofthedrumsandthe“violent,raging,roaringsound”
thatfillseverycornerofthetheater,thereadingaudienceisofferedamuchmorecomplex
insightintotheplayer’spsyche.Petry’sstoryremindsthereader,asRalphEllisondoes,
thattoenterintojazzistoenter“intoquiteadifferentsphereoftraining.Hereitismore
meaningfultospeak,notofcoursesofstudy,ofgradesanddegrees,butofapprenticeship,
ordeals,initiations,ceremonies,ofrebirth”(208).Thesoundisnotasimpleextensionof
hissubjectivity,butanemotionbeing“wrenchedoutofhim”bythefragmentationsand
lossesoftherecentanddistantpastthat“echoandre-echoed”asKidJonesattemptsto
shapesoundintoanewnarrativeofidentity.
WhenKidJonesemergesfromtheperformanceandbackintothesphereofthe
theater,Petrynotesthat“hewastrembling”and“hisbodywaswetwithsweat.”This
physicalreactionoffersanimageofrebirth,anextricationandacleansingthatresultsfrom
therigorsofperformance,thelights,theemotions,andhisonefinalexplorationintothe
voidthatconstitutestheself.Yet,Petryunderstandsthatnomatterhowprofoundthe
moment,itisstilljustatransientandinimitableexpressionthatmustalwaysreturntoits
materialrealities.Thisiswhyshedoesnotendthestoryattheconclusionofhissolo,but
returnsasshebegan,withKidjonesunderstandingofhimselfasanobjectof
commodificationandentertainment.
Hewassurprisedtoseethatthedrumsweresittinginfrontofhim.Hewas
stillhimself.KidJones.Masterofthedrums.Greatestdrummerintheworld.
143
Sellinghimselfalittlepieceatatime.Everyafternoon.Twiceeveryevening.
Onlythistimehehadtoppedallhisotherperformances.Thistime,playing
likethisafterwhathadhappenedinthemorning,hehadsoldallofhimself—
notjustalittlepiece.(169)
Afterreturningtohimselfandthelimitedspaceofthetheater,KidJonesrealizesthatallthe
performancesuptothispointwereonlypartialutterances,orinstancesinwhichhewas,
forthesatisfactionofothers,“sellinghimselfalittlepieceatatime.”Heknowsthisishis
greatestperformanceever,howeverhemustalsonegotiatewiththefactthatthissound
andimageofhimwillbereleasedbackintoamarketthatdeterminesvalueinways
completelydissociatedfromthenarrativehepresents.He“hadsoldallofhimself”and
knowingthis,hecannotbehappy.Infact,heonlyfeelsfurtheralienatedfromtheaudience
andtheband.Thisgesturestowardsthematerialityofperformance,orwhatFredMoten
describesasthetensionbetweenthecommodifiedobjectandtheabilityofsoundto
augmentorrematerializeblacksubjectivityinthebreak.Theseinstancesofthecommodity
speaking,whichMotencharacterizesinsoundsthatrangefromAuntHester’sscreamto
BillieHoliday’smoan,illuminateboththeinternalandexternaldialogues,ormaterialand
immaterialnuancesofblackperformance.AsMotenargues:
Thisisthestoryofhowapparentnon-valuefunctionsasacreatorofvalue;it
isalsothestoryofhowvalueanimateswhatappearsasnonvalue.This
functioningandanimationarematerial.Thisanimateriality—impassioned
responsetopassionateutterance—ispainfullyhiddenanddisclosedalways
andeverywhereinthetracksofblackperformanceandblackdiscourseon
blackperformance.(18)
144
WhenanotherbandmemberkicksKidJonesandsays“Bowyouape.Whassamatterwith
you?”(169),theyareimploringhimtoberecognized,toaccept“thatimpassionedresponse
topassionateutterance”asanindicatorofhisvalue.Petry’suseoftheword“ape”isnot
coincidental.Juxtaposed,intheverynextline,withamechanizedimageofKidJones
bowing“Likea—likeoneofthosethingsyoupullonastringanditjerks,goesthroughthe
motionofdancing.Pullitagainanditkicks”98,thesefinallinesoffertwodichotomousand
falserepresentationsofhissubjectivity.Heisneitherthebi-productofrapid
industrializationorarelieffromitthroughtheinnateemotionalintensitiesassociatedwith
primitivism,butaperformerwhosenarrativeremains“painfullyhiddenanddisclosed”
behindnarrativesthatinformtheirmusic,before,during,andaftertheactofperformance.
AlthoughKidJonesthinkstohimself“Yeah…youwerehotallright”,hecannotshakethe
echoofhismorningofthemomentthathiswifesaid“I’mleavingit’stheguywhoplaysthe
pianoI’minlovewiththeMarquisofBrundheplayssuchsweetpianoI’mleavingleaving
leaving—”(169).ThelackofpunctuationstandsinstarkcontrasttoPetry’sprevious
strategyofwritingnarrativeasamusicalperformance,butitdoessodeliberately.The
performanceisover,theriffsandnotesthatinflectedhisrepresentationofhimselfgone.
Conclusion
NomatterhowKidJonessongisinterpretedoutsidetheboundariesofhisperformance,
Petryisinterestedintheimmediate,affectiverelationshipbetweenmusicandmemory.
98ItissurprisingthatscholarshavenotnotedthesimilaritybetweenthissceneandChapter20of
InvisibleMan(1950),whenthenarratorseesCliftonsellingSambodollsonthestreet.AsEllison
describesthedolls,“Agrinningdolloforange-and-blacktissuepaperwiththinflatcardboarddisks
formingitsheadandfeetandwhichsomemysteriousmechanismwascausingtomoveupand
downinaloosejointed,shoulder-shaking,infuriatinglysensuousmotion,adancethatwas
completelydetachedfromtheblack,mask-likeface.”(431)
145
Despitethemultiplelayersofhistorythatcoalesceandtheaffectiveresponsesitproduces
intheaudienceandhimself,PetryinsistsonbowingoutoftheperformancejustasKid
Jonesdoes.Sheleavesthereadertograspwiththepotentialnarrativesthatfollowthe
performance,herinterestisinrevealingthemechanismofhistoricalmemory,howartists
arrangeandrearrangeimagesofthepasttocreateamorecompleteimageofthepresent.
AsRalphEllisondescribesinhis1955essay“LivingWithMusic”:
PerhapsintheswiftchangeofAmericansocietyinwhichthemeaningsof
one’soriginsaresoquicklylost,oneofthechiefvaluesoflivingwithmusic
liesinitspowertogiveusanorientationintime.Indoingso,itgives
significancetoallofthoseindefinableaspectsofexperiencewhich
neverthelesshelptomakeuswhatweare.Intheswiftwhirloftimemusicis
aconstant,remindingusofwhatwewereandofthattowardwhichwe
aspire.Artthoutroubled?Musicwillnotonlycalm,itwillennoblethee.(198)
InPetry’snarrativethereaderis“livingwithmusic”,theyencounterthepastastheartist
doesandresolvethetemporalcompressionswithinthecontextoftheplayer’sexperiences.
However,whatEllisondescribesalsoextendsbeyondtheindividualandintothe
sentimentsofthegroup.Forthegenerationwhogrewuplisteningtobebopinthe1940s
and50s,themusiccapturedthewhatEricLottdescribesasthe“militancyofitsmoment”.
Inthefightfor“DoubleV”,orvictoryathomeandabroad,bebop“attemptedtoresolveat
thelevelofstylewhatmilitancyfoughtinthestreets.”(Lott458)Nolongerwillingto
assimilateintothedominant,andfrequentlyracist,ideologiesofwhiteAmerica,these
artistscultivated“strategiesofdifferentiation”(Lott460)throughsound.Theyreflecteda
spiritofdefiance,ashiftin“theaddress,thestance,theattitude”(Jones193)oftheAfrican-
146
AmericancommunityastheyreturnedhomefromwaronlytofindthatJimCrowand
segregationmaintainedastrangleholdontheirpolitical,economic,andsocialexistence.
Furthermore,ititsrebellionagainstmainstreamculture,bebop“putonamore
intellectuallyandpsychologicallysatisfyinglevelthetraditionalseparationandisolationof
theblackmanfromAmerica.Itwasacultofprotectionaswellasrebellion”(Jones200).By
embracingaspiritofdefianceandasoundthat“distancedthemfromtheblackmiddleclass
andthewhiteconsensus”(Lott462),bebopmodeledaformofculturalseparatismthat
BlackPowerandBlackArtsMovementwriterswouldeventuallytransformintoconcrete
politicalaction.
147
Chapter4
LocatingaPoliticalPast:Musicandthe“PerformativePolitics”ofFreedominSonia
Sanchez’sWeABaddDDDPeople
Inhis1964reviewofLeroiJones’groundbreakingtextBluesPeople:NegroMusicin
WhiteAmerica(1963),RalphEllisonnotesthat“Itsintroductorymoodofscholarlyanalysis
frequentlyshattersintoadissonanceofaccusation,andonegetstheimpressionthatwhile
Joneswantstoperformacrucialtask…heisfrustratedbytherestraintdemandedofthe
criticalpenandwouldliketopickupaclub”(Ellison248).InconflictwithEllison’sviewof
literatureasasocialdemocraticexpressionoftheAmericanexperienceasmuchasthe
African-Americanexperience99,Jones’stext(andhislaterwork)reflectsanemerging
politicalandartisticattitudeoffrustration,anaestheticinwhichwritingitselfwould
functionas“aclub.”Callingforanewblackartandanewconceptionoftheplaceculture
shouldplayinpolitics,Barakaissuedaboldandvisceralcalltoaction:“Wewant‘poems
thatkill.’/Assassinpoems,Poemsthatshoot/guns.Poemsthatwrestlecopsintoalleys/
andtaketheirweaponsleavingthemdead/withtonguespulledoutandsenttoIreland”
(BlackFire302).InspiredbyMalcolmX,effortsofdecolonizationinAfrica,andtherenewal
ofBlackNationalistphilosophiesofself-determinationandself-identification,BlackArts
Movementwritersbecame“assassins”ofanypoliticalorsocialinstitutionperceivedto
blocktheeffortsofblackliberation.Theassertionthatlanguageisindeedaweaponand
carries“performative”power,ortheabilitytobeinjuriousand/oraffirming,hasbeen
99AsEllisonnotesinhis1953essay“TheSeerandtheSeen”,“Theartistisnofreerthanthesociety
inwhichhelives,andintheUnitedStatesthewriterswhostereotypeorignoretheNegroorother
minoritiesinthefinalanalysisstereotypeanddistorttheirownhumanity.”(ShadowandAct;1953)
MorrisonalsoechoesthissentimentinherbookPlayingintheDark:WhitenessandtheLiterary
Imagination;1992)
148
addressedbyscholarssuchasJudithButlerandJ.L.Austin100.Theirscholarshipcontributes
tomyreadingoftheBlackArtsandBlackPowermovementsasaneraof“performative
politics."Insistingonactionasitemergesfromcarefulreflection,thisaestheticsoughtto
transforminjuriouslanguageandnarrativesintoacalculatedphysical,emotional,political,
andsocialresponse.AsButlerdiscussesinhertextExcitableSpeech(1997),whenagroup
isrepeatedlyattackedthroughlanguage,itcancreatetemporalinterruptionsand
confusions:“Tobeaddressedinjuriouslyisnotonlytobeopentoanunknownfuture,but
nottoknowthetimeandtheplaceofinjury,andtosufferthedisorientationofone’s
situationasaneffectofsuchspeech”(4).Aresponsetodistortedorsilenced
representationsofAfrican-Americanhistoryandsubjectivity,theBlackArtsMovement
soughttorectifythesetemporal“disorientations”throughthedestructionofprevious
narrativesandtheimplementationofnewsocial,political,artistic,andeconomic
imperatives.AsactivistHoytFullerdescribes,theBlackArtsMovementwasinthe
“businessofdestroyingthoseimagesandmythsthathavecrippledanddegradedblack
people,andtheinstitutionofnewimagesandmythsthatwillliberatethem”(Fuller346).
Emphasizingacomprehensiveagendaforinterandintra-racialaffairs,thisprogramof
aestheticandpoliticalactivismresteduponnotonlythereclamationoflanguage,buton
actionfelt,seen,andheard.Newclothes,slang,poetry,theater,visualarts,andmusic
carriedliberatorypoweranddesignatedassuch,redefinedhowAfrican-American
communitiesmightengageculturetoexploretheirownhistoryaswellasthedominant
historicalnarrativesthatdistortedorerasedthathistory.
100SeeJudithButler,ExcitableSpeech:APoliticsofthePerformative(1997);J.L.Austin,HowtoDo
ThingsWithWords(1962)formoreontheeffectsoflanguageastheyareutteredandhowtojudge
speechactsinrelationshiptotheircontextandeffects.
149
Acentralapparatusinthisprojectwasthediscussionofmusicasacommunalsiteof
socialconsciousnessandinnovationthroughoutAmericanandAfricanhistory.Insisting
thatmusicconstitutedapowerfulculturalvectorforthediscussionofthepastandpresent,
BAMartistsandcritics“proclaimedmusicasthepoetryofthepeople.Ratherthanexisting
formerelyentertainmentvalue,music,asthehighestoftheBlackartformshadthe
potential…notonlytochronicleorreflectrevolution,buttoactuallycreateandparticipate
init”(Ongiri139).Musicofferedaperformativeandliberatoryformofalternative
historiography,troublingthedistortionsofdominanthistoricalnarrativesandthe
presumedsociologicalstasistheyimplied.101Throughmultifariousaesthetictechniques
andacrossmusicalgenres,African-AmericanmusiciansattemptedtocomplicateAfricanAmericansubjectivitythroughvirtuosoperformance.AsAmiriBarakadescribes:
[Music]wasthehistoryoftheAfro-Americanpeopleastext,astale,asstory,
asexposition,narrative,orwhathaveyou,thatthemusicwasthescore,the
actuallyexpressedcreativeorchestration,reflection,ofAfro-Americanlife,
ourwords,ourlibretto,tothoseactual,livedlives.Thatthemusicwasan
orchestrated,vocalized,hummed,chanted,blown,scatted,corollary
confirmationofthehistory.Andthatonecouldgofromonetoanother…and
betalkingaboutthesamethings.Themusicwasexplainingthehistoryas
101WhatIamreferencingherearethemultiplemythscreatedaboutAfrican-Americanstojustify
slaveryandmanyotherformsofracialviolence.Theseinclude,butarenotlimitedto,thefearofthe
blackrapist,primitivismandhistoricaldistortionofAfricanhistory(asdiscussedinChapter1),the
mythoftheMammyandtheJezebel,andtheemasculationofmaleAfrican-Americanidentity
throughlynchingandtheprisonindustrialcomplex.SeeTheMoynihanReport,or“TheNegro
Family:TheCaseforNationalAction(1967);AngelaDavis,Women,RaceandClasspgs.3-30,172202(1981);DeborahGrayWhiteAr’n’tIAWoman(1985);IdaB.Wells,SouthernHorrorsandOther
Writings(1997).
150
thehistorywasexplainingthemusic.Andthatbothwereexpressionsofand
reflectionsofthepeople!(BluesPeopleix)
Suggestingasustained,perpetual,andself-reflexiverelationshipbetweenAfricanAmericanmusicandhistory,Barakaidentifiesmusicalaestheticsasofferingthemost
complexanddynamicformofAmericanhistoriographytodate.Notsimplytherelayingof
factsorthereflectionsofoppression,musicprovidedthe“text”,“tale”,“story”,“exposition”,
or“narrative”ofAfrican-Americanpeopleasitwas“vocalized”,“hummed”,“chanted”,
“blown”,or“scatted”intowiderAmericanculture.Deliberatelydrawingarelationship
betweenwriting,orality,andauralityBluesPeoplearguesthatmusicprovidesahistorical
recordcreatedbyandfortheAfrican-Americancommunity.Freedfromtheproscriptive
narrativesofthewhitecommunity,gaveaccessto“thoseactual,livedlives”and,indoing
so,allowedthecommunitytodrawrelationshipsbetweentheirpastandpresent.102
OneofthemostvisiblefemalepoetsoftheBlackArtsMovement,SoniaSanchez
enteredintothispoliticalandaestheticenvironmentwellversedintheBlackNationalist
politicalagendaandthelimitationsofitsrhetoric.Inspired,likemanyothers,byMalcolmX
andtherevivalofBlackNationalismthroughoutthe1960’s,Sanchez’searlypoetryand,in
particular,hervolumeWeaBaddDDDPeople(1971)offersarareglimpseintothe
collectiveeffortstocreateartisticandsocialchangethroughouttheperiod.Invoking
imagesofMalcolmX,FranzFanon,ElijahMuhammad,JohnColtrane,andBillieHoliday,her
volume(stillherlongesttodate)isclearlyinspiredbyandsupportstheBlackNationalist
project.Yet,itisnotsimplypoeticpoliticalrhetoric.Inthenuancesofherinventivestyle,
102Astheblackfeministmovementwouldnote,thisconstructionsoftheblackcommunityoften
ignoredtheexperiencesofwomenofcolorasaninvaluablepartofthisnewhistoricalconstitution.
See“CombaheeRiverCollective”(1977).ScholarssuchasJamesSmethursthavealsonotedhow
151
Sanchezfrequentlyprioritizessocialactionovertheveryartsheiscreating,
conscientiouslyremindingherreadersoflanguage’slimitedcapacitytocreatenewsystems
oflivingandbeingintheworld.Her“performative”poeticaestheticisvital,butmean
nothingifitdoesnotincitethecommunitytocomprehensivelychangethepoliticalworldit
addresses.Throughtheuseofmusicalfigures,African,andAfrican-Americanaesthetics,
Sanchezpresentshistoryasanactiveandactivatingforce,andpoeticsastheperformative
mediumwhichprovidestheknowledgeofreflectionandtheprinciplesofaction.Billie
Holiday,JohnColtrane,andAfricandrumsnotonlyprovideamusicalcorrelativecapableof
transformingthelanguageofMalcolmXandFranzFanonintoavividlymulti-generational
struggleforsocialandhumanjustice,butalsoofferanimportantsitefordebatesaboutthe
efficacyofprevioushistoricalnarrativesandaestheticsintheircurrentstrugglesfor
freedom.
Althoughseveraltextsoftheperiodaddressedgapsanddistortionsin
historiography103,theiremergedaseriesofdebatesabouttheplaceofmusic,and
specificallytheblues,inthecreationofnewculturalsymbols.Concernedwithwhite
appropriation,theurgencyofthepresent,andtheappearanceofblackmusicas
assimilationistinanyway,avant-gardejazzartistssuchasJohnColtrane,ArchieShepp,Sun
Ra,andCharlesMingus(amongmanyothers104)wereviewedas“nolonger[ableto]realize
thebasicsocialandemotionalphilosophythathastraditionallyinformedAfro-American
music”(BluesPeople235).Aestheticrevolutionbecametheperfectaccompanimentto
103SeeAlbertMurrayTheOmni-Americans(1970);BlackStudiesintheUniversity:ASymposium
(1969);MelvinDrimmer,BlackHistory:AReappraisal(1968);JohnHenrickClarke“Reclaimingthe
LostAfricanHeritage”,BlackFire!(1968).
104A.B.Spellman,MaxRoach,AlbertAyler,PharoahSanders,OrnetteColeman,HerbieNichols,
JackieMcClean,andEricDolphywerealsoconsideredexamplesofthisnewblackaesthetic.
152
politicalrevolution.WhilewriterssuchasSanchezandRonKarengapresentedthebluesas
areflectionofresignationinthefaceofoppression,manyothers,includingAlbertMurray
andLarryNealviewedthemusicasanauthenticandinvaluableformofcultural
expression.Amethodforactivatinghistoricalnarrativeandaestheticsinthepresent,
SanchezcreatespoeticconversationswithHolidaythatbothadmonishherinabilitytoact,
andmournherincapacitytodistancehermusicfromassimilationistnarratives.Thisnot
onlyexemplifiesthe“performative”capacityofpoetrytocompressthepastandpresent,
butalsorevealsthedifficultyofrepresentingfemalevoicesinanerathatconsistently
pressuredAfrican-Americanwomentoprioritizeraceovergender.105
ToestablishthecontextfortheemergenceofSanchez’spoetry,thechapterwillfirst
considertheimportanceofhistoricalnarrativeinrelationtoculturalpracticethrougha
numberofpoliticalandsocialfigures.Thisincludes,butisnotlimitedto,AmiriBaraka,
LarryNeal,FranzFanon,StokelyCarmichael,AddisonGayle,JamesT.Stewart,Albert
Murray,andSoniaSanchezherself.Thefinalsectionswillturnmorespecificallytowards
Sanchez’sengagementwithmusic,presentingthebluesdebatesthroughthefigureofBillie
Holiday,andanalyzingtheinspiringpoliticalauralityofJohnColtrane’stranscendent
musicalphilosophies.Takentogether,theseconversationsdemonstratetheabilityof
African-Americanmusictoreshapehowtheactionsandaestheticsofthepresentare
informedandcatalyzedbythepast.Offeringthepossibilityforalternativehistoriographies
throughblackaestheticpracticesthatareoftencharacterizedascounter-intuitivetowhite,
105AsscholarCheriseA.Pollard(2006)discusses,“Oneaspectofconventionalargumentsabout
blackwomenpoet’scontributiontothemovementisthatthesewomenwrotepoetrythat
unquestionablysupportedtheir‘brothers’struggleforequality.Itwasoftenassumedthatrace
tookprecedenceovergender”(178).
153
westernconstructionsofhistory,Sanchez’svolumeenhancestheaudience’sunderstanding
ofthemselvesaspoliticalactorsandparticipantsinalongertraditionofresistance.
MalcolmX,FranzFanon,andtheDevelopmentoftheBlackNationalistAestheticand
PoliticalMeta-Narrative
Fromhisinfamousproclamationthatthe“chickenshadcomehometoroost”after
PresidentKennedy’sdeath,tohis1964callfor“TheBallotortheBullet”,andhisconsistent
proclamationsthat“wewantfreedombyanymeansnecessary”106,MalcolmXarticulated
thepressingproblemsofthenationinavoicethatdemandedimmediateactionand
violence,ifnecessary.SparkingawidespreadrevitalizationofBlackNationalistpolitics
acrossthenation,MalcolmX,asSoniaSancheznotes,“articulatedwhatweallthought.For
manyofus,Barakaandrest,hegaveusavoice.That’swhymanyofourpoemsbecameso
angryatthattime…Malcolmcutthroughalotofcrapinthiscountryandputoutinthe
openwhatmanyyoungpeoplewerethinkinganddidn’tknowhowtoarticulate”(“As
Poets,AsActivists”88-89).Capturingthegrowingfrustrationsofthenation,MalcolmX
developedapoliticalandculturalideologythatplacedAfrican-Americansandpeopleof
coloraroundtheglobeatthecenterofhistoricalnarrativeratherthantheperiphery.
Viewingwhitesocietyasasystemofcultural,political,andsocialoppression,theBlack
Nationalismpromotedtwoseparate,butdeeplyintertwinedtasks:1)Tobeginthinkingof
historyassomethingthatmustnecessarilybedisengagedfromthepolitical,social,
economic,andculturalhistoriesofthewhitecommunity2)Tocreateaspaceinwhichnew
106“TheBallotortheBullet”,seeMalcolmX(1990),See1964speechatthe“FoundingRallyofthe
OrganizationofAfro-AmericanUnity”for“byanymeansnecessary”.Figureouthowtofootnote
exactly.
154
symbolsofblackempowermentandnewvisionsofrealitycouldbeproduced.AsMalcolm
Xstatedinhis1964essay“StatementofBasicAimsandObjectivesoftheOrganizationof
Afro-AmericanUnity”:
Wemustrecaptureourheritageandouridentityifweareevertoliberate
ourselvesfromthebondsofwhitesupremacy.Wemustlaunchacultural
revolutiontounbrainwashanentirepeople…Thisculturalrevolutionwillbe
thejourneytoourrediscoveryofourselves.Historyisapeople’smemory,
andwithoutamemorymanisdemotedtotheloweranimals.Armedwiththe
knowledgeofthepast,wecanwithconfidencecharteracourseforthe
future.Cultureisanindispensibleweaponinthefreedomstruggle.Wemust
takeholdofitandforgethefuturewiththepast.(MalcolmX563)
Viewedasaweaponintheongoingstrugglebetweenwhitesupremacyandblack
movementsforsocial,cultural,andpoliticalself-determination,theassessmentand
reclamationofhistoricalnarrativeformthebasisofMalcolmX’scallfora“cultural
revolution.”Insistingontheactiverolememoryandculturemustplayinrethinking
historicalnarrative,hecallsfornarrativesthatwill“recaptureourheritageandour
identity”and,intheprocess,beginto“unbrainwashanentirepeople.”Ameansofrenewing
thecommunityfromtheinsideout,thisaggressiveinterrogationandreformationof
historicalnarrativeprovidesaway“toforgethefuturewiththepast.”
Thissenseoflookingtowardthedefinitionsofthepastwithacriticaleyeand
utilizingthatinformationtobeginredefiningthenotionoffreedombecamevitaltothe
effortsoforganizationandwouldbefurthergalvanizedafterMalcolm’sdeathonFebruary
21st,1965.TothosealreadyfrustratedbythepoliticallychargeddeathofPatrice
155
Lumumba,aCongoleseleaderoftheglobalanti-colonialstruggle,whomanyfeltwas
murderedwiththehelpofwesternpowers,MalcolmX’sdeathwasonlyafurthercatalyst
forsocialchange.DespitetheCivilRightsActof1964andtheVotingRightsActof1965,
racialoppressionremainedpersistent,sparkingviolentprotestswhichwere,
“paradoxicallypromotingafeelingofnewpoliticalandculturalpossibilityaswellas
frustration”(Smethurst369).DespitethefactthatMalcolmX’sdeathhad“emotionally
fracturedyoungblackradicals”,LarryNealnotesthat,“thereweretwocentralfactsthatall
factionsofthemovementcametounderstand…thatthestruggleforself-determinationhad
enteredaserious,moreprofoundstage;andthatformostofus,nonviolenceasaviable
techniqueofsocialchangehaddiedwithMalcolmonthestageoftheAudubon”(“On
MalcolmX”128-129).TakingupMalcolm’scalltoalterthefabricofthenationandthe
globethroughself-determination,thousandsofyoungactivistsbegantoviewthe
movementforAfricanandAfrican-Americanliberationasatacritical,“profoundstage”of
culturalandpoliticaldevelopment.
TheBlackArtsMovementcapturedthespiritandvehemenceofMalcolmfornearly
tenyearsafterhisdeath107bycreatingartthatcouldtakecontroloftheintellectual
fortressesofAmericansociety.Honinginontheliberatorypotentialofcultureand
education,activistsbeganpressingfordepartmentsofAfricanandAfricanAmerican
studies,participatinginpublicforums,stagingplays,andpopularizingnewimagesof
African-Americanmenandwomen.Everyaspectofblacklifehadbecomeaweaponagainst
107JamesSmethurst(2005),intracingthevariationsamongstthemovementandtheirimportance
relativetothelargermovement,identifiestheBlackArtsMovementaslastingfrom,roughly,the
early1960’sthroughthemid1970’s.AlthoughMalcolm’svoicewouldremaininfluentialinlater
culturalrealms,includinghip-hop,forthepurposesofthischapter,Iamnotinghisinfluenceduring
thetimeperiodnotedabove.
156
theoppressiveconditionsandhistoriesofthenation.Committedtosecuringthe
communityfromanyandallwhiteviolence,formulatinganewagendaforeducation,and
drawingoutplansforthesocialandeconomicindependenceofAfrican-Americans,the
BlackNationalistpartydevelopedacomprehensiveprogramthatembracedcultural
workersasvitaltotheprojectofblackliberation.AsnotedinthemanifestosoftheStudent
NationalCoordinationCommitteeandtheBlackPantherParty,cultureandcultural
reeducationwereviewedasequallyimportantinthepoliticalmeta-narrativeofthegroups:
Ifwearetoproceedtowardstrueliberation,wemustcutourselvesofffrom
whitepeople.Wemustformourowninstitutions,creditunions,co-ops,
politicalparties,writeourownhistories.(“SNCC:TheBasisofBlackPower”
155)
Wewanteducationforourpeoplethatexposesthetruenatureofthis
decadentAmericansociety.Wewanteducationthatteachesusourtrue
historyandourroleinpresent-daysociety.Webelieveinaneducational
systemthatwillgiveourpeopleaknowledgeofself.Ifamandoesnothave
knowledgeofhimselfandhispositioninsocietyandtheworld,thenhehas
littlechancetorelatetoanythingelse.(“TheBlackPantherPlatform:What
WeWant,WhatWeBelieve”)
Withcallsforthecommunityto“writeourownhistories”andcreatean“educationthat
teachesusourtruehistoryandroleinpresent-daysociety,”manyartistsandwritersbegan
takingupthechallengetoreconsiderhistoriography,specificallyasitrelatedtoAfrican
andAfrican-Americanculturalandsocialexperiences.
Admonishingthosewhoforhundredsofyears(“straightoffthemayflower”)
believedthattheirhatredanddisgustforwhiteAmericawasunsubstantiatedorsimply
wrong,Sanchez’spoem“thereareblk/puritans”echoesBlackNationalistcallsforsolidarity
throughhistoricalrecognitionandreclamation.AccusingmanyAfrican-Americansof
reflectingtheideologyoftheoppressor,Sanchezpointsouthowtherearethose:
157
whowouldhaveu
believe
thattheword
fuck/u/mutha/fucka
isevil.
un/black.(17)
Viewingassimilationasarhetoricofpassivityasoldasthecountryitself,Sanchezcallsfor
asemanticshift,abeliefthatangerisnot“un/black”,butamethodofunderstandingthe
pastinrelationtothepresent.Callingforall“puritans”intheblackcommunitytobegin
addressing“thereal/curse/wordsofourtime”,suchas“CA/PITA/LISM”,“blk/pimps”,
“nixonandco”,and“missanne/rocke/FELLER”,thepoemaddressesmajorsystemicissues
ratherthanpettyinterandintra-racialdebatesover‘foul’language.Tomovetowardsa
stateoffreedomandself-determination,thecommunityneedstostopaccusingone
anotherandbeginfocusingontherealenemies(andbedfellows),capitalismandpolitical
corruption.Presentingthehistoricalnarrativesofassimilationandcapitalismsidebyside,
thepoemreclaimsthepasttosendamessagetothepresent.Asshestatesinthefinallines:
there
areblk/puritansamongstus
whomustbetoldthat
WITE/AMURICA
isthe
onlyoriginalsin.(17)
Announcingthatassimilationisnolongernecessary,shealsocallsforthosereadingto
“tell”othersaboutthepastthatisobfuscatingtheirabilitytounderstandthecurrent
political,social,economic,andculturalcircumstancesofthecountry.Shealsosubtly
addressestheparadoxofChristianitybyremindingherreaderthat“WITE/AMERICA/is
the/onlyoriginalsin”.Harkeningbacktoamythicpastevenfurtherremovedfromthe
158
landingatPlymouthRock,thepoemquestionsthevalidityofaddressinganyothersins
besidesthoserepeatedlyenactedbywhiteAmericaontheblackcommunity.
Extendingthisfocustotransnationalaswellasnationalrelationships,BAM
demonstratedarenewedinterestinAfricaandthestruggleforindependencefromcolonial
nationsthathadbeenoccurringthroughoutthe1950sand1960s.Informedbytheworks
ofinternationalrevolutionariessuchasFrantzFanon,PatriceLumumba,CheGuevara,and
theMarxistrevolutionarytradition,theBlackNationalistandBlackPantherParty
promotedaparallelismbetweenAfricanrevolutionariesandAfrican-Americanstruggles
forfreedom:
Panthertheoreticians…adoptedtheviewthattheexperienceofBlackpeople
inAmericaparalleledthatofcolonizedpeopleunderthetraditional
colonialism.PartyleadersmaintainedthattheBlackcommunityinAmerica
constitutedaninternalcolonysufferingfromculturaldestruction,White
economicexploitation,andracialoppressionbyanoccupyingWhitepolice
force(Clemons28).
Focusingonthestruggleforfreedomastiedtooppressivestateapparatusesratherthan
relatedspecificallytoonenation,theBlackPantherParty,andMalcolmXbeforethem,
soughttocreatesolidaritywithseveralcolonizedandrecentlycolonizedAfricannations
andtheirleaders.108Inaddition,manyartistsandactivistsadoptedanAfrocentric
historicalphilosophy,choosingtoelidethehistoryofslaveryinfavorofempoweringand
108GroupssuchastheAfricanLiberationSupportCommitteeandtheCongressofAfricanPeople
playedamajorroleineducatingandgatheringcontinuedsupportforcolonizedandnewlyliberated
Africannations.SeealsoCedricJohnson,“"FromPopularAnti-imperialismtoSectarianism:The
AfricanLiberationSupportCommitteeandBlackPowerRadicals"(2003);MichaelSimanga,Amiri
BarakaandtheCongressofAfricanPeople:HistoryandMemory(2015).
159
positiveimagesofAfricanandMiddleEasterncultures.AsMolefiKeteAsantediscussesin
hisessayon“OnHistoricalInterpretations”:
AfrocentricityappropriatesallAfricanhistoryintheUnitedStatesand
elsewherebutitdoesnotannouncesomeinstinctforlivinginthepast.
Thepastisaliveonlytothedegreethatwecaptureitinourowndepths…By
studyingthepastIcanbejudgedbyhowdeeplyIgoinappropriatingmy
historyforthepresentmomentofliving.(18)
Tolearnaboutthepastisnottoenvisionhistoricalstasis,buttoconsideritsinfluenceon
theactivitiesofthepresent.Positivehistoricalandculturalappropriationallowedfor
peopletomakehistory“alive”withinthemselvesandtheirexpressions.Power,whether
aesthetic,political,economic,orsocial,onlyemergeswhenhistoryisaprocess,when“we
captureitinourowndepths”andcreatepositiveself-worthandvalueintheAfricanAmericancommunity.ConnectingtheancientandrecenthistoryofAfricawithAmerican
issuesofoppression,Sanchez’spoem“ToFanon”encouragesreflection,butonlytothe
extentthatitcreatesorganizedpoliticalaction.Thiscompressionofthepastandpresent
encouragesamovefromideologytoactionandvisualrepresentationtothedevelopment
ofnewhistoriesandnewcultures;asthefulltitleofthepoemstates;“ToFanon,culture
meantonlyonething—anenvironmentshapedtohelpus&ourchildrengrow,shapedby
ourselvesinactionagainstthesystemthatenslavesus”(WeaBaddDDDPeople50).
Openingwiththebluntadmissionthat“thecrackerisnottobeplayedwith”,thepoem
remindsthereaderthat“theevillllllhedoesisnotnewcannotberesolved/thrurhetoric/
hate/poems”.Immediatelyprioritizingsocialactionovertheveryartthatsheiscreating,
shepointstowardsthelimitedcapacityoflanguagetocreatenewsystemsoflivingand
160
beingintheworld.Partofthesamegamebutunderanewname,thecurrentformsof
oppressionhavesimplyreplicatedstrategiesthatgobacktoslaveryandbeyond:
thecrackerisdeep
deeperthanthe
400yrsofslavery.
wemust
watchour
slavery
especiallywhenitlookslikefreedom.(50)
Claimingthat“freedom”asitisconfiguredinAfricaandinAmericaaresimplyanempty
rhetoricthat“thecracker”hascreatedtoperpetuaterenewedformsofexploitation,the
poemasksthereaderto“watchourslavery”andultimatelydiscernwhetherornotitis
disguisedasfreedom.ForSanchez,“slavescanlookbeautiful,talkbeautifullee,/canbe
deceivedbytheDEVIL.”Fooledintobelievingtheirmaterialexistenceafterslaveryis
somehowafulfillmentofthepromisesoffreedom,theAfrican-Americancommunityneeds
tobegindefiningfreedomthroughactionratherthanrhetoricorappearance.In
conversationwithMalcolmX’sspeech“ProspectsofFreedom”,whichwasgivenonlysix
weeksbeforehisdeath,thepoemboldlybreaksdowntheideologicalimplicationsof
Americanpoliticalideologiessuchas‘freedom’,or“freedoom”asGil-Scott-Heroncalledit
in1970109.AsMalcolmXnotes:
Thepeopleinthiscountrywhointhepasthavebeenatpeaceandhavebeen
peacefulwerethatwayonlybecausetheydidn'tknowwhatfreedomwas.
Theyletsomebodyelsedefineitforthem,buttoday,1965,youfindthose
whohavenothadfreedom,andwerenotinapositiontodefinefreedom,are
109Alinefromthetrack“Comment#1”onGilScott-Heron’sfamousalbumSmallTalkAt125thand
Lenox,itincludesasectionthatstates:“Americawasabastardtheillegitimatedaughter/Ofthe
mothercountry/Werethenspreadaroundtheworld/Andarapistknownasfreedom:freedoom.”
161
beginningtodefineitforthemselves.Andastheygetinaposition
intellectuallytodefinefreedomforthemselves,theyseethattheydon'thave
it,anditmakesthemlesspeaceful,orlessinclinedtowardspeace.
(“ProspectsforFreedom”156)
Bydevelopinganintellectual,social,andaestheticenvironmentforknowledge,theAfricanAmericancommunitycanbegin“todefinefreedomforthemselves”and,withthat
knowledge,canbegintoreclaimoppressiveideologiesthroughaction.Fearingthatthe
BlackNationalistmovementhadsimplycreatedanewsetofsymbolsassociatedwitha
falsefreedom,Sanchezremindsherreadertofocusoncommunityorganizationand
revolutionarypoliticalpractice:
themasteris
mas/ter/ful.
istheSUPREMEANIMALof
destructionandcannotbedestroyedwithonly:
longdresses–swahili–curses–soulfood–
fervor–dashikis–naturrrals–poems–
SOUL–rage–leatherjackets–slogans–
polygamy–yoruba
WAR.DISCIPLINE.LEARNEN.
LAND.PLANNEN.LOVE.AND.
POWER.(51)
Inthispassage,Sanchezcritiquesthosevisualsignifiersthat,despitetheirappearance,
havebeenineffectiveintrulysupportingeffortsofliberation.Thestyleandmythicquality
ofAfrican-nessinvokedbydeclarationsof“Swahili”and“Yoruba”,andthewearingof
“dashikis”and“leatherjackets”areonlyeffectivetotheextentthattheysupport“WAR.
DISCIPLIEN.LEARNEN…POWER.”Concernedwiththevisualaestheticsofpoliticsaswellas
thephilosophicalcommitmenttoAfricanrevolutionarypoliticsandtheconceptofAfricaas
awellspringofcultureyettobenarrated,manywritersandpoetsengagedinthe
reclamationofanAfricanpastandpresentthatcouldstrengthentheAfrican-American
162
callsforfreedom.AddressingtheuseofAfricaasametaphorthat“oftensignifiesthe
psychologicalspaceinwhichAfrican-Americanscandecolonizetheirminds”(112),Margo
NatalieCrawfordgoesontoaddressthephysicaltransformationthataccompaniedthe
movementandthepersistentfocusonbecoming“new”throughtheembraceofanAfrican
identity:
…itpartakesintheperformancesofracialandculturalidentitiesthathinge
uponconstructsofanoriginalortrueself.DuringtheBlackArtsandBlack
PowerMovements,aspeoplemade‘Africa’theverysignifierofrootsanda
losthome,theyoftenadoptedAfricanclothingandhairstylesandassumed
African(generallySwahili)names…BlackArtswritersoftenrepresented
their‘negro’identityasthefalsebadge/theinvoluntarypassingthat
occurredthroughtheviolenceofpost-slaverytraumaandanti-blackracism.
(113)
TargetingtheideathatAfricawasaspacebereftofhistoricalandculturalvalue,AfricanAmericanartistsandwritersembracedtheculturalhistoriesandrepresentationsof
Africannations.Allowingthemtoelidethe“falsebadge(s)”ofslaveryandthe
representationsassociatedwith“anti-blackracism”,theyattemptedtocreatenewselves,
selvestheycouldreclaimthroughAfricanheritagewhatwassuppressedthroughslavery
andotherformsofinstitutionalizedracism.
WhileSanchezdoesnotopenlycondemnthesepractices,sheviewsthemas
secondarytothedisciplineandorganizationnecessarytoenactrealandrevolutionary
change.Controllingeconomicsratherthanstyle,developingplansratherthanslogans,and
acquiringpowerovermorethansimplynamingishergoal.Assheforcefullystatesinthe
163
finallines,“wethehuntersneed/todestroy/theBEAST/whoenslavesus.”(51)Slavery,
whetherinoldornewforms,canonlybeaddressedthroughachangeineverydayattitude
andtheactionthataccompaniesit.AlthoughthoseintheBlackNationalistandBlackArts
Movementsdidnotwhollyelidethehistoryofslavery,itwasoftensuppressedinfavorof
anAfrocentrichistoricalphilosophythatappropriatedAfricanvisualandculturalsignifiers
inanefforttostrengthenthepoliticalgoalsoftheperiod.
ByincorporatingmusicandspecificallyAfricandrumsandchantingmethodsinto
severalofherpoems110,Sanchez’svolumereflectsthisdesiretocreatepositivehistorical
imagesofself-worthandlineage.Reflectingthenecessarybalancebetweenunderstanding
externalenemiesandthecreationofinternalsymbolsthatcouldsustainthemovement,
“listenintobigblackats.f.state”onceagaincallsforactionoverwords.Openingwiththe
pronouncementthatthereshould“nomomeetings/whereutalkbout/whitey.the
cracker/whodoneuwrong”,thepoeminsteadfocuseson“makenwarriors/outaboys./
blkwoooomen/outagirls”(WeaBaddDDDPeople48).Insteadoftalkingabout
degradation,thepoeminsistsonanewgenerationofyoungmenandwomenwhowillfeel
empoweredby“movenin&/outofblkness”.Tofocusonthe“400/yr/old/road/show”is
onlythebeginning;thedeceptionsandillusionsdevelopedbywhiteAmericamustbe
overwhelmedbytheempowermentoftheblackcommunity.Thisconceptofthe
“road/show”alsoimpliesmovement,thetravelofideologyfromplacetoplaceandthe
shiftingideologiesthathavepersistentlypersecutedpeopleofcolorforover400years,and
thespectacularqualityoftheirdevelopment.Thedegradationsofthepastarenowan
110Seealso“weabaddDDDpeople(forgwendolynbrooksaforealbadone)”,“life/poem”,“poem
foretherdige”WeaBaddDDDPeople,BroadsidePress,1970.
164
unnecessaryregurgitation;instead,sheimpliesthatamorepowerfulformofcultural
disseminationandmovementisapproaching,thedrumsbecomeaformofcollective
communication.Therewillbe“nomotellenthemanheis/adead/di/en/motha/fucka/
justasoundofdrums”(49).HereSanchezrecallstheimageoftheAfricandrum,
summoningitsinsurgentpoweronwesternformsofhistoriographyandideological
racisms.AsculturalanthropologistTanyaPricediscussesinherinvestigationofAfrican
andAfrican-Americandrummingtechniques,“mastersfearedtheuseofAfricandrums
becausetheirpotentialforcommunicationandtransmissionofAfricanculturethat,intheir
eyes,wouldhavethreatenedanddisruptedthesystemofenslavement”(235).Ratherthan
focusingontherestrictionofdrumsduringslavery,thepoemchoosestoembracethis
symbolofdeniedagencyandlostheritageasamethodofempowerment.Fromthispoint
forward,thepoemintegratesthesoundsofdrumsintovisionsofaliberatedfuture:
justasoundofdrums.
thesonnnnnNNgofchiefs
pourenoutaourblk/sections.
aree-um-doo-doo-oooooo-WORK
aree-um-doo-doo-oooooo-LOVE
arem-doooo-UNITY
arem-doooo-LAND
arem-doooo-WAR
arem-doooo-Builden
aree-um-doo-doo-dooooo.MalcolMmmm
aree-um-doo-doo-dooooo.ElijahHHH
aree-um-doo-doo-dooooo.Imamuuu(48)
Withanalmostinsistentdesiretobereadasachantedreplicationofthedrumsounds,the
poemembracesanauralsymbolofthepastinordertocreateapowerfulrhetoricinthe
present.ThesoundofthedrumsbecomesthesongofAfrican-Americanleaderscallingfor
“WORK”,“LOVE”,“UNITY”,“LAND”,and“WAR”.CountertoWesternformsofmusicand
165
languagedevelopment,thedrumstapintoaheritagethatwasforciblynegatedorrefused
forseveralhundredyears.Experimentingwithapoeticstylethatcouldpositively
representthedrumswhilecommunicatingtheirimportance,Sanchezimbuessoundwitha
linguisticvoice,remindingthereaderthat“Africansalsouseddrumsforcommunication;
and,notasoncewasthought,merelybyusingthedrumsinakindofprimitiveMorsecode,
butbythephoneticreproductionofthewordsthemselves”(Jones26).Abridgebetween
politicsandart,thedrumsmediatethelanguageofMalcolmX,ImamuAmiriBaraka,and
ElijahMuhammad.AestheticallyechoingtheoristStephenHenderson’sassertionthat“any
seriousappreciationof[blackpoetry]mustrestonadeepandsympatheticknowledgeof
blackmusicandblackspeech”(31),thepoemprioritizesmusicalandoralinnovationsas
necessarytoaddressingthepolitical,social,economic,andculturalstatusofthe
community.
However,Sanchez’spresentationofmusicwasnotuniform,nordiditsimply
endorseallformsofAfrican-Americanmusicalexpressionorculturalhistoryasvaluablein
organizingthecommunityorincitingpoliticalandsocialjustice.AsIdiscussinthe
followingsection,thebluesbecameamajorpointofcontentionforBAMartistsandcritics,
particularlywhenthinkingabouthowhistoricalnarrativemustbemoldedtoreflectthe
politicalpotentialofthepresentandfuture.Frequentlyviewedasareflectionofpast
oppressionsratherthandecisiveaction,thedebatesaroundthebluesrevealthedifficulty
increatinganaesthetichistoriographyinformedbypoliticsandperformance.Although
viewedbysomeasanauthenticandinvaluableformofculturalexpression,manyothers
heardthebluesasareflectionofpastoppressionsandassimilationistattitudes.Adopting
thebluesasanoppressive(ratherthanredemptive)formofblackculturalexpression,
166
Sanchez’sBillieHolidaypoemsaddressthecomplexityofintra-racialdynamicsduringthe
period.Thesepoemsalsorevealtheoft-overlookedimplicationsofgenderanditsplacein
theBlackNationalistmovementmoregenerally.
TheBlues,BlackNationalism,andBillieHoliday
Despitethefactthatmanyactivistsagreedonthewidespreadnecessityforcultural
separatismandtheparticularpowerofmusictoreflectthestrugglesandaspirationsofthe
blackcommunity,thetypesofmusicalformsmostsuitedtoreflectthesegoalswere
constantlybeingdebated.Withthemovementdeeplyimmersedinreformulatinghistory
andhistoricalnarrativetoempowertheblackmassesinthe“now”,negotiatingthebounds
ofpreviousmusicalgenreswasproblematicatbest.Itwasnotsimplythat“themodels”for
ablackaesthetic“mustbenon-white”,butalsothattheforcesofproduction,thecontrol
overtheeconomicsandthedistributionofblackmusicneededtomoveoutsidethebounds
ofassimilation(Stewart3).Respondingtoboththecallforrevolutionaryactionandthe
growingbluesrevivalbywhitemusiciansandfansoftheearlytomid1970s,manypolitical
andculturalleadersbegantodenouncethemusicalformanditshistoriclegacy.Asscholar
AdamGussownotes,thegrowingassociationoftheblueswithwhiteaudiences,
performers,magazinesandrecordcompaniesinvokedanumberofinterandintra-racial
debates:
…theBlackArtsMovement’sdesiretoreclaimanddefinethebluesasablack
culturalinheritanceratherthanaNegro‘contribution’toAmericanculture
wasbeingpressuredbythetrulydauntingemergenceofamasswhiteblues
audience…thewhiteculture-industryseemeddeterminedtooverwhelmany
BlackArtsseparation-and-purificationschemebycapitalizingonwhite
167
omnivorousnessforallthingsblue,recastingblackancestrallinesofdescent
inawaythatseemedanathematoblackradicalaesthetics.(235)
AswithalmosteveryAfrican-Americanmusicalform,thequestionofwhiteappropriation
andentertainmentbecameamajorpointofcontentionforemergingblackpoets,writers,
politicians,andculturalleaders.Concernedwiththebluesrevivaldrastically“recasting
blacklinesofdescent”,theBlackArtsMovementbegantoconsiderthevalidityofpast
musicalformsinrelationtopresentpoliticalconcerns.Withtheprinciplesofcultural
separatismandrevolution“byanymeansnecessary,”foundationaltoBlackNationalist
politics,thebluesattitudebegantoappearasan“anathema,”areflectionofdecidedlynonrevolutionarypractices.
ForleaderssuchasRonKarenga,“Blackart,likeeverythingelseintheblack
community,mustrespondpositivelytotherealityofrevolution”(477),meaningthatnew
artmustbedevelopedfornewcircumstances.Prioritizingthepresentandthefutureover
thepast,Karengaarguedthatartmustreflectthejourneytowardsliberation:
Therefore,wesaythebluesareinvalid;fortheyteachresignation,inaword
acceptanceofreality—andwehavecometochangereality.Wewillnot
submittotheresignationsofourfatherswholosttheirmoney,theirwomen,
andtheirlivesandsataroundwondering“whatdidtheydotobesoblack
andblue.”…Wewillnotcryforthosethingsthataregone,butfindmeaningin
thosethingsthatremaintous.Perhapspeoplewillobjectviolentlytothe
ideathatthebluesareinvalid,butoneshouldunderstandtheyarenot
invalidhistorically.Theywillalwaysrepresentaverybeautiful,musicaland
psychologicalachievementofourpeople;buttodaytheyarenotfunctional
168
becausetheydonotcommitustothestruggleoftodayandtomorrow,but
keepusinthepast.Andwhateverwedo,wecannotremaininthepast,for
wehavetoomuchatstakeinthepresent.(Karenga482)
Ifoneoftheprimarygoalsofthemovementwastodestroyculturallyembeddedsymbols
ofself-hatred,exploitation,Westernoppression,andassimilation,thenthatmeantdoingso
onbothsidesoftheline.Creatingnewsymbolsofempowermentmeantmovingpast
previousconceptionsofblacklifeinordertoradicallyshiftthesemanticandcultural
boundaries“oftodayandtomorrow.”Narratingthebluesasaformofhistoricalstasis,
Karenga’sessayarguesthatart“livesthroughusandthroughthemeaningandmessagewe
giveit”(481);toembracethebluesmeanspromotingan“acceptanceofreality”ratherthan
revolutionarypossibilities.Enteringintoalonghistoricaldebateregardingblackaesthetics
andtheirobligationtopolitics111,Karengaurgeshisaudiencetoreject“anyartthatdoes
notdiscussandcontributetotherevolution”(478).Forhimandmanyothers,thepast
neededtobecarefullysiftedandanalyzedforitsabilitytocontributetothepresent.This
meantappreciating,butnotpraisingtheblues,recognizingthemasavaluablecontribution,
butunderstandingthattheyareultimatelyanunfitculturalsymbolfortheBlackArtsor
BlackNationalistmovement.
RespondingtoKarenga’spowerfulinvalidationofthebluesasanecessaryaesthetic
forthepresent,LarryNealdefendedthemusicbyattemptingtopositionitaspartofan
African-Americanfolkloricandradicaltradition.Drawingparallelsbetweenthe“mean
111IamthinkinghereofW.E.B.DuBoispronouncementinhis1926essay“CriteriaofNegroArt”
that“Idonotcareadamnforanyartthatisnotusedforpropaganda”(22).Also,thedifferencesin
writerssuchasRichardWrightandAnnPetryechothisconcernwithhowblackaestheticscanor
cannotcreatepoliticalchange.
169
horn”ofColtraneandthe“meanandevil”peopleidentifiedintheblues,Nealhopestodraw
thetwotraditionsclosertogetherthanpreviouslyassumed.SimilartoBlackNationalist
callsforsocialempowerment,Nealinsists,“[Theblues]meansdaringtobe,tofeel,tosee”
(110)inwaysthatweremutedbymiddle-classpoliticsofrespectability112orracist
ideologiesofprimitivism.Derivedfrom“worksongs,jubilees,gospelsongs,andspirituals”
(112),thebluesmaintainedmuchoftheritualisticandspiritualqualitiesofthepast,while
modifyingthosefolkformstoreflectasecularworldview.Professingnevertobephysically
oremotionallyenslavedagain,Nealarguesthatthebluessongbookspokevisceraltruthsin
thefaceofbothwhiteandblackmiddle-classresistance.Thisstraightforwardevaluationof
theworld,whilenotalwaysopenlyrebellious,wasvitaltodevelopingaworkingclass
attitudethatwas“basicallydefiantintheirattitudetowardslife”(109).Byopenly
discussingsex,love,transience,joy,andpain,thebluesreveal“anideologyofanew
‘proletariat’searchingforameansofjudgingtheworld”(108).Expressing“theconscious
andunconsciousspiritofthatcommunity”,thebluesallowedthe“mostgutlevelofhuman
existence”topermeatethemusic,creatinganartthatwasbothrebelliousandtranscendent
initsownright.Drawingfurtherassociationsbetweenthebluesandthepresent,Nealalso
arguesforahistoricalgenealogythatrecognizesthebluessinger’s“ritualroleinthe
communitywhichlinkshimtothetraditionalpriestsandpoetsofAfrica”(113).Embracing
theritualisticspiritualityofthepastallowsNealtotemperKarenga’spoliticalstanceand
112OriginallydefinedbyEvelynBrooksHiggenbotham(1993)asa“discursivecontestation”of
racistbeliefsthroughtheconformityofAfrican-Americancommunitiesto“dominantsociety’s
moralsandmanners”,thistermhascometobeassociatedwithassimilation,patriarchal,andclassbasedestimations.SeealsoFrancesE.White,DarkContinentofOurBodies:BlackFeminismandthe
PoliticsofRespectability(2001).
170
remindhimoftheexperiencesthat,fromAfricatothepresent,inspiredradicalisminits
currentpoliticalandaestheticforms.
Duringthisperiod,Sanchez’sbluespoemsfallmoredecidedlyonthesideof
Karenga,howevertheseassertionsarecomplicatedbygenderandthehistoricrecognition
necessarytobothacknowledgeanddisavowthebluesinthespaceofafewshortpoems.
WhileneitherKarengaorNealaddressgender,SoniaSanchez’sBillieHolidaypoems
exposethecomplexgenderdynamicsatworkintheBlackNationalistmovementandthe
explicitcall,byKarengaandothers,toseparatethedynamicsofgeniusfromthepressing
needforactioninthepresent.WhilewriterssuchasAliceWalker,ToniMorrison,Gayl
Jones,ToniCadeBambara,AudreLorde,andSanchezherself(amongmanyothers)would
eventuallychallengetheBlackNationalistideologyofwomenas“reproducersofwarriors
andsupportersofmaleneeds”(Davis26),Sanchez’searlyapproachestoHolidayrevealthe
difficultiesindoingso.Beginningwithanelegiactone,“forourlady”reflectsonBillie
Holiday’spotential,onwhatwouldhavehappened“ifsomeone/wouldhavelovedulikeu/
shouldhavebeenloved”(41).PresentingHolidayas“ourlady,”thepoemimmediately
disengagesfromHolidayasafigureassociatedwithwhiteaudiencesorthelargerpopular
culture,insteadoptingforavisionofherasageniuswholackedthesupporttotranslate
hertalentintorevolutionaryaction.AhighlynuancedportrayalofHoliday,theopeningto
thispoemcontextualizesHoliday’stalentasseparatefromherabilitytoactuallychangeor
movehistory:
ain’tnotellenwhat
kindofsongs
uwudhaveswung
gainstthiscountry’witemind.
orwhatkindoflyrics
wudhavepushedusfrom
171
ourblue/nites.(41)
Atfirstglance,thepoemappearsasalamentintheveinofKarenga,howeverSanchez
opensupthepossibilitythatHoliday’sgeniuswasforeclosedbythesocietalrestrictions
andassimilationisttendenciesofthetimeperiodinwhichshelived.Unabletobeeasily
definedbythemediaofhertime113andoftenmisunderstoodafterherdeath,Holidaycame
torepresenttwocontradictoryimagesoftheblackfemalegenius.AsscholarFarahJasmine
Griffinnotes,“Holidayisoftenportrayedasatragic,talentedwomanwhoisaselfdestructivevictim.Ontheotherhand,shelivesontheedge,shetransgresses,shewins
recognitionandrespectwithinthemalerealmofjazz”(32).Whilethereisclearlyan
enormousrespectforhertalents,Sanchezcannothelpbutexpressfrustrationforallthe
songsHoliday“wudhaveswung/gainstthiscountry’swhitemind”andthelyricsthat“wud
havepushedusfromourblue/nites.”Almostexclusivelysingingaboutlonging,loneliness,
love,falsehopes,failedrelationships,andthetransienceofstabilityinanemotionally
unstableworld,114Holiday’sworkleftnoroomfortheactiondemandedbySanchezandher
contemporaries.Possibilitylurkseverywhereinthepoem,withsongsthat“wudhave
swung”violentlyagainstwhiteracismand“pushed”thecommunityfromreflectionto
action.Althoughsheforcefullycapturesthe“mostgutlevelofhumanexistence”(“Ethos”
108)describedbyNeal,Sanchezretroactivelylamentsherinabilitytodomore.This
113SeeFarahJasmineGriffin(2001),pgs.28-35foranaccountofhowthemediaduringhertime
attempted,oftenunsuccessfully,tocontainHolidaywithinfamiliarboundariessuchasthoseofthe
Mammy,theTragicMulatto,theover-sexedandover-ambitiousbi-racialwoman,andthemiddleclassracewomanwhois“perhapsbeautiful,butneversexual”(30).
114WhileAngelaDavis(1998)doesanexcellentreadingofBillieHoliday’s“StrangeFruit”andthe
politicalinfluenceofthesong,itisoneoftheonlyovertlypoliticalsongsinHoliday’scatalog.Itis
moreherstyleofsinging,herengagementwithaudiences,thegeniusofherartisticchoices,and
(oftenunfortunately)herpersonallifethathaveshapedherlegacy.
172
compressionofthepastandpresentprioritizespoliticsoverpersonalexpressionandlike
“listenintobigblackass.f.state,”arguesforthereplicationandrenarrationofhistorical
legaciesthattapintotherevolutionarypossibilitiesofthepast.However,asthepoem
continues,Sanchezbeginstoengageintroublinggenderassociations,anactthatis
surprisingconsideringherownpositionasawomaninamovementdominatedbymale
figures.
yeh. billie.
ifsomeblk/man
hadreallee
madeufeel
permanentleewarm.
ain’tnotellen
wherethejazzofyo/songs
wudhaveledus.
Creatingaformalunitythroughtherepetitionofthephrase“ain’tnotellin,’”Sanchezis
abletoretainthelamentoftheearliersections,howevernowsheattributesHoliday’s
failureasapoliticalrevolutionarytoherlackofa“blk/man”who“madeu
feel/permanentleewarm”.AsscholarCherylClarkenotesinheranalysisofthepoem,
“despite[Sanchez’s]astutepracticeoftellingit‘likeitdamnsureis’…ofdrawingthe
obverserelationshipbetweenBlackpeople’sprogressandwhiteAmerica’s,Sanchezchalks
upBillieHoliday’sthwartedpromisetothelackoftherightkindofromanceinherlife”
(64).SubsumingthetalentsofHolidayundertheneedforstrongblackmaleleadership
andlove,thepoemnotonlycontradictsotherpresentationsofgenderinthevolume115,but
seemstowillfullyprioritizeamasculinistideologyofrevolutionarypolitics.Holiday’s
potentialasaleader,assomeonewho“wudhaveledus”tounseenterritoriesiscutshort
115See“blk/woooooman/chant”andtheprologuetothevolumeforvaryingviewsongenderand
itsrelationshiptotheBlackNationalistmovement.
173
bytheinstabilityofherpersonallifeandtheabsenceofastrongmalefiguretofocusher
energies.WiththeBlackNationalistandBAM’soverwhelmingfocusonrecoveringblack
manhood116,manyfemalepoetswereexpectedto,asCheriseA.Pollarddiscusses“subsume
theirowngenderedinterestsandsilencetheirownvoices…Inordertoputblackmenat
socialandpoliticalease,blackwomenwereexpectedtoassumeapositionofpassivity”
(178).WhileSanchezdoesnotsuppressherownvoice,herpoemcentersitspolitical
philosophyaroundaseeminglypassivefemalesingerwhosepotentialforhistoricchangeis
thwartedbyherownfailedrelationships.Thiscreatesanimpliedcontrastbetween
Sanchezasawriter/activist/prophetandBillieHolidayasaninfluential,butultimately
ineffectivepoliticalfigure.
Aconduitforbothcautionaryandrevolutionaryhistoricalnarratives,Holidayonce
againtakescenterstageinSanchez’s“liberation/poem”.Creatingaparallelbetween
musicalandpoliticalhistory,thepoemrefutesthebluesaestheticintheopeninglines,
stating,“bluesain’tculture/theysoundsofoppression”(54).CloselyalignedwithKarenga
duringtheopeningsectionofthepoem,Sanchezviewsthebluesasareactionarycultural
expressionratherthanacomplexculturalform.Critiquingthebluesasareaction“against
thewhiteman’s/shit/gamehe’srunonusall”,thepoempresentsthemusicaspredicated
onarelationshipwiththesamewhitepowerstructuretheBlackNationalistagendawas
attemptingtoeradicatefromtheAfrican-Americancommunity.Thecurrentpolitical
projectanditscall“fortherighttocreateourowntermsthroughwhichtodefineourselves
116SeealsoCherylClark,AfterMecca:WomenPoetsandtheBlackArtsMovement.(2005),pgs.1-22;
RolandMurray,“HowtheConjure-ManGetsBusy:CulturalNationalism,Masculinity,and
Performativity”(2005);MatthewHughey,"BlackAestheticsandPantherRhetoric:ACritical
DecodingofBlackMasculinityinTheBlackPanther,1967—80."(2009).
174
andourrelationshiptosociety,andtohavethosetermsrecognized”(Carmichael119)left
noroomforaesthetics,pastorpresent,whichdidnotconformtothosestandards.Similar
toheridentificationofHolidayas“ourlady”inthepreviouspoem,Sanchezdeniesthe
whitecommunityanyinfluenceoverthemessageorimageoftheAfrican-American
community.Infact,herfrustrationwiththebluesemergesfromtheinabilityofthe
African-Americanstoreactviolentlyagainstthewhitecommunity;assheremindsthe
reader,“bluesisstruggle/strangulation/ofourpeople/cuzwecudn’toffthe/white
motha/fucka/soc/kingittous”(54).Withtheabilityandresourcestoperformliberation
bothwithinandbeyondaesthetics,thereisnoneedtocontinueconsideringthe
“struggle/strangulation”ofthepast.Thisopeningdrawscomparisonbetweentwo
decidedlydifferentpolitical-aestheticrepresentationsand,intheprocess,informsthat
audiencethatwhateverboundarieswerepreviouslyemployed,theymustbeeradicated.
Theymaynothavebeenableto“offthe/whitemotha/fucka/soc/kingittous”,butthey
cannowandshouldnothesitateindoingso.Onemustperformpoliticalintervention,must
takefeeling,language,expression,andhoneittowardalivingliberation,notafalsesenseof
security.
Yet,thisdisengagementfromthebluesbecomesmorecomplexasthepoemmoves
forward.Evenassherejectstheideologicaltenantsoftheblues,Sanchezgoesontoengage
withsongtitles,musicalfigures,commonimagery,andthedialectofthegenreitself.
InvokingthefigureofBillieHolidayonceagain,Sanchezacknowledgeslisteningtothe
blues,butendowsthemwithameaningbeyondsimplynarratingthehumanexperience:
but.now.
whenihearbillie’ssoft
soul/ful/sighs
of“amiblue”
175
isay
no.sweet/billie.
nomo.(54)
Sanchezisclearlyfamiliarwiththetraditionsheinvokes,gesturingtowardsthepowerof
Holiday’s“soul/ful/sighs”andherrhetoricalquestion“amiblue”.However,she
immediatelysnapsbacktothepresent,notingthatdespitethepoweroftheblues,allshe
cannowthinkis“no.sweet/billie./nomo”.WritingHolidayasasentimentalfigure,
Sanchezcancreateavaluablenegation,amomentinwhichHoliday’svoicepermeatesthe
present,butinvokesrevolutionaryangerratherthansorrowfulcontemplation.Thisform
ofcultural-historicalengagementreflectstheself-referentialqualityofAfrican-American
musicandliterarydevelopment,thereactionstopreviousformsofexpressionandtheir
relationtothecurrentsocial,political,andculturalattitudesofthepresent.Continuingher
detailedreferencestotheblues,thefinallinesofthepoemintertwineimagesanddialect
associatedwiththebluestoreinforcetheBlackNationalistgoalofunderstandingthepast
inordertomoreaccuratelynarratethepresentandfuture.
nomo
blue/trainsrunningonthistrack
theyallbeende/railed.
amiblue?
sweet/baby/blue/
billie.
no.i’mblack/
&ready.(54)
Asseveralscholarshavenoted(Davis,1998;Baker;1984),theimageofthetrainstationas
aplacethatenabledtravelandfreedomthroughmovement,Sanchezfindsthisnotionof
freedomrepresentsanunsuccessfulsearchforliberation,thereforeshe‘derails’them
176
withinthepoemintheserviceofpromotinganewkindofaction.Theindividualautonomy
andsecularfreedomofthetrainisnolongerasufficientweaponintheprogresstowards
liberation.Sanchez’swords,herinvocationofaction,throwalltheoldtrains,orideologies
oftheself,offthetrackandintheirlieu,preparesheraudienceandherselffornewformsof
self-identification.CreatingaconversationwithHolidaythroughthesecondinvocationof
hersongtitle,Sancheztalksbacktothepast,asking“amiblue?”andrespondingdecisively
“no.i’mblack/&ready”(54).Sheisreadyforviolenceagainstracistforces,readyto
promoteactionoverendurance,andliberationoverlonging.Byriffingonthefamiliarblues
song“whatdidIdotobesoblackandblue?”117,Sanchezsimultaneouslyacknowledgesthe
rebelliousaestheticofthepastwhileofferinganewaestheticandsocialvisionforthe
future.Sheunderstandstheimportanceofthequestion,butdisavowsthenecessityof
waitingforananswer.Theavant-gardejazzmovement,ledbyJohnColtrane,offerednot
onlytheanswersSanchezwaslookingfor,buttheaestheticattitudenecessarytotransform
thesereflectionsintomeaningfulreactions.
SoniaSanchez,JohnColtrane,andtheRevolutionaryCharacteroftheAvant-Garde
JazzMovement
Toutedascapturingthespiritandinnovationofpoliticalandsocialleadersinmusic,artists
suchasArchieShepp,NinaSimone,JohnColtrane,MaxRoach,andSunRabecameaesthetic
representationsofthenewculturalsymbolsnecessarytosupporttherevolution.Calling
forcontroloftheirproduction,payinclubs,completeartisticfreedom,andanendto
117DoabriefhistoryofthesongandhowLouisArmstrongtransformeditslyricsintowhatone
couldargueisapowerfulprotestsong.PotentiallyaddreferencetoInvisibleManaswelltocreate
furthergenealogy.
177
recordcompanies’practicesofpayingminisculeroyaltiestojazzartists,thesemusicians
adoptedaseriesofprinciplesthatweredeeplyalignedwiththeBlackArtsMovementand
thecallforblackcontrolledinstitutionsandaesthetics.120Inaddition,theseartistsand
ColtranespecificallywereinterestedinreflectingwhatscholarGeraldEarlydefinesasa
“regenerative,mythicblackness,expressedcompletelyasanactofwillagainstthe
temptationsandblandishmentsofthewhiteworld”(377).Aninheritoroftherebellious
bentofthebebopculture,Coltrane’smusiccontinuedtopushthelimitsofjazzstyle,but
didsothroughaformofintensespiritualityratherthanwhatScottSauldefinesasthe
“ironichipsterism”(212)ofhispredecessors.Imbuinghismusicwithaseriousnessthat
constantlyreachedtowardsthetranscendent,Coltrane’smusicbecameanaturallink
betweentheattitudesandrevolutionaryactionsoftheBlackNationalistmovement.121Saul
notesinhisanalysisofColtrane’sstyle:
Infusedwithamilitantspirituality,itseemedtoreconcileoppositesintoa
needfulsynthesis—andthusmimickedabroadermovementinAmerican
culturesofdissent,whichbothcritiquedtheviolenceofAmericansociety(as
manifestedintheVietnamwar,policebrutality,andsoon)andappealedto
theneedforforcefulretribution.(234)
ContinuingtodrawarelationbetweenthemusicalandpoliticalhistoriesoftheAfricanAmericancommunity,Sanchez’sfinalpoemofthevolumeaddressesthe“militant
120FormoreonthealliancebetweenBAMandjazzmusiciansseeJohnD.Baskerville,“FreeJazz:A
ReflectionofBlackPowerIdeology.”JournalofBlackStudies24.4(1994):484-97
121FormoreinformationonJohnColtrane,theJohnColtranepoem,andtheirrelationshiptoBlack
Nationalistideology,seealsoLarryNeal,“OnMalcolmX”(1989);StephenHenderson’s
UnderstandingtheNewBlackPoetry(1973),pgs.238,261;AmiriBaraka,BluesPeople(1963),pgs.
175-237;SaschaFeinstein“From‘Alabama’to‘ALoveSupreme’:TheEvolutionoftheJohnColtrane
Poem”(1996).
178
spirituality”ofColtrane’smusicandspecificallytheauralhistoriesshediscernsinhis
famous1965recordALoveSupreme.Thelongestandfinalpoemofthevolume,“a
coltrane/poem”seamlesslyvacillatesbetweentherhythmofdrums,thescreechingof
Coltrane’shorn,andwhatSanchezpresentsastheunspokennarrativesofhissound.By
alsoimploringtheaudiencetosoftlychantorstompasthepoemmovesforward,Sanchez
createsafeelingofintimacyakintoperformancewithoutlosingthehistoricaland
revolutionaryimplicationsofthemusicitself.Shiftingherfocustothepresentandfuture,
SanchezinvokesthepastonlyforColtrane’smusictodestroyitthroughpowerfuland
astoundingimprovisatoryaesthetics.Agesturetowardstheintellectualenlightenmentand
revolutionaryaestheticsofColtrane’ssound,thepoembeginswithasoftinvocationof
praise:
myfavoritethings
isu/blowen
yo/favorite/things.
stretchenthemind
tillitburstspastthecon/finesof
solo/enmelodies.
tothemanysolos
ofthe
mind/spirit.(69)
Similarto“liberation/poem”,Sanchezpresentsanactoflistening,butratherthanfeeling
anger,sheexpressesadesiretoemulatehismusicalaestheticsandtheirabilityto“burst
pasttheconfines”ofthepast.Theaestheticsofthemusicnotonlyreplicatethemoveaway
fromproscribedpoliticalboundaries,theysignaltheinherentfreedomindoingso,andthe
spiritofthataction.Inaddition,thereferencetotheRodgersandHammersteinclassic“My
FavoriteThings”,whichColtranefamouslyremadeinhis1960albumofthesamename,
gesturestowardstheaestheticdestructionofwhiteWesternformsinfavorofadistinctly
179
African-Americanperspective.ReplicatingColtrane’sexperimentalform,Sanchezmodifies
thenurserysong“FrèreJacques”toaddresstheliteralandmetaphoricassassinationofthe
blackcommunity.122Afterabriefreplicationofthesong’slyrics,shethenstates:
nomorninbells
areringenhere.onlythequiet
aftermathofassassinations.
butisawyo/murder
themassacre
ofallblk/musicians.planned
inadvance.(69)
Despitetheabilityofblackleadersandmusicianstochangethepoliticalandaesthetic
fabricofthecountry,theyhavebeenstuntedbyaperpetualcycleofcapitalistandsystemic
violence.Interruptingtheunderstoodstructureofthesongtopresentanalternative
versification,Sanchezrecallshow“themassacre/ofallblk/musicians”wasenactedthrough
theirperceivedantagonismtowhite,westernformsofmusic.Anarrationofhistorical
continuitythatisoftensilencedandoverlooked,theexploitationofblackmusicians,similar
tothedeathofblackleaders,werealways“plannedinadvance”byAmericanracismandits
attendantaesthetics.ThatisuntilColtrane’shorn,likeSanchez’spoetry,“blewawayour
passsst/andshowedusourfutureeeeee.”DemonstratingtheabilityofBAMartiststo
replicatethespiritandaestheticsofthefreejazzmovement,thisearlysection“provesthat
[Sanchez]hasinternalized,inbothverseandvoicethedialogismsinColtrane’s
music…[she]convertsthenurserymelodyintoaninvocation,invernacular,toajazzdeity”
(Marcoux131).PrefatorytotheintroductionofColtrane’shornintothepoem,thissection
presentsanaesthetic“invocation”totheperformativepoliticsofhistory.Soundand
122SeeJean-PhilippeMarcoux,JazzGriots:MusicAsHistoryinthe1960sAfricanAmericanPoem
(2012),pgs.128-132formoreon“FrèreJacques”andSanchez’sengagementwiththeRodgersand
Hammersteinoriginalof“MyFavoriteThings.”
180
languageworkinconcerttoeliminatetheoppressionsofthepastandcreatenewaesthetic,
poetic,andpoliticalstandardsforthefuture.
ImmediatelylaunchingintoanonomatopoeicrepresentationsofColtrane’sfamiliar
“screechscreeechscreeeeechscreeech”ofthehorn,thepoemreplicatesthe
improvisationaltechniquesofhismusicthroughthemanipulationofpunctuationandthe
modificationofthesongtitle:
a/love/supreme.alovesupremealovesupreme
ALOVESUPREME scrEEEccCHHHHHscreeeeEEECHHHHHHH
sCReeeEEECHHHHHHHSCREEEECCCCHHHH
SCREEEEEEEECCCHHHHHHHHHHH
alovesupremealovesupremealovesupremeforourblk
people.(69)
Enhancingtheintensityandgeniusofhisimprovisation,thescreamofColtrane’shorn
appearstoinflectthepronouncementsofthealbumtitlesurroundingit.Thissubtle,but
deftpoetictechniqueremindsthereaderofColtrane’sabilitytotransmitnarratives
throughsound.KimberlyW.Benston’s1977essay“LateColtrane:ARe-memberingof
Orpheus”alsoechoedpraiseforColtrane’stranscendentmusicalnarration,notinghow
“theworldbecameregeneratedinwardlybythemusicalafflatus…Ultimately,passagesin
Trane’smusicbecamesobrightandsopiercingthatthesoundsseemedtobewords,or
criesdeeperthanwords.”(770)Throughpoetry,Sanchezcansoundtherevolutionary
aestheticsoundandpoliticaltheoryoftheperiod;thescreechofthehorncapturesthecall
to“BRINGINTHEWITE/MOTHA/fuckas/ALLTHEMILLIONARIES/
BANKERS/ol/MAIN/LINE/ASS/RISTOCRATS…WHOHAVEKILLED/WILLCONTINUETO/
KILLUS”(69).LikethesoundofColtrane’shorn,thepoemblowsawaythepastinsearch
ofanewfuture.Itcreatesanewnarrativeofpoliticalaction,becomesaninspirationto
“PUSHem/PUNCHem/STOMPem…tillnomo/raunchysoundsofMURDER/
181
POVERTY/STARVATION/comefromtheythroats”(70).Thisviolenteradicationofthe
“raunchysounds”ofinequalitycreatesspacefornewpolitical,cultural,andaesthetic
voices.Repeatedagainshortlyafterthiscallforviolence,Coltrane’sscreechisfurther
imbuedwiththespiritofblackradicalpolitics,comingtorepresentwhatscholarSasha
Feinsteinexplainsas“…theangryexpressionofAfrican-Americandemandsforjustice,for
equalityofopportunity….Coltrane’ssoundwasfrequentlydescribedasascream,andthe
screambecame,insomecases,awaytoventoutrageatthewhiteestablishment…
(Feinstein).Representedasanopenchallengetocapitalistandracistformsofoppression,
Coltrane’sscream/screechcapturesmaterialrealitiesthroughauraltranscendence.This
abilitytoconveyemotioninitsmostpointedandhonestdeclarationblurstemporalities,
reducingracistideologiestotheirhistoriccontinuitiesandrevolutionaryfreedomstothe
creativecapacityofthecommunity.Incontrasttothestasisofthepast,Sanchezrepeats
thescreechingofColtrane’shornonceagain,onlythistimeimbuedwiththecreative
capacitytocallforcompensatoryaction.:
BRINGINTHEWHITE/LIBERALSONTHESOLOSOUND
OFYO/FIGHTISMYFIGHT
SAXOPHONE.
TORTURE
THEMFIRSTASTHEYHAVE
TORTUREDUSWITH
PROMISES/
PROMISES.INWITE/AMURICA.(70-71)
Thehornitselfgainsagencyinthissection,becoming,liketheAfricandrumsinearlier
poems,acommunicativemethod,awayofcallingthecommunitytogetherandenabling
themtoinvertthecycleofbrokenpromises“THEYHAVE/TORTUREDUSWITH”.Justas
thelanguageofpromiseswasuselesstoAfrican-Americansinthepast,sothecallfortheir
refutationwillbeuselessinthepresent;shewantstheactioninvokedbythemusicto
182
“MAKETHEM/SCREEEEEEAM/FORGIVEME.INSWAHILI”(71).Drawingaparallel
betweentheaestheticexpressionofColtrane’shornandthe“screams”forforgivenessthat
willcomeinthefuture,thepoemfocusesonthepresent’simpactonthefuture.
Easingintothefinalsectionofthepoem,Sanchezshiftsfromthesoundsofthehorn
tothesoundsofthedrums,callingforthecommunitytocapturethismomentofspiritual
empowermentandtransformitintopoliticalaction:
(tobe
riseupblk/people
sung
slowly
movestraightinyo/blkness
totune
ofmy
stepoverthewite/ness
favorite
thatisyesssssterrrrrday
things.)
weeeeeeeearetoooooooday.(Sanchez71)
dedumdadadada
dadumdadadada
DirectingtheAfrican-Americancommunitytocriticallyengagewiththemusic,tolistento
whattherhythmsarecapturing,thefinalsectionofthepoemcallsforsteadyforward
progression.Oncethey“stepoverthewite/ness”andinsistonbeingthecenterratherthan
themarginalfigureinhistory,theywillbeimmediatelybegintorecognizethepowerofthe
presenttochangethefuture.Increasinginintensityandpacethroughthereplicationof
drumsandtheimprovisationofthephrase“wearetoday”,thefinalsectionofthepoem
dealsinthenuancesofthemusic,thebuildupoftensionandthereleaseofthattension
intoaproductivestatementoncommunitybuildingandsolidarity:
(soft riseup/blkpeople.riseupblk/people
chant)RISE.&BE.whatucan.
MUSTBE.BE.BE.BE.BE.BE.BE-E-E-E-E-
BE-E-E-E-E-E-
yeh.johncoltrane.
myfavoritethingsisu.
showenuslife/
183
alovesupreme.
foreach
other
ifwejust
lissssssSSSTEN.(72)
liven.
Themusic,likethepolitics,is“foreachother,”anotherwaytoshowthecommunitytheir
ownstrengthandconvincethemoftheattitudesnecessarytoenactchange.Asapoetwho
explorestheboundariesbetweengenreformsandpolitics,Sanchezbecomesaninterpreter
ofaestheticnationalism,orasJean-PhillipeMarcouxidentifiesher,a“jazzgriot.”Described
as“theidealagentsofculturalre-inscription;[thegriot’s]artansweredtheneedsforselfknowledgeandself-love,notionssoimportanttobothrevolutionaryandcultural
nationalisms”(8).Culturalstorytellers,griotsservedtheroleofgenealogist,historian,
advisor,interpreter,translator,witness,andmusiciantotheAfrican-American
community.123AmediatorbetweenmusicalaestheticsandNationalistcallsfor
“performativepolitics”,Sanchez’sbluesandjazzpoetrypresentshistoricalnarrativeasan
activeandactivatingagentinthedevelopmentoftheblackradicaltraditionandartasthe
aestheticconduitthatactivateshistoricalreclamation.Intergenerationalandself-reflexive,
musicdoesnotdisregardhistory,butincorporatesitintoanaestheticvisionofthepresent
andaroadmapforthefuture,“ifwejust/lissssssSSSTEN.”
Conclusion
AscanbeseeninherdiscussionsofJohnColtraneandBillieHoliday,SoniaSanchezis
attemptingtoformulateanimplicitlygenderedvoiceofthenewculturalrevolution.By
123MarcouxgoesintomuchmoredetailabouteachoftheserolesinJazzGriots:MusicAsHistoryin
the1960sAfricanAmericanPoem(2012),pgs.10-19
184
embracingtheradicalaestheticsofavant-gardejazzandthepoliticalphilosophiesofblack
nationalism,SanchezisleadingthewayinfashionsshefeltBillieHolidaynevercould.
WhilehercritiqueofHolidaycouldbereadasananti-feministsentimentinthemidstof
movementalreadydominatedbymalevoices,itismoresuitabletoconsideritspositionin
relationshiptoherworkmovingforward.Committedtoissuesofgenderthroughouther
career,manyofSanchez’spoemshighlightedtheimportanceofwomeninthecontinued
fightagainstoppression.Asshestatesinher1974volumeABluesBookforBlueBlack
MagicalWomen“&knowthatBlack/mennNNN/mustbeleftalonetoTCBforthenation/
forourchildrenforourpeople./butafter/manytalksiftheydon’tlisten/thentheymust
beexpelled/fromthenation/builders”(18).Whilesheiscommittedtopoliticalsolidarity,
thereisthegrowingsensethatwomen’svoicesdeserveamoreprominentplaceinthe
continueddevelopmentofsolidarity.Evenwhenherpoemstookonalessradicallypolitical
stanceinthe1980sand1990s,shewasstillcarvingoutspaceforthenarrativesofherown
lifeandthoseofsomanyblackwomenshehadmetandimagined.Shealsocontinuesto
invokemusicasaformofmemory,asawaytotransformthenarrativeofyoungblackmen
andwomenintohistoricalechoesandvisionsofthefuture.Asshediscussesinher1985
poem“ASong”:
takemyvirginity
andconvertittomaternity
waitaroundacenturyortwo
andseewhati'lldo.
takemybodygiveityo'brand
stitchmybreastsonthefatherland
waitaroundadecadeortwo
andseejustwhati'lldo.
placemydreamsonanybackstair
tunemyeyesforyo'nightmare
185
waitaroundacenturyortwo
andseewhati'llfinallydo.
suckmybreathuntilistutter
listentothesoundsiutter
waitaroundadecadeortwo
andseejustwhati'lldo.
takemydaughteronesundaymorn
drapeherindressestobetorn
waitaroundacenturyortwo
andseewhati'llfinallydo.
burymeearlyalldressedinwhite
findyourselfabrandnewwife
waitaroundadecadeortwo
andseewhatshe'llfinallydo.
andseewhatshe'llfinallydo.(29)
Builtlikeabluesrefrain,eachstanzaaddressesthepossibilitiesofblackwomenandthe
painstheywillcontinuetoendurebeforetheworldwill“seewhati’llfinallydo.”Although
thelastlinesundercutthecurrentofemotionalmemorythatbuilds,Sanchezdoesthisinan
intentionalbluesvoice,asasortofwaytoechoLangstonHughesfamoussentimentof
“laughingtokeepfromcrying”.Inaddition,thepoemhasasenseofthingsundone,of
recordsyettoberecorded,andvoicestobeheard.Thisanticipatedexpansionofthecanon
resonatedthroughoutthe1970swiththerevitalizationofinterestinworksbyZoraNeale
HurstonandNellaLarsen,aswellastheemergenceofauthorssuchasAliceWalker,Toni
Morrison,MayaAngelou,ToniCadeBambara,GaylJones,OctaviaButler,AudreLorde,and
GloriaNaylor.The1980ssawalloftheseauthorscontinuingtheirworkaswellasthe
releaseofTheSchomburgLibraryofNineteenth-CenturyBlackWomenWriters.Exploring
everythingfromsciencefictiontothehistoryofslavery,1920sAfrican-American
communities,autobiographies,narrativesoftheCivilRightsmovements,and
186
contemporarypolitics,thesewomen,Sanchezincluded,expandedthetemporalboundaries
andmemoryofAfrican-Americannarratives.
187
Chapter5
TheWriterasJazzEnsemble:FragmentationandTemporalDislocationin
ToniMorrison’sJazz
Dislocation,definedas“theactionofdislocating,orconditionofbeingdislocated”
(OED),hasemergedasamajorconcernofAfrican-Americanliteratureandtheoryoverthe
past200years.Addressingboththe“action”andthe“condition”ofbeingdislocated,these
textsoftenexploreboththeviolentdegradationsofthebodyandthepsychological
conditionorstateofmindthataccompaniesthisprocess.AsdescribedbyscholarsSaidiya
HartmanandHortenseSpillers,thecommodificationofblackbodiesunderslaverycreated
“overdeterminednominativeproperties”,or“markerssoloadedwithmythical
prepossessionthatthereisnoeasywayfortheagentsburiedbeneaththemtocomeclean”
(Spillers203).Byreducing“thecaptivebodytoanabstractandemptyvesselvulnerableto
theprojectionofothers’feelings,ideas,desires,andvalues”(Hartman21)theMiddle
Passagenotonlyfracturedculturalandfamilialbonds,butcreatedaseriesofontological
dislocations,ortheseparationofblacksubjectsfromtheir“motivewill”and“activedesire”
(Spillers203).AsToniMorrisondiscussesinher1990essayPlayingintheDarkand
critiquesintheproseofher1992novelJazz,thisreductionofpeopletophysical
characteristicsandemotionalpathologiesoftendissociatesthemfromtheirpersonaland
communityhistories.CreatingwhatIidentifyasaseriesof“temporaldislocations”,or
instancesinwhichMorrison’scharacterscannotreconciletheirpersonalpastwiththeir
understandingofthepresent,theseNewWorldideologiespermeatethesilenceand
violenceofeverycharacter.WhatisuniqueaboutMorrison’snovelisitsdeliberateattempt
tomanipulatetimeandnarrativestructurethroughtheaestheticsofthejazzandthejazz
ensemble.Setinthe1920s,butrecallingnarrativesfromthe19thcentury,thenovelenacts
188
jazzaestheticstoexplorethemultiplefragmentationsanddislocationsofAfrican-American
identity,aswellasofferasiteforthehistoricreclamationofthesenarratives.UnlikeAnn
Petry’s“SoloontheDrums”,whichtracestheinternalthoughtsoftheplayer,Morrison
createsaproseperformanceinwhichsheviewsherselfasalinguisticcorollarytothejazz
ensemble.Althoughthewholestoryissummarizedintheopeningparagraph,thenovel’s
useofanunidentifiednarrator,incorporationofperioddetails,frequentinterchange
betweenchaptersdevotedtodifferentcharacters,incorporationofrhythmiclanguage,and
willingnesstoshift(withoutwarning)betweenmultipletemporalitiesimbuesthetextwith
asenseofimprovisation125andhistoricallayering.Thisself-consciousmanipulationofthe
textallowsMorrisontocreatenewwaysof“becoming”Americanwithoutitbeingtied“to
convenientlyboundandsilencedblackbodies”(Playing38).AsshearguesinPlayinginthe
Dark,whiteinterlocutorsimbuedblacksubjectswiththeideologicalandsocialinsecurities
ofthenation,creating“amasternarrativethatspokeforAfricansandtheirdescendants,or
ofthem”(50).Achallengetothefamiliarconstructsofthese“AmericanAfricanisms”and
thenovelformitself,Jazzrendersitscharactersasdynamicandinprocess.Aseach
person’sstoryisrevealedandintertwinedwithoneanother,thereader,likethejazz
audience,mustdecipherhowthepastisactivelyinterferingwiththepresent.Thisrequires
readerstoparticipateintheactofnarration.Ratherthandependingontheauthortocreate
alinearandobjectiveviewofthesubject,Morrisonforcesheraudiencetoconstantlyadjust
125Asshementionsina1992interview,“IwasveryconsciousinwritingJazzoftryingtoblendthat
whichiscontrivedandartificialwithimprovisation…Ithoughtofmyselfaslikethejazzmusician:
someonewhopracticesandpracticesandpracticesinordertobeabletoinventandtomakehisart
lookeffortlessandgraceful.Iwasalwaysconsciousoftheconstructedaspectofthewritingprocess,
andthatartappearsnaturalandelegantonlyasaresultofconstantpracticeandawarenessofits
formalstructures”(81).
189
andreadjusttheirperceptionofthecharacterstoaccountforthephysicaland
psychologicalfragmentationsthathavecreatedtheextendedsilences,affairs,actsof
violence,andtentativereconciliationsthatshapethenovel.
Morrison’spresentationoftimeisnotlinearbecause,asaperformativetext,she
doesnotwantthestructuretomisrepresenthowindividualsgrapplewithhistory.The
characteristicsofjazzimprovisation,orthemeldingofthatwhichisknownandunknown
toboththereaderandthecharactersthemselves,allowhertocreatewhatshedescribesin
a1996interviewas“thecontinuouspresent”:
Thepastformycharacters,Ibelieve,is—Iwasgoingtosayintimate,butI
don’tmeanintimate.Whydon'tweputitthisway:Iunderstandthatinmany
Africanlanguagesthereisaninfinitepast,andveryfew,ifany,verbsforthe
future,andamajorstringofverbsforthecontinuouspresent.Sothatnotion
ofitalwaysbeingnow,eventhoughitispast,iswhatIwantedtoincorporate
intothetext,becausethepastisneversomethingthatyouhavetorecord,or
gobackto…It’saveryliving-in-the-moment,livinginthenowwiththepast,
sothatit’snever—calculated;it’seffortless.(“ICome”130)
Whenthepastinfiltratestheeverydayactionsofthecharacters,theybecomeliving
historicalrecords.Whileitmustappear“effortless”tothereader,thisconstantinterplay
betweenstoriesandperspectivesdoesnotsuggestthecreationofaninfallibleandstable
record.Insteadthereaderbecomesawitnesstocharacterswhoare“livinginthenowwith
thepast”andareconstantlygrapplingwithhistoriespreviouslyunrecognizedorunspoken.
ThisisparticularlytrueofJoeandVioletTraceastheygrapplewithJoe’smurderofDorcas,
hisyoungmistress,andViolet’sdecisiontostormherfuneraltocutherface.Everyaspect
190
ofthenovelreverberatesfromtheseacts,graduallyrevealingthephysicaland
psychologicaldislocationsthatledtothisoutcomeandthenecessary,althoughpainful,
engagementswiththepastthateventuallyallowthemtomoveforward.
TheseactionsandtheexplorationoftheiroriginscapturewhatNathanielMackey
describesasblackmusic’sinherent“critiqueofsocialreality,acritiqueofsocial
arrangementsinwhich,becauseofracism,onefindsoneselfdeprivedofcommunityand
kinship,cutoff”(234).Anegotiationbetweenthephysicalandthemetaphysical,lived
realityandtranscendentexperience,musicattemptstonarratewhatMackeydiscussesas
“thephantomlimb”,or“afeltrecovery”that“arisesfromacapacityforfeelingthatholds
itselfapartfromnumbcontingency”(235).Althoughcarefullyintegratedperioddetails
suchasthe1917riotsinSt.LouisandHarlem,andthegeneralattitudesthatcharacterized
theGreatMigrationareincorporatedintothetext,allofMorrison’scharactershave,in
variousways,been“deprivedofcommunityandkinship”orbeentemporarily“cutoff”
fromtheveryhistoriesthatwouldallowthetoreinventthepresentandfuture.For
characterssuchasJoeandVioletTrace,theirmisunderstandingofthepastcreates
fragmentations,orsilencesandviolencethattheydonotrecognizeasacontinuousand
shapingforceintheirlives.ItisonlyafterthenoveladdressesGoldenGray,a19thcentury
figuretheyhaveonlyatertiaryrelationshipto,thatJoeandVioletareabletomovebeyond
the“numbcontingency”thathascometodominatetheirlivesintoaclearerunderstanding
oftherelationshipbetweenthepastandpresent.
Manyscholarshavenotedthefragmentation,cracks,fissures,andsilencesthat
permeatethenovel,howevertheyoftenfallintothehabitofinterpretingthemas
irreconcilableformsof‘culturalmourning’,amountingsenseofdouble-consciousness,or
191
anevaluationofthelossesandmisunderstandingsthataccompanythemovementsofthe
GreatMigration.127Whilethischapteracknowledgesthesefactorsasvaluableto
understandingthesecharacters,IexplorehowMorrison’sdeploymentofjazzaesthetics
offersopportunitiestobothtracethesedislocationsandfragmentationsandcreatespaces
forimportant,althoughsometimestenuous,recoveriesoftheself.Byexaminingthe
influencesofjazzaestheticsonthenarrativevoiceandoverallconstructionofthenovel,I
hopetoestablishhowjazzbothcreatestemporalcompressionsandforcesthereaderintoa
participatoryactofnarration.IwillthenfocusonJoeandVioletTrace’sfrequent
dislocations(bothphysicallyandemotionally),howtheyarerecalledinthepresent,and
thefragmentationsoftheselfthathindertheircontroloragencyoverthepast.Finally,I
willturntoMorrison’sexplorationsofthepastand19thcenturycharacterssuchasTrue
Belle(Violet’sgrandmother),Wild,HenryLestroy,andGoldenGray,arguingforthese
historiesaspainful,butimportantsitesofreconciliation.
SilenceandViolence:JazzAesthetics,NarrativeVoice,andtheTentative
ReconciliationsofToniMorrison’sJazz
OneoftheprimarysourcesofdiscussionsurroundingMorrison’snovelisthe
multiplicityofnarrativevoicesandtheunidentifiedorunidentifiablenarratorofthe
text.128Althoughsomecriticshaveidentifieditasahumanvoiceandothershaveargued
forthecityasthedefiningnarrativevoice129,Morrisonherselfdescribesthenarrativevoice
127SeeRubenstein,Roberta."SingingtheBlues/ReclaimingJazz:ToniMorrisonandCultural
Mourning."Mosaic:AJournalfortheInterdisciplinaryStudyofLiterature31.2(1998):147-63;
Hardack,Richard.""AMusicSeekingItsWords":Double-TimingandDoubleConsciousnessinToni
Morrison'sJazz."Callaloo18.2(1995):451-71;AnnePaquet-Deyris."ToniMorrison's'Jazz'andthe
City."AfricanAmericanReview35.2(2001):219-31. 128SeeJaneLilienfield(2006)andEusebioRodrigues(1993)
129SeeJeffreyJ.Folks(1999)andAnne-MariePaquet-Deyris(2001)
192
asa“talkingbook”.Thiscomplicatesboththegenreforminwhichsheworksandthejazz
traditionfromwhichitdrawsitsinfluence.Asshediscusses:
Thevoiceisthevoiceofatalkingbook…Itsoundslikeaveryerotic,sensual
lovesongofapersonwholovesyou…It'sabooktalking,butveryfewpeople
readitlikethat…Ideliberatelyrestrictedmyselfusingan“I”thatwasonly
connectedtotheartifactofthebookasanactiveparticipantintheinvention
ofthestoryofthebook…It’sverystrange,butIlikeitbecauseit’srisky.But
jazzunsettlesyou…You’renotincontrol.Itwasthisassumptionofcontrol,
thereader’scontrol,thebook’scontrol—allofthesehadtobedisplaced,so
noone’sincontrol.(“NobelLaureate”95)
Borrowingfrombothliterarytradition,jazzaesthetics,andoraltradition,Morrison’stext
attemptstounsettletheaudiencethroughitsinabilitytobedefined.Thecreativityof
improvisationandthedeliberatedissociationoftheauthorfromthetextrevealtherisk
involvedintryingtotellanystory,evenyourown,inawaythatcapturesthe‘whole’truth.
Liketheintricaciesofthebreak,whichchallenge19thand20thcenturyconceptionsof
musicalarrangement130,Morrisondevelopsanarrativestructurethatdisplacesthereader,
orlisteners,“assumptionofcontrol.”Thenovelismeanttobereadasahighlyindividuated
interplaybetweencharacterswhoare,likethejazzensemble,incloseassociation,butoften
unawareoftheirdestination.EchoingHenryLouisGatesJr.’stropeofthe“talkingbook”131,
130SeeLeroiJones(1963)chapterentitled“PrimitiveJazzandPrimitiveBlues”,pgs-60-81,W.C.
Handy’s(1926)introductiontohisbluesanthologyfor19thandearly20thcenturydiscussionsof
thesemodifications.Forlate20thcenturyexamplesseeJoshKun(2005)andJeffChang’s(2005)
discussionofthehip-hop“break”anditseffectoncontemporarymusicalculture.
131AsGatesdescribes,“ThetropeoftheTalkingBookistheur-tropeoftheAnglo-American
tradition.Bakhtin’smetaphorofdouble-voiceddiscourse,figuredmostliterallyinrepresentational
sculpturesofEsuandimpliedintheSignifyingMonkey’s’functionastherhetoricofavernacular
193
thecharactersareengagedin“double-voiceddiscourse”,oramethodofstorytellingthat
challengesthepersistentdesire“toknowwhathappened,whodiditandwhy”(“TheArtof
Fiction”81).Shealtersthenovelformthroughoralandauralcuesbecauseitforcesreader,
bothwhiteandblack,tocontendwithlinearhistoriographyand,inparticular,its
deploymentasavehicleforthecontinuedmisrepresentationofAfrican-American
communities.Ratherthanreducinghercharacters’storiestoamediumthatfrequently
“failstospeak”(Gates132)toindividual,cultural,andhistoricalspecificity,thenovel
becomesanactiveintermediaryintheconstructionofeachindividualnarrative;asshe
discusses,“thejazz-likestructurewasn’tasecondarythingforme—itwastheraisondetre
ofthebook.Theprocessoftrialanderrorbywhichthenarratorrevealedtheplotwasas
importantandexcitingtomeastellingthestory”(“TheArtofFiction”81).Acombination
ofcarefulcraftandfluidstorytelling,thenovelfreelyshiftsbetweentemporalities,with
everyrecollectionmakingandremakingthepresentforthecharactersandthereader.
Thisadjustshowtemporalitiesareperformedandgivenassociationtooneanother
becauseeachaccountismediatedthroughvariousinterpretations,accounts,and
simulationsofthepast.African-Americanmusicalaestheticsandjazzinparticularis
interestedinhowtheindividualassertstheiridentityinrelationshiptothegroup,how
theytaketheirpastandmolditintoanassertionoftheselfinthepresent.AsscholarNick
Youngobserves:
…jazzseemstosaywe‘makeitnew’onlywhenwemakeitourown.
Negotiatingbetweenmodernindividualityandcommunity,bothinitsactual
culture,comestobearinblacktextsthroughthetropeoftheTalkingBook.Intheslavenarratives
discussed…makingthewhitewrittentextspeakwithablackvoiceistheinitialmodeofinscription
ofthemetaphorofthedouble-voiced.”(131)
194
formanditsongoinghistory,jazz,anditsbirthparent,theblues,areinmany
waysthecollectiveunconsciousofAfricanAmerica—andbyextension
America—offeringafirsthandaccountofrisk,redemption,andyearning.No
wonder,then,withitssoundalonejazzprovidedbothacureandacausefor
anxiety.(167)
The“anxiety”Youngspeaksofemergesfromtheindefinabilityofasoundthatcreates
spaceforboththecommunicationofdeeplypersonalnarrativesandthereclamationof
previouslydistortedrepresentationsofthe“collectiveunconscious.”132Simplybytelling
thisstory,Morrisonismimickingtheabilityofjazztocausepersonalandpublicinstability,
aswellasofferaspacewhereitcanbefreelyandforcefullyreconciled.
Althoughtheentiretyofthenarrativeispresentedintheveryfirstparagraphofthe
novel,Morrisononlyusesthisasanintroductiontothestructureandmotivationsofthe
performancethatwillfollow.Thisdisplacesthereadersdesiretodiscoverwhatwill
happenandinsteadredirectsthemtowardsthemultipleandcomplexintersectionsoftime
thatcontributedtothisoccurrence.Itisalsoimportanttonotethatsound,orthesimple
invocationofacymbal,setsthetoneforthenarrativesthataretocome.
Sth,Iknowthatwoman.SheusedtolivewithaflockofbirdsonLenox
Avenue.Knowherhusband,too.Hefellforaneighteen-year-oldgirlwithone
ofthosedeepdown,spookylovesthatmadehimsosadandhappyheshot
132FredMoten’sassessmentofthebreakanditsrelationshiptofreedomisusefulhere,“This
disruptionoftheEnlightenmentlinguisticprojectisoffundamentalimportancesinceitallowsa
rearrangementoftherelationshipbetweennotionsofhumanfreedomandnotionsofhuman
essence.Morespecifically,theemergencefrompolitical,economic,andsexualobjectificationofthe
radicalmaterialityandsyntaxthatanimatesbackperformanceindicatesafreedomdrivethatis
expressedalwaysandeverywherethroughouttheirgraphic(re)production”(7).
195
herjusttokeepthefeelinggoing.Whenthewomen,hernameisViolet,went
tothefuneraltoseethedeadgirlandtocutherdeadfacetheythrewherto
thefloorandoutofthechurch.(Jazz3)
Thisstoryoflust,love,violence,andrevengecreatesaunifyingrefrain,orshared
experiencetowhichthecharactersandthereadercanalwaysreturn.Morrisonoffersa
simplifiedversionofthetale,thenopensthenarrativeuptotheinterpretationofallthose
involved.Ratherthansimplyrecitingthesamenotesinthesameordereachtime,thejazz
andbluesoftheHarlemRenaissancecreatedspacesforthenarratives,histories,and
creativityoftheindividual.AsAngelaDavispointsout:“Thebluesneverremainfixedon
oneperspective,butratherdifferentsongs—sometimesthesamesong—explore
experiencesfromvariousvantagepoints.Beneaththeapparentsimplicityand
straightforwardnessoftheblues,complexvisions…canalwaysbeuncovered”(Davis49).136
Thisrefrainthenbecomesariff,changingnarrators,changingperspectives,delvinginto
memoryandeventuallyfindinganopen-endedrestingplace.Thisnotonlyunsettlesthe
reader,butbuildsasenseofanticipation.Theyarenolongerpassiverecipientsofalinear
narrative,butmustparticipate,alongwiththecharacters,indiscoveringwhatleadtothese
actionsandhowtheyareinfluencedbytheunresolvedpresenceoftheirpast.
Anongoingandcollectivehistorythatinformseverycharacterinthenovelisthe
GreatMigrationandthemassiveexodusofAfrican-AmericansfromruralSouthernareasto
theindustrializedcentersoftheurbannorth.Longingtoescapethedebilitatingformsof
136Itshouldbenotedthatjazzandblueswereoftenwrittenofanddiscussedduringthistimeas
interchangeableterms.Asjazzdeveloped,ittookonqualitiesdistinctfromtheblues,butmany
scholarstracethefirst‘jazz’riffbacktothe“MemphisBlues”whichwasreleasedbyW.C.Handyin
1912.
196
racismthatdefinedtheminslaveryandtheworseningconditionsofsharecropping,many
African-AmericanswentNorthwitharenewedsenseofself-worthandhope.Thecity
promisedtoimprovetheirlives,however,itoftenalsomeantleavingbehindone’sfamily
andtheculturalandsocialhistoriesthatdefinedboththeindividualandtheirrelationship
totheAfrican-Americancommunity.137Thedemandsofurbanlife,thefaced-paced,
machinerhythmsofindustrialcapitalism,andthepromised,althoughoftenunfulfilled
desiresforeconomicandsocialfreedom,allcoalescedintherestless,enticingrhythmsof
jazz:Asthenarrator:
…I’mstrong.Alone,yes,buttop-notchandindestructible—likethecityin
1926whenallthewarswereoverandtherewillneverbeanotherone…At
last,atlast,everything’sahead.Thesmartonessaysoandthepeople
listeningtothemandreadingwhattheywriteagree:Herecomesthenew.
Lookout.Theregoesthesadstuff.Thebadstuff.Thethings-nobody-could-
helpstuff.Historyisover,youall,everything’saheadatlast.(7)
Fast-paced,rhythmical,andenticing,theconcentratedfervorofthecityisempowering,
temptingpeopletoforgetwhattheyoncewereandembracethefuture,evenifthatfuture
meansbeing“alone,buttop-notch”.Allofthe“sadstuff.Thebadstuff.Thethings-nobodycould-helpstuff”ispresentedasarelicofthepastthathasbeeneliminatedinfavorofa
futurethatpromisesnevertorecoil.WhenVioletandJoeTracearrivedtwentyyears
earlier,thefirstglimpseofthecity,andthenewidentitiesitpromised,isdescribedasan
137Foranaccountofthepost-CivilWarandpre-Migrationconditions,seeW.E.B.DuBois’textBlack
Reconstruction(1935).FordetailsontheGreatMigrationitself,IsabelWilkerson’sTheWarmthof
OtherSuns(2010),AlferdteenHarrison’scollectionofessaysBlackExodus(1991),andJames
Smethurst’sTheAfricanAmericanRootsofModernism:FromReconstructiontotheHarlem
Renaissance(2011).
197
actoflove;“theystaredoutthewindowsforthefirstsightoftheCitythatdancedwith
them,provingalreadyhowmuchitlovedthem”(32).Thecitypromisesthemafuture
withoutapast,afreedomfromthefragmentations,longings,anddesiresthatcharacterized
themintheSouth.WhatVioletandJoefailtorealizeisthathistoryisnever“over”;allof
thoseyearsofdissociatingthemselvesfromthepasthavestartedtoshow“cracks”,orfault
lineswherethepastintrudesontheirbehaviorsinthepresent.
WhileViolet’sactionsareintheopeningareshocking,thenarratorremindsthe
readerthatiswas“way,waybeforethat,beforeJoeeverlaideyesonthegirl”(17)thatshe
begantohaveinstancesof“publiccraziness”(22).Countertothe“snappy,determinedgirl”
(23)whoarrivedfullofoptimismandenergy,twentyyearsoflivinginthecity,withholding
heremotions,andlongingforafutureshecanbarelyarticulatecauseViolettodevelop
“privatecracks”orunreconciledhistoriesthatreduceherlifetoarepeatedandendless
“sequenceoferrands,listsoftasks”(15).Cutofffromthefamily,communities,histories,
andregionswhereheridentitywasformed,shesearchesforrespiteindailytasks,orthe
routineimmediacyofthepresent.However,thisonlymakesherlesscapableofeither
actingorcontrollingheractions.Asthenarratornotes,forVioletandwomenlikeherthere
is“aspaceofnothing”thatmustbefilledbefore,“theseepofrage…Orelse,intoabeatof
time,andsidewaysundertheirbreasts,slipsasorrowtheydon’tknowwherefrom”(16).
Thelackofmemory,oraspacethatgivestheirdailytasksmeaningcreatesavoid,ora
senseofselfthateventuallytransformsintoanunidentifiedyearning,rage,and/orsorrow.
Exhaustedbythedailytasksandminisculedetailsthatservetosuppressherpast,Violet
simplysitsdowninthestreetandrefusestospeakormoveforseveralhours.Thisneedfor
restistransformedintoaphysicallyandemotionallydebilitatingsilence.Inanother
198
instance,“althoughtherewasnowaytoproveit”(17),shetriestostealababyfromthe
frontstoopofaneighborhoodhome.Whatwasonce“apanting,unmanageablecraving”
(107)formotherhoodbecomesasemi-consciousyearning,ordesirethatnolonger
recognizesitsorigins.Asthenarratordescribes,theseactionsorlackofactionreveal
“cracks”,orspaceswherehistoryiseithersilencedorunknown:
Icallthemcracksbecausethatiswhattheywere.Notopeningsorbreaks,
butdarkfissuresintheglobelightoftheday.Shewakesupinthemorning
andseeswithperfectclarityastringofsmall,well-litscenes...foodthings,
workthings;customersandacquaintancesareencountered…Butshedoes
notseeherselfdoingthesethings.Sheseesthembeingdone.Theglobelight
holdsandbatheseachscene,anditcanbeassumedthatatthecurvewhere
thelightstopsisasolidfoundation.Intruth,thereisnofoundationatall,but
alleyways,crevicesonestepsacrossallthetime…Closelyexamineditshows
seams,ill-gluedcracksandweakplacesbeyondwhichisanything.Anything
atall.SometimeswhenVioletisn’tpayingattentionshestumblesontothese
cracks,likethetimewhen,insteadofputtingherleftheelforward,she
steppedbackandfoldedherlegsinordertositinthestreet.(22-23)
AlthoughVioletandmanyotherwomendesperatelysearchfora“solidfoundation”,
MorrisonsuggeststhatAfrican-Americanhistoryisoneoffragments,of“alleyways,
crevicesonestepsacrossallthetime”insearchoftheirpast.Despiteherabilitytoget
thingsdone,toengagein“astringofwell-litscenes”thatmakeupherdailyroutines,Violet
distancesherselffromtheunknownoriginsofhersilences,fromthe“darkfissuresinthe
globelightofday”thatmightreveal“anything.Anythingatall.”Sheignoresthevague,but
199
unsettlingremembrancesofhermother’ssuicideandhergrandmother’sendlessstoriesof
a“blondboywholeftthemall”(22).Sherecallsthemomentshe“hadchosenJoeand
refusedtogohome”(23),butcannotdecipherhow“allthosemiscarriages—twointhe
field,onlyoneinthebed”(107)hadcausedhertosteelherselfagainstthepastthrough
silenceinthepresent.
Infact,shedissociatesherselffromthepastforsolongshecannotreconcilethe
imageofthewomansittinginthestreetwiththewomansheusedtobeordesiresto
become.AsRichardHardackobserves,Morrisonoftencreates“Characterswhoaresplit
intoobservedandobservingselves,intoracialhalves,intopartsoflostfamilialandcultural
wholes,loseconsciouscontroloftheirbodies.Asaresult,theybegintoobservethemselves
actinginaninvoluntary,andoftenexpresslyviolent,manner”(453).CalledViolentbysome
inthecommunityafterheroutburstatthechurch,Violetisoverwhelmedbytheintangible
distancebetweenhermindandheractions.WhileshebelievessheisprotectingJoefrom
the“craziness”(24)inherownheadbyneverspeakingofthepastandbarely
acknowledgingthepresent,thenarratornoteshow“Overtimehersilencesannoyedher
husband,thenpuzzlehim,andfinallydepresshim.Heismarriedtoawomanwhospeaks
mainlytoherbirds.Oneofwhomanswersback:‘Iloveyou’”(24).
“Orusedto.”(24)Asubtleincorporationofcallandresponseintothestructureof
thenovel,thisutteranceintroducesJoe’svoiceintothenarrativeensemble138andsignals
138Thisideaoftheensembleemerges,inpart,fromFredMoten’s(2003)explanationofblack
performanceanditsrelationshiptotheconstructionofhistory:“…theemergencefrompolitical,
economic,andsexualobjectificationoftheradicalmaterialityandsyntaxthatanimatesblack
performancesindicatesafreedomdrivethatisexpressedalwaysandeverywherethroughouttheir
graphic(re)production…thetemporalcondensationandaccelerationsofthetrajectoryofblack
performances,whichistosayblackhistory,posesarealproblemandarealchanceforthe
philosophyofhistory…theanimativemateriality—theaesthetic,political,sexual,andracialforce—
200
annewinteractionbetweentheaudienceandthestoryteller.UnlikeVioletwhospendsher
dayssilentandinsearchofminisculetaskstocopewiththepresent,Joeisconsumedwith
“rememberingeverydetailofthatOctoberafternoonwhenhefirstmet[Dorcas],fromstart
tofinish,overandover”(28).Inanattempttorememberwhatitfeltliketobewithher,“to
conjureupthedearness”,hecannolongerrememberhowitfelttobeanyotherway.This
cognitivedissonance139,orinabilitytomakesenseoftherelationshipbetweentheevents
ofhispastandhisfeelingsinthepresenttrapJoeinanendlesscycleofmourning.While
“herecallsdates,ofcourse,events,purchases,activities,evenscenes”(29)ofwhenheand
Violetjourneyedtothecity,hecannotlocate“whatitfeltlike…Hehadstruggledalongtime
withthatloss,believedhehadresignedhimselftoit,hadcometotermswiththefactthat
oldagewouldbenotrememberingwhatthingsfeltlike”(29).Withoutfeelings,Joebelieves
hewillbereducedtolanguage,orarenderingofthepastthatwasinanimateandlackingin
thenecessaryfeelingtomakeittrulyknown.Therefore,heplayssceneswithDorcasover
andoverinhishead,ofmomentswhenhecould“tellhisnewlovethingshenevertoldhis
wife.Likehissearchforhismotherandhisdesiretofindher,oratleastreceiveasignthat
toldhimshewashis”(36).BeingwithDorcashelpshimrecallnotthewords,butthe
feeling,thelongingforasenseofgenealogythat“wouldhavebeensomecombinationof
shameandpleasure,atleast,andnottheinsidenothinghetraveledwithfromthenon”
oftheensembleofobjectsthatwemightcallblackperformances…isarealproblemandareal
chanceforthephilosophyofhumanbeing…”(7-8).
139AsLeonFestingerdescribesinhisground-breakingtext,ATheoryofCognitiveDissonance
(1957),hedescribeshowpeopledesireconsistenciesinthemselvesandtheirbeliefs.However,he
notes,“peoplearenotalwayssuccessfulinexplainingawayorrationalizinginconsistenciesto
themselves.Foronereasonoranother,attemptstoachieveconsistencymayfail…Undersuch
circumstances—thatis,inthepresenceofinconsistency—thereispsychologicaldiscomfort”(2).
FormoreonhowthistheoryhasevolvedseealsoEliotAronson(1992);JustinMillsandEddie
Harmon-Jones(1999).
201
(37).Yet,likehiswife,theseearlyintimationsofthepastareonlyatemporaryreliefanda
vaguegesture.Theirremembrancesarealwaysinterruptedbytheimmediacyofthe
present,bytheinfluenceofthecitythatmakesthembelievein“theirstronger,riskier
selves”untilthey“forgetwhatlovingotherpeoplewaslike”(33).
Itisn’tuntilmuchlaterthatJoefinallyrealizestheimportanceofhisconversations
withDorcasandthereasonshekilledher.Morethandesireorfeeling,henoteshow“Itold
herthingsIhadn’ttoldmyself.WithherIwasfresh,newagain.BeforeImetherI’d
changedintonewseventimes”.Inastateofreinventionsincebirth,Joedescribeshisfirst
transformationasthenecessityofchoosinghisownlastnamebecausehehadbeentoldhis
family“disappearedwithoutatrace”.(123)Morrison’sreferencetogenealogyandthe
difficultyoftracingone’sselfbacktoanoriginalsourceresonatesinalloftheother
transformationsJoegoesthroughinhislife.Hisstorybeginswithalossandisthen
structuredbyaseriesofphysicalandemotionalfragmentations,allofwhichwereintended
tocreate,likehisname,astableidentityforhimselfandhisfamily.Herecallslearninghow
tohuntwithHenryLestroyandbecomfortableandcompetentinthewoods;leaving
ViennaafterafireravagedthetownandforcedhimandViolettomoveforwork;farming
landuntiltherentbecametoohigh,thenbuyinglandonlytohaveitsnatchedawaywithout
repercussion;layingrailway;movingfromtheSouthtotheNorth,andfromdowntownto
uptown;andbeingnearlybeatentodeathduringtheHarlemriotsof1917.Thisseriesof
rapidtransformationsechoesthecultural,social,andeconomicnarrativesthatwere
capturedinthesoundsandstructuresofjazz.AsDukeEllingtondescribes,“jazzissimply
anexpressionofanage,inmusic…apictureofthewaypeoplethoughtandfelt;an
expressionofhumanreactionstotheconditionsunderwhichtheylived”(Askland257).
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SimilartothemillionsofAfrican-AmericanswhomadethejourneyfromtheruralSouthto
theurbanNorth,Joeisdeeplyaffectedbytheconstantcycleofdislocation,unsteadywork,
racialexploitation,andviolencethatcharacterizedtheperiod.AlthoughJoemustreplay
theirconversationsoverandover,eventuallyhebeginstoarticulatehowhispasthas
inflectedhisbehaviorinthepresent:
Don’tgetmewrong.Thiswasn’tViolet’sfault.Allofit’smine.Allofit.I’ll
nevergetoverwhatIdidtothatgirl.Never.Ichangedoncetoooften.Made
myselfnewonetimetoomany.YoucouldsayI’vebeenanewNegroallmy
life.ButallIlivedthrough,allIseen,andnotoneofthosechangesprepared
meforher.ForDorcas.(129)
Bydirectlyreferencingtheideaofthe“NewNegro”thatpermeatedHarlemthroughoutthe
1920s,Morrisongesturestowardsthespiritoftheageandinparticularhowitwas
understoodbyworkingclassAfrican-Americans.Concernedthatculturalformssuchasthe
bluesandjazzwouldsimplyperpetuatethestereotypesandhyper-sexualizedtropesof
African-Americansduringthe19thcentury,manyHarlemRenaissancewritersseemedto
believe“thatthetorturedpastcouldbeerasedwithrhetoricalflourishandfiat,andthe
mereproclamationof‘thenew’”(McDowell163).140AlthoughJoetriestochangeonce
again,Dorcasremindshimofhisfragmentations,ofhislongingtoknowhismother,to
140WhileHarlemRenaissancefiguressuchasLangstonHughes,WallaceThurman,ZoraNeale
Hurston,AaronDouglas,andRichardBruceNugentattemptedtogiveworkingclassAfricanAmericansavoicewithinthemovement,textssuchasW.E.B.DuBois’“CriteriaofNegroArt”(1926),
AlainLocke’sbookTheNewNegro(1925),JamesWeldonJohnson’sPrefacetoTheBookofAmerican
NegroPoetry(1922),andjournalssuchasTheCrisispromotedrepresentationsofAfrican-American
culturethatwereconsideredmorerespectable,oraffiliatedwith‘high’culture.SeealsoHenry
LouisGates’“TheTropeofaNewNegroandtheReconstructionoftheImageoftheBlack"(1988)
formoreonthesedebatesduringtheperiod.
203
createahome,andtobecomeaman.Itisthesedislocations,fromhimselfandthepast,that
bringhim,silentanddepressed,toherdoorstep.
WhileVioletandJoearebeginningtoarticulatetheintimaciesoftheirpast141,
Morrison’sinclusionofGoldenGray,a19thcenturycharactertowhomtheyhavetertiary,
butnodirectrelationshipto,pointstotheimportancesheplacesonthemusicasavehicle
forunderstandingtherelationshipbetweenthepastandpresent.Notsimplyconfinedto
theindividualnarrativesoftheplayers,thejazzensembleisencouragedtoreinventthe
past,toofferanewperspectiveonnarrativeswidelyknown,butperhapsbarely
understood.Despitethefactthatnoneofthecharacterscanspeakforthemselves,music
becomesanewandnecessaryformofhistoricalmediation,acombinationofthatwhichis
knownandthatwhichcanonlybeimagined,orimprovised.Asthenarratordiscussesin
theopeningparagraphofGolden’schapter:
Risky,I’dsay,tryingtofigureoutanybody’sstateofmind.Butworthitif
you’relikeme—curious,inventiveandwell-informed.Joeactslikeheknew
allaboutwhattheoldfolksdidtokeepongoing,buthecouldn’thaveknown
muchaboutTrueBelle,forexample,becauseIdoubtVioletevertalkedabout
hergrandmother—andneverabouthermother.Sohedidn’tknow.Neither
doI,althoughit’snothardtoimaginewhatitwouldhavebeenlike.(137)
Onceagain,Morrisoncreatesadeliberateactofnarrativeinstability,simultaneously
remindingthereaderthatitisboth“risky”tospeakforthepast,but“worthit”ifyouare
141ThiscanbeseenintheabovedescriptionofJoe’spastandintherelationshipthatisbeing
slowlydevelopedbetweenAliceandViolet.Althoughthoseconversationsarenotdirectly
mentionedhere,seeAoiMori(1999)andAngelynMitchell(1998)formoreonhowtheir
relationshipcreatesaformofsharedhealing.
204
“curious,inventive,andwell-informed.”Whenthenarratorsnotesthat“it’snothardto
imaginewhatitwouldhavebeenlike”itisbecausetheyarelivingconterminouslywiththe
material,psychological,emotional,andphysicalreificationsofthesediscourses.Thejazz
aestheticencouragestheartisttodeveloptheirunderstandingofthepastintotheir
expressionofidentityinthepresent.ForMorrison“thedenotativeandconnotative
blackness”thatpermeated19thcenturypsycho-socialrelationsarestillaffectingnotonly
thecharactersofhernovel,buttheworldthatsurroundsherreader.ThestoryofTrue
BelleandGoldenGrayrevealnotonlywhat“theoldfolksdidtokeepgoing”,butalso
exploreswhattheseEurocentricpresumptionsofsuperioritydo“tothemind,imagination,
andbehaviorofmasters”(Playing12).
Orthosewhothinktheyaremasters.Withanamethatatteststobothhis
appearanceandtheshadowofhismixedrace,GoldenGrayischosenfortheblessingsof
freedom“becauseafterthepinkbirthskindisappearedalongwiththedownonhishead,
hisfleshwasradiantlygolden,andhisfloppyyellowcurlscoveredhisheadandthelobesof
hisears”(139).Kickedoutofherfather’shomeinVirginiaafterthediscoveryofher
pregnancybyoneofhisslaves,VeraLouisleavesforBaltimoreandchoosestotakeTrue
Bellewithher,despitethefactthatTrueBellemustleaveherownfamilybehindinthe
process144.Obsessingovereverydetailofhiseducation,hisclothing,hishair,andhis
appearance,thetwowomenraiseGoldenasawhitemanofstatusandprivilege.Thisis
untilTrueBelletellshimofhisoriginsandsetsinmotionhisplan,ateighteenyearsold,“to
144AngelynMitchell’sarticle“‘Sth,IknowthatWoman’:History,Gender,andtheSouthinToni
Morrison’sJazz”doesanexcellentreadingofthewaysTrueBelle’ssexualityis“suppressedand
subsumedbyherroleasacaregiver”(52),aswellasthewaysinwhich“theBlackslavewoman
mustdealwiththeissueofherdeferredpersonaldesiresaswellaswithhersubconscioushopefor
futurefulfillment.”
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find,thenkill,ifhewaslucky,hisfather”(Jazz143).Areversemigrationofsorts,Golden
returnstotheSouthtodiscovertheoriginsofhisidentity,andthepromptlykillorsilence
them.Closetohisdestination,butfightingrain,hestopstosecurehistrunkandwhen
doingso,spots“anakedberry-blackwoman”.Startledbyhispresence,sheturnstorun,but
knocksherselfunconsciousonanearbytree.Significantly,hisfirstinteractionwithracein
theSouthispunctuatedbytheappearanceofablackfemalebodyabsentofspeechor
consciousness.Whileheisfirstconvincedthatsheis“notarealwomanbuta‘vision’”,he
soonrecognizessheispregnantand,infact,“somethinginsideherismoving”(Jazz145).
Notonlyisthewoman,whowecometofindisJoe’smother,notconsidered“real”by
Golden,hisfirstinstinctistodenythehumanityofbothherandherchild.Despitethefact
thatGoldenishalf-black,heidentifiesaswhiteandisthereforeterrifiedbythepresenceof
ablackwomanwhocontainsanunknown,orpreviouslyunexplored,identity.Heisfearful
“thatshemightregainconsciousness”becausethenhemighthavetocomeintodirect
contactwiththatpartofhimselfhesovehementlywishestodeny.Ifsheawakesand
becomes“somethingmorethanhisowndarkpurpose”(Jazz146),hisfreedomis
compromised,oratleastoutwardlychallenged.Uptothispoint“Hethoughttherewas
onlyonekind—TrueBelle’skind.Blackandnothing.LikeHenryLesTroy.Likethefilthy
womansnoringonthecot.Buttherewasanotherkind—likehimself”(149).Golden
understandsblacknessasanemptydiscursivesignifier,oraspacewhere“Blackand
nothing”areinterchangeabledescriptions.
Cutofffromhisfatherand,inmanyways,fromhisownculturalandracialidentity,
Goldenattemptstodestroythepast.However,asMorrison’sdemonstratesinher
constructionofhisopinionsaboutraceandreactionstotheblackbody,thereareprofound
206
consequenceswhenonechoosestoactivelydenyhistoryaplaceinthepresent.Forher,
jazzinsistsonexploringtheseuntoldnarrativesoftheselfandthephysicaland/or
emotionalfragmentationsthataccompanythem.AsNathanielMackeydiscusses,black
musichasthecapacitytocreate:
…afeltrecovery,afeltadvancebeyondseveranceandlimitationthat
contendswithandquestionsconventionalreality,thatisafeelingforwhatis
nottherethatreachesbeyondasitcallsintoquestionwhatis.Musicasa
phantomlimbarisesfromacapacityforfeelingsthatholdsitselfapartfrom
numbcontingency.Thephantomlimbhauntsorcritiquesaconditionin
whichfeeling,consciousnessitself,wouldseemtohavebeencutoff.(235)
Thejazzandmusical-linguisticaestheticofthenoveldrawsthepastintothepresent,
activatinghistorysoastocreatenotonlyareflectiononcurrentdiscourse,butalsoon
thosephysicalfragmentationsanddislocationsthatcreate“aconditioninwhichfeeling,
consciousnessitself,wouldseemtobecutoff.”WhenGoldensitsdowninhisfather’scabin
forthefirsttime,neitherhenortheaudiencecandissociatehimfromhispastandthe
genealogiesthatthrowintodoubthissenseof“conventionalreality”:
Onlynow,hethought,nowthatIknowIhaveafather,doIfeelhisabsence,
theplacewhereheshouldhavebeenandwasnot.Before,Ithoughteveryone
wasone-armed,likeme.NowIfeelthesurgery.Thecrunchofbonewhen
sundered,theslicedfleshandtubesofbloodcutthrough,shockingthe
bloodrumanddisturbingthenerves.Theydangleandwrithe.Singingpain.
Wakingmewiththesoundofitself,thrummingsowhenIsleepsodeeplyit
stranglesmydreamsaway…Andno,I’mnotangry.Idon’tneedthearm.ButI
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doneedtoknowwhatitcouldhavebeenliketohavehadit.It’saphantomI
havetobeholdandbeheldby,inwhatevercrevicesitlies,underwhatever
branch….WhenIfindit,willitwavetome?Gesture,beckonmetocome
along?OrwillitevenknowwhoorwhatIam?Itdoesn’tmatter.Iwilllocate
itsotheseveredpartcanrememberthesnatch,thesliceofdisfigurement.
Perhapsthenthearmwillnolongerbephantom,butwilltakeitsownshape,
growitsownmuscleandbone,anditsbloodwillpumpfromtheloudsinging
thathasfoundthepurposeofitsserenade.(158-159)
Theconceptofthetalkingbookandthemusical-linguisticstructuresofthenovelthrust
Goldenintoadirectconversationwithapastexperienced,felt,suffered,communicated,
andtenuouslyrecoveredthroughmusic.Goldencriesbecauseforthefirsttimeheis
rememberingthepainofhisdisfigurement,the“singingpain”thathasdoneallitcan“to
stranglemydreamaway.”Thesoundcreatesavisceralremembrance,agesturetowards
thepartsoftheselfthatcontinueto“dangleandwrithe”despitetheirtemporaldistance
fromtheactualsiteofdismemberment.Goldenisnotupsetathavinglostthatpartof
himself,buthedoeslong“toknowwhatitcouldhavebeenliketohavehadit.”While
Morrisondoesn’tsuggestthatanyfullrecoveroftheselfispossible,shedoesnotethe
necessityoflocatingthepast,orthatpartoftheselfthathasbeenlostsoit“canremember
thesnatch,thesliceofdisfigurement.”Oneofthefewculturalformsnotcontrolledbythe
ideologiesandracismsofwhitesocietyduringthe19thcentury,musicoffersawaytolocate
whatNathanielMackeydescribesas“therealmoftheorphan”,orthosespacesinwhich
African-Americanare“severedfromthepresencetowhichitrefersandwhichpresumably
gaveitbirth”(233).Goldenoffersaglimpseintothegenealogyweallshare,intothe
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historical“crevices”orphantomsthatweallmust“beholdandbeheldby”(233)beforethe
tenuousprocessofhealingcanoccur.Foritisonlyafterthisprocessofpainful
remembrancethat“thearmwillnolongerbephantom,butwilltakeitsownshape,grow
itsownmuscleandbone,anditsbloodwillpumpfromtheloudsingingthathasfoundthe
purposeofitsserenade.”(Jazz159).Ratherthansuppressingtheirpastorsuccumbingto
thespiritofmodernitythatencouragesonetoforget“Thebadstuff.Thethings-nobodycould-helpstuff”(Jazz7),VioletandJoemustlocate,throughtheirowncreative
reinterpretationofthepast,locatethe“purposeofitsserenade”,oritsresonanceinthe
present.
AlthoughGolden’sstoryisdistantfromtheirown,itisonlyafteritisrelayedthat
thenarrativebeginstoarctowardsthedenouement,ortentativeresolutionofits
storylines.Announcedinbythe“sweetheartweather”ofearlyspring,thefinalchapter
indicatesatimeoftransformation.JoeandVioletbegintoclearlyarticulatethedesiresthat
ledtotheperpetualstatesofmourningandvisceralsilencesthatwerecuttingthemoff
fromnotonlythepast,buttheirownsenseofidentity.WhenFelice,Dorcas’bestfriend,
andoneofthefirstpeopletheyinvitebackintotheirhome,comestovisit,shenoteshow
thesmallgesturesseemtoindicatemoreprofoundalterationsinattitude:
LateronMrs.Tracebroughthimaplateofold-peoplefood:vegetablestuff
withriceandthecornbreadrightontop.Hesaid‘Thankyou,baby.Takehalf
foryourself.’Somethingaboutthewayhesaidit.Asthoughheappreciated
it…Andwhenheleavestheroomandwalkspasthiswife,hetouchesher.
Sometimesonthehead.Sometimesjustapatontheshoulder.(207)
209
Despitethebanalityofthesemoments,ofservingfoodtooneanotherorwalkingpasteach
otherintheapartment,thereisasubtleintonationoflovethatmovesbeyonddesire.While
itisalwaysatenuousrecoveryandstill“risky”asthenarratornotesearlier,toinvestigate
thepast,asMorrisonnotes“historyshouldnotbecomeastraightjacket,which
overwhelmsandbinds,neithershoulditbeforgotten.Onemustcritiqueit,testit,confront
it,andunderstanditinordertoachieveafreedomthatismorethanlicense,toachieve
true,adultagency”(“TheArtofFiction”82).Inoneofthefinalconversationsbetween
VioletandFelice,VioletimploresFelicetoconsiderhowshecanshapethepresent,ormake
theworldintosomethingsheactsonandwithin,insteadofsimplyagainstorinresponse
to:
“Don’tyouwant[theworld]tobesomethingmorethanwhatitis?’
‘What’sthepoint?Ican’tchangeit.’
‘That’sthepoint.Ifyoudon’t,itwillchangeyouanditwillbeyourfaultcauseyoulet
it.Iletit.Andmessedupmylife.”
‘Messedituphow?’
‘Forgotit.’
‘Forgot?’
‘Forgotitwasmine.Mylife.IjustranupanddownthestreetswishingIwas
somebodyelse.’(208)
Trappedbyherdesireforchildren,hermisunderstandingofJoe,thestoriesofGoldenGray,
andofthesuicideofhermother,Violetsimplyranaround“wishing[she]wassomebody
else”(209).Intryingtoforgetherpast,shelostheragency,orherabilitytomaketheworld
“intosomethingmorethanwhatitis.”Whileittookheralifetimetounderstandthisnotion
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ofagency,VioletencouragesFelicetothinkofitnow,toexploreherpastasawayof
envisioninganewfutureforherselfandotherslater.Ittookcomingtothecitytorealize
thatshehad“anotheryouinsidethatisn’tanythinglikeyou”(208)andittookevenlonger
tounderstandthenecessitytoconfrontandreconcilethatpastselfwiththelongingsofthe
desiresandemotionsbeingperpetuatedinthepresent.
Althoughmanyscholarshaveturnedtothefinallinesofthenovelasdefinitiveproof
ofthenovel’sattempttocreateinteractionswiththeaudienceandfurtherpromoteajazz
aesthetic,whatisoftenoverlookedishowtheparagraphsimmediatelybeforecarrywithin
themamovingdescriptionofloveandtheoftenviolentpainful,difficult,andennobling
journeyoftwopeoplethatconnectsthereadernotonlytothesecharacters,but
themselves.Likethejazzmusician,thereisanefforttomakethatwhichisdifficultappear
asanaturalextensionoftheself.Theseinteractions,althoughsimple,pointtosomething
muchlarger,somethingMorrisoncanonlydenotethroughtheitalicizedvoiceofthe
narrator,whoMorrisonhasalreadyindicatedinthevoiceof‘atalkingbook’orajazz
ensemble.
Butthereisanotherpart,notsosecret.Thepartthattouchesfingerswhen
onepassesthecupandsaucertotheother.Thatpartthatclosesherneckline
snapwhilewaitingforthetrolley;andbrusheslintfromhisbluesergesuit
whentheycomeoutofthemoviehouseintothesunlight.Ienvythemtheir
publiclove.Imyselfhaveonlyknownitinsecret,shareditinsecretand
longed,awlongedtoshowit—tobeabletosayoutloudwhattheyhaveno
needtosayatall:ThatIhavelovedyou,surrenderedmywholeselfrecklessto
youandnobodyelse.ThatIwantyoutolovemebackandshowittome.ThatI
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lovethewayyouholdme,howcloseyouletmebetoyou.Ilikeyourfingerson
andon,lifting,turning.Ihavewatchedyourfaceforalongtimenow,and
missedyoureyeswhenyouwentawayfromme.Talkingtoyouandhearingyou
answer—that’sthekick.(229)
Thesubtletyoftheirinteractionsortheirdisplaysof“publiclove”inmanywaysdisguise
thatwhichweallfeel,butareoftenunabletoarticulate.Itisonlythroughtheensembles
efforttoshowus,tocommunicatethroughaction,thatthenarratorcanbegintodescribe
theemotionshiddenbylayersofdiscourseandsuppressionsofthepast.Yes,when
Morrisonasksthereaderto“look,look.Lookwhereyourhandsarenow”inthefinalline
sheisimploringthereadertounderstandtheircomplicityinthedevelopmentofthe
narrative,butmoreprofoundly,sheasksustodiscovertheheartofjazz,themovements
betweentime,space,desire,hate,pain,andlovethateventuallyfindarestingplaceinthe
simplestoftasks;“Talkingtoyouandhearingyouanswer—that’sthekick.”
Conclusion
AsscholarssuchasDavidHavery,EtienneBalibar,andImmanuelWallersteindiscussin
theirexplorationsof“neoliberalism”andtheriseoffreemarketeconomiesalloverthe
world,therewasanecessityforaunifyingtheoryofthemarketandinparticularonethat
couldignoreissuesofrace,class,andgenderthroughtheideologiesofindividualismand
entrepreneurship.AsBalibarandWallersteindescribe:
Theveryidentityoftheactorsdependsupontheprocessofformationandthe
maintenanceofhegemony.Thusthemodernbourgeoisieformeditselfintoa
classthatmanagedtheproletariat,afterhavingbeenaclassthatmanaged
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thepeasantry:ithadtoacquirepoliticalskillsanda‘self-consciousness’
whichanticipatedthewaythatresistancetoitwouldbeexpressedandwhich
transformeditselfwiththenatureofthatresistance.Theuniversalismofthe
dominantideologyisthereforerootedatamuchdeeperlevelthantheworld
expansionofcapitalandeventhantheneedtoprocurecommonrulesof
actionforallthosewhomanagethatexpansion.Itisrootedintheneedto
construct,inspiteoftheantagonismbetweenthem,anideological‘world’
sharedbyexploitersandexploitedalike.(4)
Bywritinganarrativeofhowtheotherwasconstructedinthe19thcentury,resonatedin
the1920s,andisbeingactivelyformulatedinthelate20thcentury,Morrisonalsohopesto
drawslinesofcontinuitybetweenthepastandthedevelopmentofglobalsystemsof
capitalism.Whilethebookisnotadirectcritiqueofcapitalistsystems,whatitgestures
towardsisthelong-standingsocialandpoliticalphilosophiesofracethatallowedforthe
erasureofAfrican-Americanvoicesandthesimultaneousconstructionofanideologythat
is“sharedbyexploitersandexploitedalike”.Hip-hopwouldemergeinthemistofthis
social,political,andeconomicrift,arecordofboththeideologiesthatledtotheaggressive
“withdrawalofthestatefromsocialprovision”andthechampioningof“strongprivate
propertyrights,freemarkets,andfreetrades”(Harvey2-3).Aswillbeseeninthenext
chapter,thisintensegrowthinthetechnologicalinformationandthedisseminationof
popularcultureacrossavarietyofmediumsandborderscausedaspecificsortofanxiety
abouttherelationshipbetweenthepastandthepresent.Whilehip-hophistoriographers
haveprimaryfocusedontheconsequencesoftheseneoliberalideologies,inparticular
Reaganomics,deindustrialization,andwhiteflight,itismyintentionthatmoretextssuch
213
asMorrison’sshouldbeevaluatedfortheirspecificconnectiontohistoriesfarbeyond
thosebounds.AswillbeseeninColsonWhitehead’snovelSagHarbor(2009),hip-hopis
notsimplyabi-productofitsspecificculturalandpoliticalhistory,butisinfluencedby
literary,oral,andmusicalpracticesthatstretchacrossthe20thcentury.
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Chapter6
“SamplinginColsonWhitehead’sSagHarbor:TheUseofHip-HopAestheticsin
ContemporaryBlackFiction”
Whilehip-hopisnowaddressedinuniversitiesacrossthenation,ittooknearly
thirtyyearsafterthemovementbeganforscholarstofocusexclusivelyonthedevelopment
andmotivationsofthisgloballyinfluentialartform.Offeringthefirstfull-lengthstudyof
thesubject,TriciaRose’sBlackNoise(1994)outlinestheimportance,anddifficulty,of
discussinghip-hop’shistoriographyanditsrelationshiptoblackaestheticpracticeacross
thetwentiethcentury.DespiteRose’sargumentthattheremustbe“anecessarytension
betweenthehistoricalspecificityofhiphop’semergenceandthepointsofcontinuity
betweenhiphopandseveralAfrodiasporicforms,traditions,andpractices”(Rose25),
manyhip-hopscholarshaveinterpretedthecultureasanaestheticreactionto
Reaganomics,whiteflight,deindustrialization,andurbandecay.147RobertJensen,who
curatedaretrospectiveontheBronxneighborhoodin1979,describedthenowfamous
birthplaceofhip-hopas“aspectacularsetofruins,mythicalwasteland,aninfectious
disease…aconditionofpovertyandsocialcollapse,morethanageographicalplace”
(Jensen13).ForJensenandmanyinmediaandpolitics,theBronxstartlingdecaydid
become“morethanageographicalplace”;itbecameajustificationforgovernmentwide
budgetcutsandfodderforincreasinglydangerousandwidelycirculatedstereotypes.148
Notonlydiditreduceresidentstothefeaturesoftheirneighborhoodandtheirarttoeither
147SeeMarcAnthonyNeal(1999);S.CraigWatkins(2005);NelsonGeorge(1998);HoustonA.
Baker(1989);AdamBradley(2009);MurrayForman(2002)formoretextsthatembracethis
narrative.
148SeeMauriceA.Pierre(1991)andOtisB.Grant(2008)fordiscussionsofReaganomicsandits
effectsonlowerandmiddleclassAfrican-Americanfamilies.SeeTriciaRose(1994),pgs.27-34for
informationonthemediaportrayaloftheseneighborhoods.
215
reactionstoorrebellionsagainstthosesocioeconomicconditions149,italsoforcedanentire
generationofyoungblackmenandwomentocontendwiththerealorimagined
boundariesofthe‘ghetto.’Regardlessofone’sclassorpersonalexperiences,popular
representationsofAfrican-Americansubjectivityreliedheavilyon“termslikenihilistic,
dysfunctional,andpathological”(Kelley16)intheirdescriptionsofblackurban
environmentsandculture.Theproblemwiththesesingularproscriptionsofidentity,as
scholarRobinKelleygoesontodescribe,isthat“interpretersunwittinglyreducetheir
subjectstocardboardtypologieswhofitneatlyintotheirdefinitionofthe‘underclass’and
renderinvisiblewidearrayofcomplexculturalformsandpractices”(17).Acombinationof
sociologicallyreductiveproscriptionsandthemachinationsofconsumerculturethat
playedtothefantasiesofwhiteconsumers150,thesediscoursesobscuredtheaestheticand
culturalhistoriesofhip-hop,aswellastheirprofoundimpactonavastandvariednumber
ofAfrican-Americanconstituencies.
149AsMarcAnthonyNeale(1999)notes,“Whatemergedintheshadowsofmanyofthese
developmentswasadistinctAfrican-Americanyouthculturewhosebasicsentimentswereoften
incompatiblewithmainstreamAfrican-Americanleadershipandmainstreamcultureingeneral.In
itsworstcase,itwasaculturepersonifiedbygangturfwarsoverthecontrolofthecrack-cocaine
industry,aculturedescribedbyMichaelEricDysonas‘ghettocentricjuvenocracy’whereeconomic
ruleandillegaltyrannyisexercisedbyacadreofyoungAfrican-Americanmalesoverasignificant
portionoftheblackurbanlandscape…Atthemorepositiveendofthespectrumadistinctdiscourse
ofAfrican-Americanyouth,withobviousregionalvariations,emergedtonarrate,critique,
challenge,anddeconstructtherealitiesofpostindustriallife”(134-135).SeealsoS.CraigWatkins’
(2005)andNelsonGeorge’s(1998)forsimilardescriptionsofhip-hop’semergenceandits
relationshiptoconsumerculture.
150AsPaulGilroydescribesinhisbookSmallActs(1993),“…thebasicinterestinthemarketingand
commodificationofobjectsandprocessesthatresisttransmutationintopassivesaleableitems
regularlyrequiresthetraffickersinblackculturetodenythattheirchosencommodityhasany
politicaldimensionsatall.Blackculturescanbemarketedtoblacksinthisbland,anodyneformbut
theanti-politicalapproachisevenstrongerwherethesignsofblacknesshavebeenspecifically
packagedinordertocrossovertowhiteconsumers,manyofwhomtakepleasureinthe
transgressionanddangerousnesswhichtheseonceforbiddencommoditiesexpress,without
discoveringasimilarenthusiasmforeitherthecompanyofrealliveblackpeopleorthehistoryof
theirstrugglesagainstslavery,forcitizenshipandtowardspersonalandsocialautonomy”(3-4).
216
ForwriterssuchasColsonWhiteheadandwhatTreyEllisdescribesas“thecritical
massofcollegegraduateswhowerechildrenofcollegegraduatesthemselves”(Ellis237),
hip-hopofferedbothacauseandacureforthesediscoursesofmisrepresentationand
inauthenticity.Whilethecommodificationofthemusicanditsrelationshiptoinnercities
dominatednarrativesinpublicdiscourse,theaestheticsofthemusicitselfrevealeda
generationofartistswhovaluedculturalhybridityasaformofcontemporaryidentity
politics.Withtheinventionofturntables,hip-hopdeejaysmadewereabletocreateentire
songsoutoffragmentsfromanymusicalgenreortimeperiod.Thispracticeofhistorical
layering,whichdrawstogetherseeminglydissonantsounds,offeredamodelfor
contemporarysubjectivity,particularlyforthoseyoungmenandwomenwhofelttheydid
notfitintothepopularrepresentationsoftheblackorwhiteworld.Inadditionto
discussionsoflocalityandpracticesofsignification,ColsonWhitehead’sSagHarbor(2009)
transformsthetechnologicalstrategiesthatdefinedeejayingpracticeintoanarrativeof
Benji,hisfriends,andtheirstruggletofindoutwhatitmeanstobe“blackboyswithbeach
houses”(Whitehead72).Aclevercominglingofadolescentangstandreferencestofamiliar
historicalfigures,popularmusic,radio,television,fashion,dancing,andtrends,thenovel
presentship-hopasananalogyforthemyriadinfluences,bothpastandpresent,that
combinetocreateoursenseofselfinthemodernworld.Narratedduring1985,atime
whenhip-hopwasenteringintoconsumercultureandthenationalimagination,thenovel
drawssubtle,butpowerfulassociationsbetweenthisburgeoningculturalexpressionand
Benji’ssearchforidentity.Throughtheradioandcassetteplayer,whichdistanceshis
subjectsfromtheoriginsofthemusic,Whiteheaddescribesthedifficultyofreconciling
217
one’sidentitythroughthecompetingandoftencontradictoryvoicesofconsumerculture.
AsGeorgeLipsitznotes:
Theverysamemediathattrivializeanddistortculture,thatturnartinto
commodities,andthatobscuretheoriginsandintentionsofartistsalso
providemeaningfulconnectiontoourownpastsandthepastsofothers.But
theydosoindirectly,constrainedbythenonlinearbiasesoftheelectronic
mediaaswellasbyacommercialmatrixhostiletothekindsofempathy,
inquiry,andanalysisbasictohistoricalthinking.(5)
Whilethisconstantinterplaybetweencommercialobfuscationandpowerfulnarrativesof
culturalandaestheticheritagecanoffermeaningfulinsightsintoone’sidentity,itforces
hip-hopartistsandtheiraudiencestodoso“indirectly”andincontentionwithmass
media’s“nonlinear”biases.Unwillingtoacknowledgetheinter-racialenvironmentsthat
confineidentitytolocality,thelonghistoryofaestheticpracticesthatcontributeto
signifying,ortheintra-racialpracticesthathavecreatedseveralfamiliar,althoughoften
reductive,imagesof“authentic”blackidentity,consumerculturelacksthenecessaryforms
of“empathy”and“inquiry”necessarytoanunderstandingofcontemporaryAfricanAmericanculture.Cognizantofboththeconnectionsthesedeejaysoffertothepastandthe
machinationsofconsumerculturethatobscureit,Whiteheadincorporatesboththe
aestheticsofhip-hopandcritiquesofthoseinter-andintra-racialdiscoursesthat
surroundeditsdisseminationandreception.Workingbothwithinandagainsthip-hop’s
conventionaldefinitions,Whiteheadutilizesthesocioeconomicandphysicallocalitiesof
Benjiandhisfriendsasawaytodismantleimagesofyoung,blackmenthathaveoftenbeen
conflatedwithdescriptionsofdecayinganddysfunctionalurbanenvironments.Given
218
commonbinariesbetweenghettoexistenceandreactionarydiscoursetopostindustriallife
dominatingcurrenthip-hophistoriography,Whitehead’snoveloffersavaluablecasestudy
inliteraryhip-hopaestheticsandtheirabilitytoconstructidentitiesthatmovebetwixtand
betweenthesedichotomies.Inaddition,becauseBenjiandhisfriendsareAfricanAmerican,middle-class,andmostlyunaffiliatedwiththescenesofghettolifereproduced
withinhip-hop,theymustnotonlynegotiatethecurrentrepresentationsofwhatitmeans
tobe“authentically”black,butarealsoforcedtoprocesshowintra-racialconceptsof
previoushistoricalgenerations(“Militant”,“Street”,“BootstrappingStriver”,“ProudPillar”)
willeffecttheireventualmaturation.Whetherintegratingdeejayingpracticestoreconsider
thehundred-year-oldideaofdouble-consciousnessandthehistoryofsignification,or
troublinglocalitythroughtheintegrationofurbanandsuburbanenvironments,thenovel
questionsthedelimitedgenealogicalhistoriesofhip-hopandhowtheyarerepresentedin
popularculture.Throughanexplorationoftheaestheticsofsamplingandmixing,the
restrictivedialoguesoflocality,aparodyofsignification,andacritiqueoftheintra-racial
standardsforcreatingan“authentic”African-Americanidentity,thenovelnotonlyreveals
thecontinuedrelationshipbetweenliteraryandmusicalcultures,butoffersanewmodel
forunderstandingtheflawsofcurrenthip-hophistoriography.
ColsonWhitehead,Hip-Hop’sTechnicalInnovations,andtheAestheticsofDeejaying
Despitethemultiplewayship-hopaestheticschallengelinearhistoricalnarrative,theroots
ofsampling,anddeejayingmoregenerally,canbetracedbacktoJamaicaandthebuilding
ofcompetitivesoundsystemsthroughoutthe1960’s.AlthoughKoolHerc,whomovedfrom
JamaicatotheUnitedStatesattheageof11,wasthefirstartisttoisolateandloopthe
break,theJamaicanpracticesofmanipulatingsoundthroughanalogboxesanddeveloping
219
dubslaidthegroundworkforthefirstdeejays.151OftenB-sidesoncommercialrecords,
dubs,ortheinstrumentaltrackofanygivensong,“movedthemusicforward”(Kun127)by
allowingartiststointegratedtheircreativityinthepresentintothenexusofpreviously
recordedsound.Called‘versioning’bymanyearlypioneers,dubspresentedoriginality
fromvariationandpersonalityratherthansoundalone.AsscholarJoshKunpointsout,“no
versionwaslessoriginalthantheoriginal:noversionwaslessoriginalthananyother.In
fact,originalitywasjudgedonhowgoodanyoneversioncouldbe,ifitwasbetterthanthe
versionthatcamebeforeit.Versioning—copying,replicating,reproducing—alwaysmade
somethingnew,alwaysmovedthemusicforward”(Kun127).
Whilethisabilitytocreateseveraldifferentinterpretationsofasongoradd
variationtoanygivensongwouldcontinuetoplayamajorpartintheevolutionofmodern
deejayingtechniques,thefocalpointofearlyhip-hopculturecameintheformoftherecord
player,orphonograph.Inventedin1877andpopularizedinthe1920’sand30’s,the
phonographwasoriginallyintendedtobeatechnologythatemittedprerecordedsound.It
essentiallyallowedpeopletheopportunitytolistentothesamesong,inthesameway,time
andtimeagain,andwithoutinterruptioniftheysochose.However,attheearlyblock
partiesofdeejayingpioneerKoolHerc,hebegantonoticethatthecrowdwasconstantly
anticipatingandinvigoratedbythe‘breaks’,orinstrumentalsections,ofthesongs.
Accordingtoa1989interviewwithHerc,insteadofforcingtheaudiencetowaitforthe
151SeeJeffChang(2005),pgs.21-41formoreonthetraditionofemceeingandsoundsystem
developmentinJamaica.AshenotesinhisdescriptionofsoundsystempioneerLee“Scratch”Perry,
“Behindacheapfour-trackmixingdesk,whichbythestandardsofthetimewashopelessly
outdated,Perrywhirledandboppedandtwiddledtheknobs,imbuingtherecordswithwildcrashes
ofecho,gravity-defyingphasing,andfrequency-shreddingequalization…Melodiesbecame
fragments,fragmentsbecamesigns,andthewholethingswirledlikeahurricane”(29).
220
brief,butinvigoratingmomentsofsound,“Icutoffallanticipationandplayedthebeats.I’d
findoutwherethebreakintherecordwasatandprolongitandpeoplewouldloveit”
(DaveyD).Insimplytakingthebreaksorsectionsofsongsthatthecrowdrespondedto
andcreatingentirelynewinterpretationsoutoffragmentsofpreviouslyrecordedsongs,
earlyhip-hopdeejaysweredevelopingonethecoreideasthatstillexistsinhip-hoptoday:
“Recordswerenotinviolate;songsdidnotneedtobeplayedfromstarttofinish.A
turntablethereforewasnotsimplyaplaybackdevicebutameansformanipulatingsound”
(Katz16).Asanobjectforplaybackandameansofamalgamation,thephonograph
embracedtwocontradictorystatesofbeing,onethatprojectsavoicepreviouslyrecorded
andanotherthatreflectedthedeejaysabilitytocreatesomethingnewinthemoment.
WhileWhitehead’snovelisacombinationofreferencesthatrangefromDungeons
andDragonstoNationalLampoonandJamesBond,anearlysceneexemplifiesthenovel’s
dedicationtodeejayingaestheticsasamethodforbothrememberingandrenarratingthe
past.SetduringtheannualdriveouttoSagHarbor,avacationcommunitycomprised
primarilyofupperandmiddle-classblackfamilies,Benjireflectsonthelistof“Famous
BlackPeopleIhadneverheardof”andhisinabilitytoaskaboutfiguressuchasW.E.B.
DuBoisforfearofreprimandfromtheadultsaroundhim.Althoughheknew,“bysome
secretmeasurethatitwasadisgracethatIdidn’tknowwhotheywere,thesepeoplewho
struggledandsufferedforeverylastcomfortIenjoyed”(17),figuressuchasDuBois,
MarcusGarvey,andToussaintL’Ouverturearenotpartofhisimmediateexperienceasa
fifteen-year-oldboyinthe1980’s.Theydonotinformhissenseofidentity,althoughhe
somewhathumorouslyremarksontheexpectationthattheyshould.Reflectingonhowhe
wouldlaterreadDuBoisincollegeandbe“blownaway”byhisessayondouble-
221
consciousness,BenjigoesontoquotefromDuBois’famouspassagefromTheSoulsofBlack
Folks:
Itisapeculiarsensation,thisdouble-consciousness,thissenseofalways
lookingatone’sselfthroughtheeyesofothers,ofmeasuringone’ssoulby
thetapeofaworldthatlooksoninamusedcontemptandpity.Oneeverfeels
histwo-ness—anAmerican,aNegro;twothoughts,twounreconciled
strivings;twowarringidealsinonedarkbody,whosedoggedstrengthalone
keepsitfrombeingtornasunder.ThehistoryoftheAmericanNegroisthe
historyofstrife,—thislongingtoattainself-consciousmanhood,tomergehis
doubleselfintoabetterandtruerself.(Whitehead18)
Incorporatingtheexactlanguageofthepastintothepresentnarrativesupportsacreative
reinterpretationofDuBois’text.Benjirecallstheconceptofdouble-consciousness,but
reinventsitasananalogyforhisstoryofgrowingupinpostmodernAmerica.Arapid
movementbetweenthreedistincttimeperiods,DuBois’voiceconnectsthereadertoturn
ofthecenturyAmericancultureandpolitics,Benji’sexperiencesincollege,andhowthose
experiencesinformedhisunderstandingofdrivingtoSagHarborseveralyearsearlier.This
layeringoftextsandmeanings,likethedeejaysturntables,removestheteleological
boundariesbetweenthepast,present,andfuture,allowingWhiteheadtodevelopnew
imagesofidentitythroughtheinnovativeaestheticsofhip-hop.AsscholarRichardShur
observes:
Hip-hopemphasizesandcallsattentiontoitslayerednature.Theaesthetic
codeofhip-hopdoesnotseektorenderinvisiblelayersofsamples,sounds,
references,images,andmetaphors.Rather,itaimstocreateacollagein
222
whichthesampledtextsaugmentanddeepenthesong/book/art’smeaning
tothosewhocandecodethelayers(207).
Itisnotsimplytheuseofmanyreferences,buthowtheyarereconstructedsoasto
“augmentanddeepen”themeaningforthereaderorlistener.EvenasWhiteheadpulls
fromavarietyofsources,hemustchoosefragmentsofsoundandlanguagethatgrantthe
readerinsightsintohisownadolescentconfusion.Seamlesslytransitioningfromthequote
byDuBoisbackintothecarrideout.Benjireflectsonhow,“Drivingwithmyfather,itwas
potholesofdouble-consciousnessthewholeway”(18).Bycreatingacorrelationbetween
theonlytworadiostationshisfatherwouldlistento(AfrocentricTalkRadioorEasy
Listening)andDuBois’famouspassage,Whiteheadinviteshisreadertodecipherto
relationshipbetweenDuBoisandthecontemporarycontextofthenovel.Benjimust
constantlycontendwithtwocontradictoryrepresentationsoftheselfinpostmodern
society,butthis“senseofalwayslookingatone’sselfthroughtheeyesofothers”ismore
aptlyreimaginedthroughthevoicesofKarenCarpenterandthespeechesofcontemporary
African-Americanpoliticalandsocialactivists.Nolongerdirectlyrelatedtotherelationship
betweenthewhiteworldandAfrican-Americans,double-consciousnessisthrustintoa
discussionofinter-andintra-racialdynamics,aswellastheever-growinginfluenceof
radioandconsumerculture.TheradionotonlybecomesananalogyforDuBois’ideas,but
reflectship-hop’spatternof“creatingsomethingnew,andcreatingitinthemoment”(Katz
60).Throughtheexactreplicationofsoundbitesontheradioandtheirpositionwithinone
pageofoneanother,WhiteheaddemonstratesbothhowBenji’sidentityisbeingdefinedby
vastlydifferentrepresentationsofAmericanidentity.
223
Suchafeeling’scomingoverme
WhatIwanttoknowis
ThereiswonderinmosteverythingIsee
Whenarewegoingtohaveourdayofjustice
Notacloudinthesky
Thesewhitepeoplethinktheycankillusinourhomes
Gotthesuninmyeyes
Can’twalkdownthestreet
AndIwon’tbesurprisedifit’sadream
Withoutsomecrackerwithabaseballbat
EverythingIwanttheworldtobe
Tryingtomurderus
Isnowcomingtrueespeciallyforme
Murderourchildren,ourfuture
Andthereasonisclear
Whenarewegoingtohaveourday?
It’sbecauseyouarehere
-AfrocentricTalkRadio
You’rethenearestthingtoheaventhatI’veseen
-KarenCarpenter
(Whitehead19-20)
Aspacewheretheephemeraljoysofloveandwonderlustarejuxtaposedwiththecallfor
freedomfromsystemsofviolenceandwhitesupremacy,thebackseatofBenji’scar
becomesaseeminglyinnocuousshiftbetweentwovoices,neitherofwhichaccurately
captureshissenseofselfinthepresent.Inhis“longingtoattainself-consciousmanhood”
(18),Benjimustcontendwithboththe“deepdunesofwhiteness”(19)inKaren
Carpenter’svoiceandthepolarizingracialpoliticsofthe1980’sthatconflateblackness
withurbanexperience.Despitehisfather’smutteringthatthepointsmadeabout“police
brutality,crummyschools,themechanisticcrueltyofcityhall”were“justcommonsense”
(20),Benjigoestoprivateschoolandhaslittleconnectiontothesocialandeconomic
injusticesexperiencedbyAfrican-Americansinurbanenvironments.Dissociatedfrom
eitherexperiencesinwhich“everythingIwanttheworldtobe/Isnowcomingtrue
especiallyforme”(18),orattacksfrom“Thesewhitepeoplewhothinktheycankillusin
ourhomes”(19),Benjifeelsinsecureinhisidentity,inhowheshouldactuallypresent
himselftotheworld.Ashecomments,“Isitanywondermydreamsweretroubled?Ease
224
anddisquietweavedinandoutofreception,chasingeachotherdown,twosignalstoo
weaktobeheardformorethanafewmoments.”IntherapidpaceofAmericanlifeandthe
evenquickervacillationbetweenradiostationsbyhisfather,Benjicannotfindassociations
betweenhisownexperiencesandtherepresentations“chasingeachotherdown”onthe
radio.Justasdeejayingallowsforunrelatedandpreviouslyrecordedfragmentstocreatea
unifiednarrative,Whitehead’snovelintegratesmultiplevoicestogesturetowardsthe
complicationsofBenji’sidentity.Increativelyreinterpretingtheaestheticsofdeejaying,
Whiteheadmakesapparentwhathip-hopartistsandfansalreadyknew;thewaythestory
istoldisjustasimportantasitscomponentparts.Eachvoiceisshowninexactreplication;
itisWhitehead’sabilitytoreimagineidentitythroughthereconstructionofthosevoices
thatchallengesthemonolithicnarrativesoftheradioandupdatesDuBois’theorytoreflect
thecontemporarymoment.Benji’sdouble-consciousnessisaquestionofinter-andintraracialpolitics,oftechnologiesthatbringsdisparatevoicesintodirectconversation,ofclass
andtheirassociationswithmodernconceptionsofrace.Theseinterspersedvoicesunravel
the“layerednature”ofhip-hopculture,thehip-hopgeneration,andtheirmethodsof
engagingwiththepastevenastheyrecreateitandthemselvesinthepresent.
Reimaginingtheaestheticsofsamplingandmixingthroughtheradioalsoallows
Whiteheadtoaddresstheliteralandmetaphoricdistancetechnologyplacesbetweenthe
soundsbeingemittedandthelistener,whocouldbelocatedanywhere.AsscholarEdward
ComentalediscussesinhisbookSweetAir:Modernism,Regionalism,andAmericanPopular
Song:
Unlikeajournaloranewspaper,[radio]doesnoteasilylenditselftoa
seeminglyrationalexchangeofideasandarguments;rather,itemits—inreal
225
time—aseriesofshifting,overlappingcurrentsofpublicsentiment,forging,
initsownrushedandcontradictoryways,adynamicpublicofdistracted
listeners.Asdisembodiedemotion,asfeelingfromafar,itdoesnotsomuch
informitsaudience,butchargesandshapesit,amplifyingordampeningits
affectivepotentials,re-animatingeachbodyasitgoesaboutitscommon
choresandritualswithinanabstractwhole.(104)
Forcedtoengagewiththe“disembodied”soundsofvastlydifferentculturalexperiences
andaesthetictraditions,Benjiunderstands(inavagueway)thathisidentityasayoung,
blackmanisbeingdefinedbyvoicesbeyondhiscontrolandonlypartiallyinhisgrasp.
Offeringonlyafragmentedunderstandingoftherelationshipbetween“overlapping
currentsofpublicsentiment”,theradioisaconduitforhalf-articulated,rapidlyshifting,
anddiscursivelypowerfulassociationsbetweenpeopleandlocalities.Reinventedasitis
recollected,thisscenecontributestoagreaterunderstandingoftherelationshipbetween
thesecompetingvoicesandhisadolescentdevelopment.
DiscoursesofLocality,Hip-HopAesthetics,andtheReinventionofHip-Hop
Historiography
WhileBenji’sdriveouttoSagHarborandhisinteractionswiththeradiogivethereadera
senseofhisindividualstruggleswithidentityandcontemporaryformsoftechnology,the
novelisalsoconcernedwithhowlocalitycomestodefinenotonlyBenji,buthisfriendsas
well.Shiftingfromthespecificitiesofdeejayingtotheculturalpracticesthatcometodefine
thehip-hopmovementmoregenerally,Whiteheadnarratesspaceassitesofbothliteral
andmetaphoricexchange.AsAdamMansbachdescribesinhisessay“OnLitHop”:
226
Hip-hopintroducesaspecificsetofinterplayinrevealingandobscuringthe
layersofthecollage,takesaspecifickindofpleasureinthemash-up
refreakingoftechnologiesandtexts,understandshistoryassomethingto
backspinandcutupandcoverwithfingerprintsinaparticularkindofway.
(Mansbach93)
Reflectingtheaestheticsofbreakdancers,emcees,deejays,andgraffitiartists,thenovel
implementsreferencesandknowledgefromavarietyofsourcestocreatealternative
representationsoftheselfandthepast.Thisimplementationofanaestheticthatresists
linearnarrative,orfocuseson“historyassomethingtobackspinandcutupandcoverwith
fingerprints”allowsWhiteheadtocreatelocationsthatarenotonlydefinedbytheir
physicalparameters,butalsobythediscoursesofhistoriographers,media,andconsumer
culture.Focusedonthemultiplicityofmeaningandthefluidityofhistoricalnarrative,
Whitehead’sgeographicinterplaybetweenNewYorkCityandthesuburbanbeach
communityofSagHarborpointsto“aspecifickindofpleasure”thatemergeswhenonehas
thefreedomtodefinethemselvesthroughcontradictoryandseeminglyunrelatedcultural
localitiesorartifacts.AsMurrayFormandiscussesinhisanalysisoftherelationship
betweenspaceandhip-hop:
Thelinksbetweenghettoorinner-cityspacesandraparefrequentlydrawn
withoutsignificantinterrogationofthediscursivelyproducedvaluesystems
thatalwaysinfluenceoursocialperceptionsofthesespaces.Inmanyearlier
cases,theostensibly‘raw’realityofhip-hop’sformativespacesisvalorized
andromanticized,creatingmisperceptionsthatpositionitscultural
227
expressionsastheapparentlyorganicproductofaparticularsociospatial
milieu.(xx)
ThroughthejuxtapositionofSagHarborandNewYorkCity,Whiteheadgesturestowards
hip-hopcultureasanexpressionthatmediatesnarrativesofthecityandthesuburbs,of
prisonandescape,ofinnercityandupper-middleclassculture.Attendingdifferentschools
andlivingindifferentareas,Benjiandhisfriendshaveawiderangeofexperienceslivingin
thecity,noneofwhichcanbeuniformlydefinedorconfinedtothepost-industrial
complexitiesoftheinnercity.Influencedbytheradio,theincreaseddisseminationof
informationthroughtelevisionmedia152,policiesofbenignneglect153,andaconsumer
culturewhere“advertisersgearednewspaperarticlesandtelevisionbroadcaststowards
thepurchasingpowerofurbanbuyers”(Rose29),thegroupmoldstheiridentitiesaround
competingandoftencontradictoryregisters.154FarfrominterpretingSagHarborasasite
152AsTriciaRosediscusses“urbanrenewalandrelocationeffortsnotonlydispersedcentral0city
populationstothesuburbs,butalsotheyreplacedthecommerceofthestreetwiththeneedsofthe
metropolitanmarket.Advertisersgearednewspaperarticlesandtelevisionbroadcaststowardthe
purchasingpowerofsuburbanbuyers,creatingadual‘crisisofrepresentation’intermsofwhose
livesandimageswererepresentedphysicallyandgotrepresentedinthecorridorsofpower”929).
153
AccordingtotheInternationalEncyclopediaofSocialSciences,“Theconceptofbenignneglect
wascoinedbythelateSenatorDanielPatrickMoynihan(D-NY)inaJanuary1970memoto
PresidentRichardM.Nixonwhileheservedasthelatter’sUrbanAffairscounselor.Thewidely
circulatedmemo,whichwasleakedtothepressinMarchofthatsameyear,read:“Thetimemay
havecomewhentheissueofracecouldbenefitfromaperiodof‘benignneglect’.”Atthathistorical
juncture,Moynihandeclared,Americansneeded“aperiodinwhichNegroprogress”continuedand
“racialrhetoric”faded.Moynihanbelievedthattheantipovertyprogramsofthe“GreatSociety”of
the1960shadfailedmiserably,notonlybecausetheyhadattemptedtousemoneyalonetosolve
thenation’sinabilitytoproperlyeducatetheAfricanAmericanpoorbutalsobecausetheydidnot
raiseissuesinreferencetotheviabilityofintegrationasasolutiontoU.S.racialproblems.”(283)
154AsRobinD.G.KelleydiscussesinhisbookYoMama’sDysfunktional,“Fromtheoutset,rapmusic
embracedavarietyofstylesandculturalforms,fromreggaeandsalsatoheavymetalandjazz.Hip
Hop’shybridityreflected,inpart,theincreasinglyinternationalcharacterofAmerica’sinnercities
resultingfromimmigration,demographicchange,andnewformsofinformation,aswellasthe
inventiveemploymentoftechnologyincreatingrapmusic”(39).
228
ofutopicescape,Benjiactuallycharacterizesbeing“out”asafluctuationbetweentwoideas
thatwereoftendifficulttoreconcile:
Therewasalsothelanguageofprisoninthere,inhowlongareyououtfor.
TimeontheEastEndwasfurlough,adaypass,abriefvisitwiththeoldfaces
andnamesbeforetheinevitablemomentwhenyouwerelockedupagain.
Thathardtimedefinedthemajorityofourdays.Youdidsomethingwrong,
whyelsewouldsuchathinglikethecityhappentoyou.Foracoupleof
weekseachyearwehabitualoffendersgottogetherandgotuptonogood
beforethehandcuffspinchedourwristsagain.Earlier,IdescribedSagasa
kindoftrap,buttheplacealsoattractedthelanguageoffreedom.Idon’t
knowwhichisworse,thetraportheprison.Eitherway,you’restuck.
(Whitehead38-39)
Whitehead’sdescriptionoftheSagHarborandthecityasatypeofprisonservesasbotha
referencetotheviolencesoftheprisonindustrialcomplex155,andacomplicationofDuBois’
theoryofdouble-consciousness.Thisexchangebetweennarrativesofconfinementand
escapeaddressesthespecificitiesofpost-modernurbanenvironments,thewaysitboth
literallyimprisonedmuchoftheyoung,blackmalepopulationandmetaphorically
“trapped”middleandupper-classAfrican-Americansinthecommodifiedrepresentations
ofhip-hop.WhetherBenjiandhisfriendsarewithinoroutsidetheconfinesofthecity,
narrativesofurbanpovertyandblackcriminalityoverwhelmotherwaysofunderstanding
theselfandthehip-hopgeneration.Theserestrictivematerialanddiscursiveenvironments
155SeeMichelleAlexander(2010)andAngelaDavis(2001;2003)formoreinformationonthe
developmentoftheprisonindustrialcomplexthroughoutthetwentiethcentury.
229
leaveBenjiwithafeelingofinsecurityandanill-definedidentity;ashenotes,“Eitherway,
you’restuck”(39).
However,WhiteheadalsofocusesonSagHarborasaplacewherepeoplecometo
get“out”ofthesenarrowlyproscribedboundaries.Locatedbeyond“hip-hop’sformative
spaces”(Formanxx),thenovelcreatesspacesandcharactersthatareinflectedbytheir
relationshiptohip-hopculture,butwhoseidentityrestsbeyondnarrowcategorizationsof
raceandclass.Morethanaplace“weweregratefultobe…aftersuchalongbleakyearin
thecity”(4),SagHarboritisdefinedbyalanguageofescape,ofgoingsomewherethat
exceedscompartmentalization.Areflectionofthisliteralandmetaphoricmovebeyondthe
discoursesandconfinesofthecity,thenovelbeginswithadescriptionofseeminglysimple,
butoft-repeatedquestions:“Whendidyougetout?”(1);“Howlongareyououtfor?”(2).
EveryonewhocomestoSagHarboris,inonewayoranother,viewedas‘out’:outofschool,
outsideofthecity,andrepresentationally‘out’sideofthedominantdiscursivespacesthat
cannotaccountforacommunityofupper-middleclassblackcitizens.Althoughdistinct
fromthecity,thebeachcommunityisasitethatbothreplicatesandmodifiesthecultural
aestheticsanddiscoursesassociatedwithurbanenvironments.Havingspenttheirwhole
livesexperiencingtwovastlydifferentdiscursivelocalities,BenjiandhisfriendsviewSag
Harborasaplacewheretheycanexchangeculturalinformationandknowledgewithout
sacrificingtheirownexperiencesorformsofidentification.Describedasnotonlytheplace
whereone“getsdowntothebusinessofsummer”(5),SagHarboristhelocationwhere
Benjiandhisfriendshavetheopportunity“observeandgatherinformation”(38)aboutthe
variousregistersthatcontributetotheiridentity.Awayfromthecityandhisexperiences
livinginNewYorkCityandattendinga“‘predominantlywhite’privateschool”,Benji
230
spendshissummer“catchingupontheninemonthsofblackslangandothersundrysoulful
artifacts”(37)thateludedhimduringhistimelearningtheintricaciesofBarMitzvah’s,
rollerrinks,hackeysack,andlacrosseplayers.Caughtbetweentwounderstandingsofthe
selfthatemergeintwodifferentlocations,Benjitreatshistimeinthecityasimportant“in
theanthropologicalsense”,butsecondarytotheculturaleducationandtransformations
possibleinSagHarbor.AsBenjidescribes,“Inidlemoments,IretreatedintothatearlysummerdreamofreinventionwhereyousetyoureyesonSeptemberandthatrefurbished
selfyouweregoingtotoolaroundin…”(29).Acombinationofcatchinguponslang,trends,
dances,and“theassortedfieldofblackbootcamp”(38),Benji’stimeinSagHarborexposes
himtoawiderangeofhip-hopaestheticswhileofferinghimanopportunitytoreflecton
theconfiningdiscoursesofurbanenvironments.Ashestatesintheclosinglinesofhis
openingsection,“Oncewe’reallout,wecanbegin.”Whiteheadunderstandsthathis
characterscannotbeeasilydefinedbynarrativesoflocality,thereforehesuggeststhatitis
onlyafterBenji,hisfriends,thecommunity’soccupants,andthereaderreachSagHarbor
thattheywillbeabletograpplewiththesecompetingrepresentationsandhistorically
rooted,butmodifiedformsofaesthetics.
SatirizingSignifyin’:VernacularCultureinPost-ModernIdentityFormation
Shiftingfromtheexodus‘out’toSagHarbortotheverbalexchangesthatcharacterizeBenji
andhisfriends’conversations,thenoveldeployscrassformsofsignificationtosatirize
contemporaryvernaculartheories.Incontrasttohisdiscussionoflocality,whichoutlines
howspacecanbecomeasingularsiteforpresupposingAfrican-Americanidentity,
Whitehead’scarefullampooningofvernaculartheorypointstotheriskofapplying
academictheorieswithoutaddressingtheindividualcontextsfromwhichthese
231
expressionsemerge.Agroundbreakingtextthatemerged(notinconsequently)right
aroundthetimeperiodWhiteheadoutlinesforSagHarbor156,HenryLouisGatesJr.’sbook
TheSignifyingMonkeypresentshisAfrican-Americanliteraryandvernaculartheorywitha
historicalgravitasthatoccasionallydigressesintotheabsurd.IdentifiedbyGatesas“the
greattropeofAfrican-Americandiscourse”(21),theSignifyingMonkeyisatricksterfigure
thatisrootedinEastAfricanoraltraditions,butultimatelyservestotroublethedivisions
betweenwrittenandoralformsofcommunicationinAfrican-Americanliterature.
Presentingthisprocessof“repetitionandrevision”asagenealogyofauthenticblackness
orblackculturalexpression,Gatesarguesthat“whateverisblackaboutblackAmerican
literatureistobefoundinthisidentifiableblackSignifyin(g)difference”(xxvi).Through
detailedchartsandcarefullyconstructedlinguisticanalysis,Gatespainstakinglywalksout
howtheoriesofdeconstructionandformallinguisticsofferaglimpseintothesecollective
reiterationsofAfrican-Americanculturalidentity.
Inordertoquestionacademia’softenoverwroughtassociationbetweentraditions
ofsignifyingandcontemporaryexpressionsofhip-hopculture157,Whiteheadsatirizesthe
traditionthroughBenjiandhisfriends’crassteenageexchanges.Thisnotonlyquestions
156Setinthesummerof1985,Whiteheadfixeshisnovelatacrucialtimeinboththeemergenceof
hip-hopandwithinaseriesofdebatesaboutthenatureofpost-soulaesthetics(seeTreyEllisand
EricLott).GatesbookTheSignifyingMonkey:ATheoryofAfrican-AmericanLiteraryCriticismwas
firstpublishedin1988,butcanalsobecontextualizedinrelationtoaseriesofothervernacular
theoriesthatincluded,HoustonA.Baker’sBlues,Ideology,andAfro-AmericanLiterature:A
VernacularTheory(1984),HortenseSpiller’s“Mama’sBaby,Papa’sMaybe:AnAmericanGrammar
Book”(1987),JoyceA.Joyce’s“TheBlackCanon”(1987),andMaeGwendolynHenderson’s
“SpeakinginTongues:Dialogics,Dialectics,andtheBlackWomanWriter’sLiteraryTradition”
(1989).
157Forinstance,inAdamBradley’s2009bookBookofRhymes,hespendstheentirechapter
drawingassociationsbetweensignifyingpracticesandnearlyeveryancientandcontemporary
examplehecanmuster.ThisincludesdiscussionsofBeowulf,theNBA,SaturdayNightLive,William
Wordsworth,SamuelTaylorColeridge,andAristotle’sPoetics.
232
theefficacyofsignificationasasingularmethodforunderstandingcontemporaryAfricanAmericanidentity,italsoquestionsthepresumptionsthattheseartistsunderstand
significationinthesamewayship-hophistoriographershavesituatedthem.AsWhitehead
describes,freedomfromtheirparentsfivedaysaweekandboredomoftenproduced
vulgarandasinineconversations:“Nowthatwehadafreehouse,whatdidwedowithit?
Sitaroundandtalkshit”(51).Discussinghow“thetrendthatsummer,insult-wise,was
towardsgrammaticalacrobatics”,Benjiexplainstheseeminglysimplisticways“one
smashedacolorfulandevocativenounorpropernounintoapejorative,gluingthem
togetherwithan–inverb”(Whitehead51)toachievetheperfectputdown.Thisattemptto
explainshittalkingthroughajuxtapositionofcasualmodifiers(“smashed”,“gluing”)and
thelanguageofformalgrammatologynotonlymocksGatesacademicvoice,butalso
suggeststhattheoriesofsignificationcarrytheriskofoverwhelmingothernarrativesof
culturalidentification.Althoughalloftheboysaredeeplyinvestedintheverbalgameofcat
andmousebeingplayedouteverydayintheirlivingrooms,carrides,walkstothebeach,
anddowntime,veryfewofthemareacquaintedwiththe‘supposed’significanceofthe
techniquestheyaresharing.AsBenjipointsoutinhisbreakdownoftheexcitedexchanges,
“Verbalnoun,gerundlikecreature,cogintheadjectivalmachine,whoknew—aswasthe
casewithsomeofthepeopleinmylivingroom,therewasalittleuncertaintyinthe
bloodlines”(51-52).Incompatiblewiththeirmethodsofunderstandingthemselvesand
theirrelationshiptothepast,thislanguageoflinguisticsandgrammatologyactually
obscuresthepastratherthanenlighteningitsimportanceforthepresent.Benjiandhis
friendsfeel“alittleuncertaintyinthebloodlines”becauselikethe“FamousBlackPeopleI
HadNeverHeardOf”(17),thereistheexpectationthattheyshouldknowbetteroridentify
233
differentlywiththeirculturalorethnicidentity.Carryingonthetraditionofsignifyin’,but
doingsothroughachartoftheplayfulandoftenhumorousexchangesbetweenfriends,
WhiteheadoutlinesthecompetingandcontradictoryintereststhatBenjiandhisfriends
actuallyengagewithintheirprocessofself-identification.Thesechartsarebelowandhave
beenpairedwithafewofGates’chartstofurtherdemonstratethesatireatworkinthis
section:
234
Theinclusionofthishand-scratchedchartsatirizesGatesmechanicaldisplayofthe
relationshipsbetweenauthorsandlanguagethatdissociatesignifyin’fromthevery
categoricaldistinctionsitisdesignedtoevade.AlthoughitreflectsGatesassertionthat
signifyin’is“apartofouradolescenteducation”,theexampleschosenbyWhitehead
gesturetowardsthewaysincreasinglyglobalandcommercializedformsofidentification
obscuretherelationshipsbetweenhistoricalgenealogiesandblackculturalexpression.
FrompoliticalfigurestotelevisionstarsandAdidastennisshoestoapopularbrandof
children’sclothesandfigures(Garanimals),thereferencesheregesturetowardsthe
disaggregatedreferencesandcommercialobfuscationsthatsignifyin’hasnowcometo
deploy.WhilethisscenemaintainsitsassociationwiththeSignifyingMonkey’sabilityto
“carp,cajole,needle,andlie”and“makingfunofapersonorsituation”(Gates75),the
235
concernBenjiandhisfriendsshowwithappearingauthentic,withavoidinga“99centgold
chain”or“fakeAdidas”revealsthedifficultyofdefiningone’sselfinaworldthatpromises
itcandosothroughcommodificationandpopularculture.Contrastedwiththerepeated
objectsof“motherfucker”,“bitch”,and“nigger”,thisseeminglyendlessstringofmodifiers
isstilldiscursivelytiedtodegradingandreductiverepresentations.Signifying,asitis
representedincontemporaryculture,mustengagewithbothofthepossibilityof
misrepresentationandentirelynewwaysofunderstandingandwritingaesthetic
genealogies.AsTriciaRosepointsout,theoralpracticesofsignificationwere
fundamentallyalteredbytheirrelationshipwithcontemporarytechnologicalcultures:
Rap’spoeticforce,itsrearticulationofAfrican-Americanoralpractices,and
itsnarrativestrategiesarecentraltorap.However,rap’soraland
technologicalfacetsaremoreinteractivethanthisdisjuncturesuggests.Rap
musicblursthedistinctionbetweenliterateandoralmodesof
communicationbyalteringandsustainingimportantaspectsofAfricanAmericanfolkoralitywhileembeddingoralpracticesinthetechnologyitself.
Rap’soralityisalteredandhighlyinformedbythetechnologythatproduces
it;andinrap,orallogicinformsitstechnologicalpractices.Redefiningthe
constitutionofnarrativeoriginality,composition,andcollectivememory,rap
artistschallengeinstitutionalapparatusesthatdefineproperty,technological
innovation,andauthorship.(85)
SinceBenjiandhisfriendshaveonlyencounteredthesepracticesofsignificationthrough
thetechnologicalinnovationsofdeeejaysandthemachinationsofcontemporaryculture,
theirunderstandingofthehistoricalbasisofthesemusical-oralculturesisquitedifferent
236
fromthatofGates.WhileBenjinotesthat“truemastersofthestylesometimesattachedthe
nonsensical‘withyourmonkeyass’asakicker,toconveysincerityanddepthoffeeling”
(53),hedoesnotrecognizethisasacallbacktotheEastAfricanfigureoftheSignifying
Monkey.Hesimplyviewsitasanothersubtlemethodofindicatingyourlinguisticprowess
toothersinthegroup.Thefactthat“masters”arealwaysassociatedwiththeintroduction
ofthemonkeyandthatthisisreadas“nonsensical”byBenjiandhisfriendsallowsthe
readertoseehowthesepracticeshavebeenbothmaintainedanddisruptedbythe
technologiesandconsumerismspecifictothepost-soulgeneration.
Bytakingaconceptthatisnowuniversallyacknowledgedasfoundationaltohiphoppracticeandcarefullymodifyingittoincludenewformsofidentificationand
experience,Whiteheaddoesnotdestroythetraditionasmuchasheupdatesit.Takingone
finalmomenttoreflectonthepowerandimplicationsofthispractice,Benjidescribeshow:
Theheartofthecritiqueconcernedwhatyouwereputtingoutintothe
world,thevibesyougaveoff.Whichiswhatmadethemsodevastatingwhen
executedwell—thisordinancedetonatedinthatareabetweenyouandthe
mirror,betweenyouandwhatyouthoughteveryoneelsewasseeing.
(Whitehead53)
Despitetheirmisunderstandingofsignifyingpracticeshistoricalgenealogy,Benjiandhis
friendsunderstandthedifficultyofmanipulatingone’simagetoeithercontendwithor
fulfilltheexpectationsoftheirpeersorsociety.HereWhiteheadisnotonlyreplicatingthe
“tensionbetweentheoralandthewrittenmodesofnarration”(21)describedbyGates,but
modifyingtheideatorevealthecomplicationsofidentityformationwithinthepost-soul
aesthetic.Facedwithboththeinter-racialconflationofAfrican-Americanidentitywithhip-
237
hop’slocalities,lyrics,orvisualrepresentationsandtheintra-racialexpectationsofcultural
andhistoricalknowledge,Benjiandhisfriendscreatenarrativesofindeterminacy.Likethe
SignifyingMonkeyandthehip-hopartisttheyareconstantlyengagedwith“aneverending
battleforstatus,prestige,andgroupadoration,alwaysinformation,alwayscontested,and
neverfullyachieved”(Rose3).Withoutmodelsfortheirexperienceoraseriesofstable
culturalidentifiersaroundwhichtorally,Benjiandhisfriendsmustexperiment,mustslip
inandoutofborrowedandreconfiguredidentitiesuntiltheycansettleonthecombination
thatbestrepresentsthemselves.
TheNewBlackAesthetic,Hip-Hop,andtheParadoxofEssentializedRacial
RepresentationinthePost-SoulGeneration
EnthusiasticallydescribedbyTreyEllisinhisessay“TheNewBlackAesthetic”asthe
artisticoffspringofofyoungblackmenandwomenwhowere“educatedbyamulti-racial
mixofcultures”,theNBAthrivesonthemultiplicityofidentificationandtheabilityofpostsoulyoungsterstocreaterepresentationsofthemselvesthatnolongerpandertothe
expectationsofhistoricalorideologicaldiscourse.Amanifestoforthe“minority’sminority
mushroomingwiththecurrentblackbourgeoisieboom”,Ellisarguesthatcontemporary
blackaestheticshassevereditselffromtheself-hatredandwhiteenvyofprevious
generations.Definedas“aculturalmulatto”byEllis,thisnewgenerationwas“educatedby
amulti-racialmixofcultures”.Notonlycanthey“navigateeasilyinthewhiteworld”,they
“nolongerneedtodenyorsuppressanypartofourcomplicatedandsometimes
contradictoryculturalbaggagetopleaseeitherwhitepeopleorblack”(235).Inclusiveof
middleandupper-classexperiencesasvitaltoanunderstandingofthepost-soul
238
generation’saesthetic,Ellisespousesaviewthatisattentivetotheintersectingnarratives
ofclass,race,music,andhistorythatinform21stcenturyAfrican-Americanidentity.What
hedoesnotaccountfor,asEricLottnotesinhisresponsetoEllis’essay,isthevast
expansionofAfrican-Americanprimarytextsincirculation.Ashedescribes:
Weliveinaperiodnotablefortheenlargementofwhatisknownasblack
cultureitself…theseactsofself-conscioustradition-makingaresurelyamark
ofourculturalmoment,asimportanttonotionsofcurrentblackcultureas
thepublicationofMarx’searlymanuscriptsinthe1930swastoWestern
Marxism.(245)
Whilebothofthesesentimentscoexistedacrossthe1980s,Whiteheadisattentivethe
challengesofnavigatingboththeculturalhybridityofthepresentanditsnewexplorations
ofprevioushistoricalidentitiesandnarratives.AsBenjicomments,“Blackboyswithbeach
houses.Itcouldmesswithyourheadsometimes,ifyouwerethesusceptiblesort”(72).
Challengingthesupposedself-confidenceandfreedomofgrowingupinagenerationthat
shunnedthecompartmentalizationofidentity,Benjidescribeshowhisfriendswouldoften
reconfigureessentializedrepresentationsofraceinanefforttocopewiththeir“shifting
subjectivityinthemodernworld”(Weheliye20).Forthosepeoplewhofoundthe
expectationsofboththeblackandwhiteworldoverwhelming,therewereseveral“typical
andwell-known”identitiesonecouldembraceintheirsearchforsomesortof‘authentic’
blackness.AsBenjiobserves,youcaneitherunapologetically“revelintheperceptionof
239
status,wallowwithoutcareinwhatitmeanttobeborninAmericawithmoney…No
apologies”orslipintoanynumberofsubjectivitiesassociatedwithAfrican-American
identityacrossthenineteenthandtwentiethcentury.
Youcouldembracetheblackpart—takesomeideayouhadaboutwhatreal
blacknesswas,andmaketheaterofit,your24-7one-manshow.Folksofthis
typecouldpickBootstrappingStriverorProudPillar,butthemostpopular
brandswereMilitantorStreet,Militantbeingtheoppositeofbourgie
capitulationtoTheMan,andStreetbeingtheantidotetoUpperMiddleClass
emasculation.Street,Ghetto.Acthard,actout,actinawaythatwouldcome
tobecalledgangsterish,pullingpettycrimes,asoftkindoftough,knowing
therewasalwayssomeonetopostbailifoneofyourgrubbyschemesfell
apart.(Whitehead72)
AlayerofconnotationsthatstandinformajormaleAfrican-Americanthinkers,thelist
Benjiprovidesisalsoreferredtoas“atheater”ofexpressions,allofthemdesignedto
proveyouhadanideaabout“whatrealblacknesswas.”Althoughtheycanonlyvaguely
distilltheconnectionsbetweenthemselvesandthepast,theinvocationofthe
“BootstrappingStriver”and“ProudPillar”immediatelybringupthoughtsofthefamous
debatesbetweenBookerT.WashingtonandW.E.B.DuBois.Althoughhedoesnotdirectly
referencetheirworks,theaudiencememberwhoisinformed,whoknowsthemajor
240
debatesaboutthesourcesoffreedominAfrican-Americanliterarythoughtwillheartheir
echoes:
Iexplainedthatmytheoryof
educationfortheNegrowouldnot,for
example,confinehimforalltimeto
farmlife—totheproductionofthe
bestandmostsweetpotatoes—but
that,ifhesucceededinthislineof
industry,hecouldlaythefoundations
uponwhichhischildrenand
grandchildrencouldgrowtohigher
andmoreimportantthingsinlife.–
BookerT.Washington,UpFrom
Slavery(1901)
…Negroesmustfirstdealwiththe
TalentedTenth;itistheproblemof
developingtheBestofthisracethat
theymayguidetheMassawayfrom
thecontaminationanddeathofthe
Worst,intheirownandotherraces…
Ifwemakemoneytheobjectofman
training,weshalldevelopmoney
makersbutnotnecessarilymen…Men
weshallhaveonlyaswemake
manhoodtheobjectoftheworkof
schools…-W.E.B.DuBois,“The
TalentedTenth”(1903)
Thestoryisbeingtoldfromthefuture,fromBenji’sperspectivenowthatheisolderand
hasabettersenseoftherelationshipsbetweenhispastandpresent.Whiteheadknows
thesevoicesandunderstandsthetraditionheentersinto,evenashemodifiesit.Amethod
ofpasticheandcollage,Whiteheadwhirlsthroughmorelayersofreferences,benchmarks
of“thecustomaryscheduleforgoodmiddle-classboysandgirls…togetMilitantand
Afrocentricthefirstsemesteroffreshmanyearincollege”(72).Moreariteofpassagethan
anidentitytopermanentlyendorse,therewerecertainpatternsofsharedknowledge,ways
thecommunitycouldfamiliarizethecontextofthepastandfilteritintotheir
understandingofthemselvesinthepresent.
UnderliningkeypassagesinTheAutobiographyofMalcolmXandthatpassed
aroundpaperbackofBlackSkins,WhiteMasks.Organizeamarchortwoto
protestthelackoftenureforthatcontroversialprofessorintheDepartment
ofBlackStudies.OrganizeamarchortwotoprotestthelackofaDepartment
ofBlackStudies.Itpassedthetimeuntilbusinessschool.(Whitehead73)
241
ForBenji’sfriendBobby,andotherslikehim,thevoicesofFranzFanonandMalcolmX
createanunidentifiedconfusionabouttheirpersonalidentities.Theirinabilitytolocate
theiridentityinaseaofcompetingandoftencontradictoryimagescreatesanxietyand
leavesonefeelingincomplete.Theirinclusionalsoreveasltheconvolutedtemporal
dimensionsofpost-soulnarrativesandhip-hopaesthetics.The“BootstrappingStriver”and
“ProudPillar”areonlyvaguelyrecognizabletoBenjiandhisfriends,buttheoriginsof
“Militant”philosophiescanbenarroweddowntospecifictexts,tovoicesthatwillresonate
inthebehaviorofBobbyandtheaestheticsofgroupslikePublicEnemy.Forthereader
whocandeciphertheintertextualreferencesandlayersofsymbolicmeaning,thevoicesof
MalcolmXandFranzFanonechothroughtheirmind.Foritisinthepastthatthereader
canlocatebothaproblemandtentativesolutionforthepresent,wheretheycanexplore
therupturesinAfrican-Americanidentityformationandthecontinuitiesoffeelingthattie
themtogether,howeverloosely.
Ineffect,whathappenisthis:AsIbeginto
recognizethattheNegroisthesymbolof
sin,IcatchmyselfhatingtheNegro.But
thenIrecognizethatIamaNegro.There
aretwowaysoutofthisconflict.EitherI
askotherstopaynoattentiontomyskin,
orelseIwantthemtobeawareofit…In
ordertoterminatethisneuroticsituation,
inwhichIamcompelledtochoosean
unhealthy,conflictualsituation,fedon
fantasies,hostile,inhumaninshortIhave
onlyonesolution:toriseabovethis
absurddramathatothershavestaged
roundme,torejectthetwotermsthatare
equallyunacceptable…toreachoutforthe
universal.–FranzFanon,BlackSkins,White
Masks(1952)
Mybrothersandsisters,ourwhite
slavemaster’sChristianreligionhastaughtus
blackpeoplehereinthewildernessofNorth
Americathatwewillsproutwingswhenwe
dieandflyuptotheskywhereGodwillhave
forusaspecialplacecalledheaven.Thisis
thewhiteman’sChristianreligionto
brainwashusblackpeople!Wehaveaccepted
it!Wehaveembracedit!Wehavebelievedit!
Wehavepracticedit!Andwhilewearedoing
allofthat,forhimself,thisblue-eyeddevil
hastwistedhisChristianity,tokeephisfoot
onourbacks…whileheenjoyshisheaven
righthere…onthisearth…inthislife.–
MalcolmX,TheAutobiographyofMalcolmX
(1964)
242
Theseimpliedvoices,whetherreflectingtheintricaciesofself-hatredorthe
hostilitiesthatemergefromit,influencenotonlyBenji’sunderstandingofhimself,butthe
reader’sunderstandingofwhathewilllatercallhis“paradox”(72).Eventheconstruction
ofapersonaforacting“Street”isconvolutedforBenjiandhisfriends.Acombinationof
theirinexperiencewithpost-industrialenvironmentsandtheriseofhip-hopintothe
mainstreamimagination,theboysimaginethe‘gangster’personatobe“asoftkindof
tough”,anexcuseto“acthard.Actout”(72).Anothersupposedly‘authentic’representation
ofAfrican-Americanidentity,thispersonaisareinterpretationoftheimagesbeing
disseminatedandpromotedbythemusicindustry.AsImaniPerrydiscusses:
…artistsbeganappearingwhopersonifiedgangsterswithouthavingever
experiencedthatlifestyle:recordcompaniesmanufacturedgangstersfor
theirsensationalappeal…Gangsterismturnedintoacommercialtool…Hiphopheadsmadeanefforttoweedoutthecommercialgangstersfromthe
‘real’ones,andsorumorsofsuburbanbirthplacesandrespectablemiddleclasschildhoodsofcertainMCssurfacedasevidenceoftheirinauthenticity,
eventhoughhip-hophadbeenacross-classartformforyears.(94)
Inanattempttoberelevant,togarnerattention,ortosimplyjustifytheirinclusionintothe
African-Americancommunity,theboysreplicatethecommodifiedimagespermeating
musicandmassmedia.Although“itneveroccurredtousthattherewasanythingstrange
aboutit”(Whitehead70),Benjiandhisfriends’attemptstoprovetheyarenotsusceptible
tothe“UpperMiddleClassemasculation”(72)orthenarrativesofpost-industrialneglect
onlyleavetheminfurtherdoubtoftheiridentity.Aculturalexpressionthatthrivesonthe
intersectionbetweenthefamiliarandtheunfamiliar,betweenconstructionsofthepastand
243
theirreconstructioninthepresent,hip-hopprovidesbothacrudeoutlineandacomplex
formofrepresentation.
AsBenjiiswatchinghisfriendsgothroughthisprocessofidentificationand
reidentification,thereisafeelingofinstability,asthoughnoneofthesecategorical
definitionssatisfyhisdesiretofordefinability,foraclearpictureofwhoheis.Althoughit
temporarily,andsometimespermanently,satisfiedhisfriends,Benjiisalways“keepingmy
eyesopen,gatheringdata,moreandmorefacts,becauseifIhadenoughinformationI
mightknowhowtobe.Listeningandwatching,takingnotesforsomethingthatmightone
daybeadiagramforinvention,aworkingselfwithmovingparts”(Whitehead84).Similar
tothescenewithDuBois,Benjiisinconstantnegotiationwithhisfragmentedcultural
consciousness.Therearecontinuitiesbetweenthepastandpresent,buttheyareisolated
andincomplete,morea“diagramforinvention”thatanexplicationoftrueidentity.
Withsomanycompetingmessages,Benjifindsyoucaneithernegotiatewitha
carouselofidentities,“oryoucouldembracethecontradiction,saywhatyoucallparadox,I
callmyself.Intheory.Thoseinclinedtothisremedydidn’thavemanyobviousmodels”(72).
Onceherealizesthattherearenot“manyobviousmodels”forembracinghispositionasa
modern-dayparadox,Benjifindshisownheroesinthelikesofhip-hopartists,particularly
deejayssuchasAfrikaBambaata.Anexplicationofthewaystechnologicaldevelopments
canbemanipulatedtooffernewformulationsofidentityconstruction,Bambaata’suseof
samplesfromGermanelectro-popbandKraftwerkandBenji’sknowledgeofthatfact
combinetocreatepowerfulinsights:
IlikewhatAfrikadidwithKraftwerk…Theydismantledthispieceofwhite
cultureandproducedthisfreakishandsustainingthing,reconfiguringthe
244
chillyoriginalintoacommunalartifact…ProbablyitwasuponPlanetRock
whereIwantedtobehalfthetime,wheretheytransportedallusunlikely
chosen,CloseEncounters—style.Therewereotherplacesbesidesthis,the
songsaid.Iwasn’ttryingtoragonAfrika,butsalutehisoddballachievement.
Hisparadox.(77)
Inthisscene,samplingisviewedasanantidotetoembracingafixedpositionforthesakeof
stability.Infact,itencouragesindividuality,areconfigurationofpopularidentificationsfor
thesakeofunderstandingone’sselfinamorecompleteway.TheabilityofBambaatato
transformtheturntableandfragmentsofthepastintoa“freakishandsustainingthing”isa
sortofotherworldlyencounterforBenji.AsymbolofAfrofuturism158,Bambaata’salbum
coverspromisedanexperiencefreefromtheconstraintsofmediatedimages,urban
localities,andevenEarthitself.AsJeffChangpointsout,Bambaatawasaneighborhood
hero,apersonwho“wasreadytotakepeopleacrossborderstheydidn’tknowtheycould
cross,intoprojectstheyweren’tsuretheycouldbein”(89).AsBamabaataimaginesanew
futureforrapmusicandyoungblackmenandwomen,Benjiembraceshis“oddball
achievement”,orabilitytocommunicateanidentitythatcanriseabovetheparametersof
circumstanceandconsumerismthroughthemanipulationoftechnologyandtechnological
futures.Inhip-hopculture,therefashioningoftechnologyandurbanenvironmentsto
capturetheexpressionsofyoung,disenfranchisedmenandwomen“speakstodreamsof
coherenceinafracturedworld”(Dery185)andimaginingsofidentitythatarefarbeyond
158DefinedbyMarkDeryin1993,Afrofuturismisconsideredtobe“anyspeculativefictionthat
treatsAfrican-AmericanthemesandaddressesAfrican-Americanconcernsinthecontextof
twentiethcenturytechnoculture—and,moregenerally,African-Americansignificationthat
appropriatesimagesoftechnologyandaprostheticallyenhancedfuture…”(181).SeealsoYtasha
Womack(2013)forcontemporaryinterpretationsofAfrofuturism.
245
theconfinesoflocality.Reflectiveoftheparadoxoftechnologicalculturemoregenerally,
Benji’sadmireship-hop’sinnovativeaesthetics,evenasheseesthembeingmanipulatedto
createcrudemodelsforhisfriends.AsGeorgeLipsitzdescribes,technologyisbotha
methodforcreating“noveltieswithinandalternativestocommodity-consumerculture”:
Theveryformsmostresponsiblefortheerosionofhistoricalandlocal
knowledgecansometimesbethesourcesofreconnectioninthehandsof
ingenuousartistsandaudiences.Bytheseprocessestheyremembertheir
ownactualpasts,buttheyalsousethepowersofelectronicmassmediato
transcendspaceandtime,connectingthemselvestothepastsofothers,pasts
thatbearmoralandpoliticallessons.(261)
Indrawingdirectandimmediateassociationsbetweenhip-hopaestheticsandBenji’s
searchforidentity,Whiteheaddemonstratesboththelimitationsandpossibilitiesof
technologicaldevelopmentsforexpressingthehistoricalnarrativesofthepost-soul
generation.Evenasthemusicisco-optedbyconsumercultureandmassmedia,itstill
containsthecapacitytocreatealternativehistoricalnarratives,to“transcendspaceand
time”inthesearchforandcreationofnewidentities.Notsimplygiven,stable,orcomplete,
historicalnarrativeisaprocessofconfigurationandreconfiguration,ofunlikelyelements
thatcometogethertogiveone,hopefully,asenseoftheirpastandtheirfuture.AsBenji
goesontonote,allofthepeopleofSagHarborwouldperhapsnotknowtheimportanceof
theirrelationshipsuntilamuchlaterdate:“Somethingdrewyoutogetherbutyoudidn’t
understandthatsecretundertowuntilonedayafteryearsandyearsoftalking,itcomes,
thekeystorythatlaysitallout”(Whitehead317).Thenarrator,whoisspeakingfromthe
future,remindsthereaderthatitsometimestakesyearsbeforeonecanparseapartthe
246
layers,themultifariousrepresentations,thesounds,images,andtextsthatwilleventually
coalesceintoatentativelycomfortablerepresentationoftheself.EvenasWhiteheadworks
bothwithinandbeyondhip-hop’sconventionaldefinitions,heisabletoimplementhip-hop
aestheticstocreatenewnarrativesofblacknessinthepost-modernera.Throughthe
techniquesofsampling,mixing,signifying,pastiche,collage,anddynamicsuggestion159,
Whiteheadgesturestowardsthediscoursesthatmanipulateblackrepresentationandthe
technologiesthatcreatedentirelynewdefinitionsforyoungAfrican-Americanmenand
women.AsYtashaWomackdiscussesinherresearchoncontemporaryAfrican-American
authors,thereisanecessitytoshifttheparadigmsofacademicandpopulardiscourse,to
considerhowthestatement“I,too,amAfrican-American”160reflectsthe“changing
landscapeoftoday’sAfrican-Americanpopulation.”Thisgroup:
…includesthosewhodon’tfitintothenation’scollectivedefinitionofitself,
whodon’tfitintotheAfrican-Americanregime’sideaofitself,whoaren’t
representedbypoliticiansorpreachers,don’tmatchthehip-hopinflected
mediastereotypesnortheenhancedimagesofridiculouswealth,stupendous
crimes,ordestitutepovertyflashedontheeveningnews.Theyareanew
breedwithdifferentidealsandavarietyoflifestylesthatgounnoticed,
untapped,andunwantedbytheso-calleddefendersofblackidentity
159IamborrowingthisphrasefromZoraNealeHurstonandherdiscussionsofblackdancers:
“Negrodancingisdynamicsuggestion.Nomatterhowviolentitmayappeartothebeholder,every
posturegivestheimpressionthatthedancerwilldomuchmore…Itiscompellinginsinuation.That
istheveryreasonthespectatorisheldsorapt.Heisparticipatingintheperformancehimself—
carryingoutthesuggestionsoftheperformer”(35).Thisismyinspirationforincludingthequotes
fromFanon,MalcolmX,DuBois,andBookerT.Washington.Itsignalsthereader’sparticipationin
thenarrative.
160ClearlyareferencetoLangstonHughesfamouspoem“I,Too,SingAmerica”,thisinsight
modifiesthepasttoexplicateonthepresent.
247
because,inshiftingtheparadigm,theseoutliersshiftthepowertodefine
whatbeingAfrican-Americantrulyis(27).
Whitehead’stextprovidesanexcellentexampleofhippost-soulaestheticsarecontinuing
toshiftthelandscapeofconversationsabouthip-hopanditsabilitytorepresentavariety
ofAfrican-Americanconstituencies.Itisthe“unnoticed,untapped,andunwanted”segment
ofhip-hopscholarshipthatmustbepaidmoreattentiontoandgivendetailed
considerationinthefuture.
248
Conclusion
AsthesenselessdeathsofMikeBrown,TrayvonMartin,SandraBland,EricGarner,and
countlessotheryoungblackmenandwomenhavetransformedthepoliticallandscapeof
yetanothergeneration,itisinvaluabletoconsiderhowhip-hopandtechnologicalculture
inflectstheseconversations.Aswidespreadandinfluentialasithaseverbeen,andina
widerrangeofindustries,hip-hoprepresentsanever-evolvingconversationaboutrace,
gender,culture,ethnicity,politics,economics,andartinthe21stcentury.Itistimethathiphopscholarsbegintoinventnewwaysofdiscussingthesenarratives.AlexanderMichelle’s
TheNewJimCrowdeservesafull-lengthstudyaddressedtothecontinuitiesbetweenhiphopand19th,20th,and21stcenturyrepresentationsofprison,theprisonindustrial
complex,andlawenforcement.WithartistssuchasChuckD,KRSOne,Common,andDead
Prez,amongstmanyotherpoliticallyconsciousrappersstillworkinganddiscussingtheir
motivations,itisinvaluabletoconsidertheirrelationshiptoBlackPower,theCivilRights
Movement,BlackLivesMatter,BarackObama,andavarietyofAfricanandAfricanAmericanleadersinthepastandpresent.Itisnotmyintentthatwediscardtheoriginsof
hip-hopandtheveryspecific,social,economic,technological,politicallyenvironmentsfrom
whichitsprang,butthatwebegintoextendbeyondthosetemporalandsociological
boundaries.Hip-hophasbecomefar,farmorethananyofthosecreatorsintheBronxand
Brooklyncouldhaveeverimagined.Anditisbeautiful.Graffiticulturalhasarguably
becomeoneofthemostwidespread,sustained,andtechnicallyadvancedformsofart
makinginthelastfortyyears.KendrickLamarisstillfindingwaystochallengethe
forefathersofrap,inbothproductionandlyricism.Beyoncèsimplyownsitall.Our
understandingofhip-hop’saestheticsanditsinfluencesmustevolvewiththemusicitself,
249
orelse,wewillforegocountlessopportunitiestounderstandhowhip-hopcommunicates
bothtothespecificityofitspresentandthelayeredgenealogiesofitspast.
250
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