much more
than words
Manuka takoto, kawea ake
Whakatauki explanation
‘Manuka takoto, kawea ake’ literally means ‘to take up the challenge’. In Mäoridom, a manuka stick
placed on the ground symbolises a challenge. ‘Manuka takoto’ means ‘manuka lying’ and ‘kawea
ake’ means ‘pick up’. In the context of this resource, Much More Than Words, the challenge is
placed before the adults supporting the child to take up the resource and use it to support tamariki
(children) to develop the communication skills they will need for lifelong learning and success.
Illustrations created by Christen Stewart
Purpose of this booklet
This booklet is for supporting the communication development of young children. Family/whänau,
early childhood educators, kaiako, health professionals and others may find it useful.
It includes information about typical communication development in young children and ideas for
supporting them.
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Much More Than Words
Contents
Introduction4
Hearing 6
Communication development
8
Speech sound development
11
Early literacy skills
12
Stuttering13
Voice14
References15
Making a referral to the Ministry of Education16
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3
Introduction
Communication is much more than words. It is the way we connect and interact with people.
It is part of our identity and culture. It helps us to learn, interact with others and to make friends.
Communication involves a range of many different skills. Children need to be able to:
• understand what people say to them
• use words and sentences to talk to get their
message across
• speak clearly
• understand and use gestures, signs and body
language
• look, listen and take turns in a conversation.
Communication is the foundation for learning and development and is possibly the most important skill
a child will ever develop. Communication develops over time and children go through stages in their
communication; some go through these stages quickly and some will take longer.
Communication development varies across languages and cultures. Many children live in homes where
more than one language is spoken. This provides an opportunity for them to be multilingual and should
be encouraged and valued. It is important for the adults around the child to use the language that they are
most comfortable and familiar with as this will provide the best models for the child (Lowry, 2014).
Children need the adults around them to actively support and encourage their communication development. The
more we know about how to support and encourage, the more we can help children develop their communication
skills through play and social conversations in real-life situations. Te Whäriki, the New Zealand Early Childhood
Curriculum, says that:
“The relationships and environments that children experience have a direct impact
on their learning and development”
(Ministry of Education, 1996, pg 7)
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Much More Than Words
This booklet provides information about children’s communication development so you can think about how your
child is talking and support them, using their skills and interests.
Communication is much more than words. Speech, language, social interaction and early literacy skills are all parts
of a child’s communication. These parts develop together and support each other as shown in Figure 1 below.
Much More Than Words
5
Hearing
Any degree of hearing loss can make
learning to speak more difficult.
General information about young children’s hearing
Hearing is a critical part of a child’s communication development. Even a mild or fluctuating hearing loss
can affect a child’s communication development so it’s important to identify any loss as early as possible.
Hearing loss
There are two main types of hearing loss. One is temporary (conductive) and the other permanent (sensori-neural).
Temporary hearing loss can mean that the child is able to hear well one day but not the next. This is sometimes
referred to as fluctuating hearing loss, which can be difficult to identify. People may talk about the child having
‘middle ear’ problems, fluid in their ear or sometimes glue ear.
Permanent hearing loss may be in one or both ears and can be different in each ear.
Any type or degree of hearing loss can make learning to talk more difficult.
Signs of hearing difficulties include:
• not always noticing everyday sounds
• needing to have volumes louder than you’d expect
• taking longer to learn to talk
• often asking others to repeat themselves
• unfocused attention
• difficulty waiting for and taking turns
• staring at people’s mouths when they talk
• speaking very loudly.
Who should I talk to if I am concerned about my child’s hearing?
If you have any concerns about your child’s hearing you should talk to your child’s doctor who may refer
them for a hearing test.
Hearing testing – what’s involved?
All babies in New Zealand have a hearing test soon after they are born.
Families/whänau are also offered a hearing check for their child, by nurses employed to do ‘Well Child’
checks, several times prior to them starting school. When children turn four they will be offered a hearing
test as part of their Before School Check. If there are concerns they will be referred to an audiologist,
a specialist in hearing loss, for further hearing testing.
Audiologists mainly work in hospitals and community-based clinics. They make the experience as easy
as possible for the child, and are skilled in testing young children’s hearing from birth.
It may be necessary to get children’s hearing tested a few times, as it can be difficult to pick up a hearing loss
with the first test.
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General strategies to support young children with identified hearing loss
Depending on the degree of hearing loss there may be a range of supports available, including access
to New Zealand Sign Language (NZSL) for those with permanent hearing loss.
The strategies below are general strategies for all children with hearing loss but mainly focus
on those using spoken language:
• Gain your child’s attention before speaking
to them, eg, say their name before speaking
• Try to keep background noise down when talking
to them, eg, turn the TV volume down
• Check that your child understands any instructions
by asking a question that doesn’t require a yes/no
response, eg, “What will you do now?” rather than
“Did you hear me?” or “Do you understand?”
• Make sure your child can see your face when you
are talking to them so that they can hear your
voice more clearly and see your facial expressions
• Use a clear, everyday voice. Try not to speak too
loudly as this distorts the sound
• Be aware of anything that can make it difficult
for them to see your face, eg, lighting or shadows,
hands, books
• At the early childhood education centre,
encourage the child to sit close to the person
speaking, eg, if the teacher is reading a story
then the child should be seated close to them
• Try not to exaggerate your facial expressions or
lip patterns.
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Communication development
Ages and Stages
Here is some information about how children’s communication skills usually develop. We have included
some suggestions of activities to encourage communication at each age (Tips). Use the language that
you are most familiar and comfortable with.
By 1 year, most children...
• respond to common words
such as “no!”, “bye bye”
• know the names of familiar
things, eg, mämä, teddy
• will show you objects to get
your attention
• are starting to use some
single words
• enjoy repetitive games with
others, eg, ‘peek a boo’
• take turns in conversations
with adults by babbling,
eg, “mumma mumma”
• use their words and gestures
to be social, to ask and to show
• start to show an interest in
looking at pictures in books
• enjoy listening to songs and
nursery rhymes.
By 18 months, most children...
• understand simple phrases,
eg, “where’s your drink?”,
“shoes on”
• will give a toy to an adult
on request
• repeat actions to make
someone laugh
• are starting to use more than
20 common words, eg, “milk”,
“daddy”, “more”
• are starting to turn pages in
books and to point at pictures.
TIPS
• Get face to face with your baby
• Reduce background noise when
playing and talking with your baby,
eg, turn off the TV
• Copy your baby’s babbling and take
turns in a ‘conversation’
• Talk to your baby when doing things
together, eg, bath time, mealtimes.
TIPS
• Spend time looking at picture books
and photos and talking about what
you see
• Sing and do the actions for action
songs/waiata
• Talk about what you see when you are
out and about, eg, shopping, in the car,
on the marae.
By 2 years, most children...
• understand instructions
containing two key words,
eg, “give your cup to dad”
• can listen to a simple story
• use over 50 single words
• are starting to combine words,
eg, “go car”, “more drink”,
“titiro päpä!”
• ask simple questions,
eg, “what that?”, “where ball?”
• talk about what they can see
and hear right now
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• enjoy pretend play with their
toys, eg, feeding teddy, putting
dolly to bed
• join in with songs/waiata and
nursery rhymes with actions
• enjoy interactive books,
eg, lift-the-flap books, such
as ‘Spot’ and ‘Little Kiwi’,
‘Hairy Maclary’, etc.
• can be understood by familiar
adults most of the time.
TIPS
• Play with your child, join in with what
they are doing or interested in
• Make sure you’re face to face when
playing with your child – you may need
to sit on the floor. This is so you can see
what your child is interested in – it also
helps conversation!
• Share your family’s stories, songs/
waiata and poems.
By 3 years, most children...
TIPS
• understand instructions
containing three key words,
eg, “get the spoon and the
big cup”
• use a vocabulary of several
hundred words, including
describing words, such as ‘fast’
and ‘small’
• can combine three or more
words into a sentence,
eg, “What’s daddy doing?”
• play imaginative games,
eg, pretending a block is
a phone
• can talk about things that
are not present
• take an interest in other
children’s play and sometimes
join in
• take an interest in playing with
words, eg, rhyming words
• are starting to recognise
a few letters
• can be understood by
unfamiliar adults most of
the time, eg, the librarian or
relatives they don’t see often.
By 4 years, most children...
• understand more complex
language structures,
eg, ‘why.... because’
• ask lots of ‘what’, ‘where’ and
‘why’ questions to find out
new information
• take part in longer and more
complicated make-believe
play sequences with peers,
eg, buying a ticket, going on
the bus, getting off at the
right stop and then getting
back on
• enjoy simple jokes – even
though their jokes may not
make sense!
• can recognise their own
written name
• know some letter names
• can recognise some printed
words in the environment,
eg, a stop sign
• are attempting to write
their name
• are starting to use talking to
make friends and to solve
problems
• can talk about what they
have done and what they
might do, eg, they can tell
Nana about their trip to the
park, then talk about what
they want for dinner
• can be understood by
unfamiliar adults almost
all of the time.
• Give your child plenty of time to speak.
Focus on what they are saying, not how
they are saying it
• Have fun reading books – talk about
the story and characters and make it
exciting. Point to key words in the text
as you read
• Involve your child with lots of everyday
routines – talk about what you’re
doing and introduce new words,
eg, “sweeping” when sweeping the floor
• Add extra words to your child’s
sentences, eg, if he says “my car”, you
could say “that’s right – it’s a big car”.
TIPS
• When your child says something
that is not clear, say it back for them
so they hear it the right way rather
than asking them to repeat it
• Have fun with words and sounds,
eg, make up games about words that
start with the same sound, make up
silly words that rhyme
• Talk with your child about exciting
things that are going to happen, to
encourage talking about the future
• Let your child choose books to
share with you
• Encourage your child to join in
drawing and writing activities with
you, eg, writing shopping lists,
making special cards.
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By 5 years, most children...
• understand and use
more concept words,
such as ‘tallest’, ‘same’,
‘bigger’, ‘medium’
• can respond to instructions
while busy doing
something else
• generally use complete,
well formed sentences
• are still developing some
aspects of more complex
language structure, such as
using irregular past tense, eg,
they may say “runned” for ‘ran’
• are able to take turns in
much longer conversations
• will ask the meanings of
words, and try to use
new words
• are able to retell stories they
have heard in the right order,
using some story phrases, eg,
“once upon a time”, “the end”
• are able to ask for help
appropriately, eg, “excuse me
can I have....?”
• are able to adapt their
talking to a listener’s level
of understanding, eg, when
talking to a baby sister
• are able to identify first
sounds in words,
eg, “puku starts with p”
• are starting to link letter
names with letter sounds,
eg, ‘s’ = ‘ssss’
• can recognise some familiar
written words
• can write their own name
• can be understood by
unfamiliar adults all of the
time. A few sounds may still
be developing, eg, th, r, l and
some consonant blends, such
as string, cloud, spider, tree.
TIPS
• Look for opportunities to increase
the number of different words your
child uses, particularly around new
experiences. Try to use a wide range
of naming and describing words
• Make your own books with your
child – write the story together
• Play games that help with taking
turns and concentrating, eg, ‘What’s
the time, Mr Wolf?’, hide and seek,
snakes and ladders, memory match
• Give your child plenty of
opportunities to play with other
children. This is a great way to
develop talking and social skills.
Who should I talk to if I am concerned about my child’s communication?
Talk to someone else who knows your child well, eg, your child’s teacher, doctor or a close family/whänau
member. If you are still concerned, call the Ministry of Education at 0800 622 222 or for your local Ministry
of Education office go to www.education.govt.nz and click on Contact Us.
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Speech sound development
Here is a guide to how children’s speech usually develops. Speech development may vary across languages.
Early, middle and later speech sounds
This helps us think about the order that children learn to say speech sounds.
Early (18 mths – 3 yrs)
mnybwdph
Middle (2 – 6 yrs)
t ng (talking) k g f v ch j
Later (3 – 8 yrs)
sh zh (measure) l r s z
th (think) th (that)
The chart describes the approximate order that children’s speech sounds develop. Speech sounds develop from the
time the child starts using words until the early years at school. Although the age range extends to eight years,
most children will be using these sounds earlier than that. (Based on Shriberg, 1993)
Speech intelligibility
Children’s speech generally gets easier to understand as they get older. Here’s a guide:
• By two years of age children can be understood by
familiar adults most of the time
• By three years of age children can be understood
by unfamiliar adults most of the time
• By four years of age children can be understood
by unfamiliar adults almost all of the time
• By five years of age children can be understood
by unfamiliar adults all of the time.
(Based on Flipsen Jr, 2006)
TIPS
• Show your child that you are interested
in what they say, not how they say it
• Help your child to learn how to say tricky sounds
by repeating them correctly as naturally as
possible, eg, child says “bish” and you say
“yes it’s a big fish, isn’t it?”
• Get face to face with your child so that they
can watch the way you say words.
Who should I talk to if I am concerned about my child’s speech?
Talk to someone else who knows your child well, eg, your child’s teacher, doctor or a close family/whänau member.
If you are still concerned, call the Ministry of Education at 0800 622 222 or for your local Ministry of Education
office go to www.education.govt.nz and click on Contact Us.
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Early literacy skills
Communication skills are strongly linked to the development of reading and writing.
Getting ready to read and write
Literacy is part of everyday learning. Children learn best when literacy is integrated into everyday activities,
rather than isolated learning times. Use the language that you are most familiar and comfortable with.
Some of the foundation skills to support literacy are described below:
Conversation
Print knowledge
A child’s ability to communicate is directly related
to their literacy development. The better their
conversational skills now, the easier it will be
for them to understand what they read later on.
Before your child can read or write, they must
understand how print works. For example, they’ll
need to know that print is made up of letters of the
alphabet, that letters combine to make words and
that print is read from left to right.
Vocabulary
The more words your child knows, the easier it is
for them to learn new words and to gain meaning
from the stories they read.
Story comprehension
Lots of experience listening to, and understanding,
stories will eventually make it easier for your child
to read and write stories on their own.
Sound awareness
To be ready to read, your child needs to understand
that words can be broken down into syllables and
smaller sounds, and that letters correspond to
certain sounds.
Your child’s early literacy skills do not develop in a specific order, one after the other. In fact, all of these
skills are developing at the same time, cf. The Hanen Centre.
TIPS
• Read to your child when they are very young so
that they start to become familiar with different
books, pictures, words and language
• Carry on reading together as your child grows
• Keep them interested by choosing books they enjoy
• Point out words and signs on outings. See if your
child can recognise familiar symbols
• Encourage your child to join in with you in writing
activities, eg, shopping lists, birthday cards.
What should I do if I want more information?
For more information go to:
www.educate.ece.govt.nz/EducateHome/learning/exploringPractice/Literacy.aspx
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Stuttering
Stuttering is different for each child.
Stuttering may also be called
‘stammering’ or ‘dysfluency’.
What is stuttering?
Stuttering is when people seem to get stuck on, or repeat, sounds when talking. Stuttering may also be called
‘stammering’ or ‘dysfluency’.
Here are some common features that you might notice when children stutter:
• they repeat a sound (“p-p-p-please”), a syllable
(“to-to-to-tomorrow”) or a word (“my-my-my-my
name is”)
• they stretch out a sound, eg, “ssssss- sometimes”
• they get completely stuck at the start of a word,
and no sound comes out.
Stuttering is different for each child. It can vary depending on the situation, such as what the child wants
to say, who they are talking to and how they are feeling. Stuttering can start gradually or suddenly and may
change over time.
Sometimes, a child may try to hide stuttering by avoiding talking.
Who stutters?
Stuttering can affect people of all ages and cultures. Many children stutter at some point as they learn to talk.
Stuttering is more common in boys than girls and can run in families.
TIPS
• Show your child that you are interested in what
they say, not how they say it. Maintain natural eye
contact and don’t ask them to say words again
• Let them finish their sentences rather than
finishing them for them
• Be supportive if your child gets upset about
their speech. You could say, “Talking is tricky
sometimes when you’re still learning”.
Who should I talk to if I am concerned that my child may be stuttering?
If you think your child may be stuttering or if there is a family/whänau history of stuttering, seek advice from
the Ministry of Education as soon as you can. Call 0800 622 222 or for your local Ministry of Education office
go to: www.education.govt.nz and click on Contact Us.
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Voice
What is a voice problem?
A child may have difficulty with their voice when it frequently sounds:
• rough or hoarse
•husky
• nasal (like they are talking through their nose)
• unusual or different to their friends’ voices.
Some children may lose their voice completely at times.
TIPS
• Try to reduce situations where your child is
yelling, eg, try not to yell across a room or
playground, instead encourage them to walk
over to talk to someone
• Try to reduce situations where your child is talking
over the top of noise, eg loud music
• Encourage periods of quiet activities to give the
voice a rest, eg looking at books or doing
a construction or craft activity.
Who should I talk to if I am concerned about my child’s voice?
If you have any concerns about your child’s voice talk to your child’s doctor who may refer your child to a
specialist or a Speech-Language Therapist.
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References
Action for Stammering Children, information sheets www.stammeringcentre.org
British Stammering Association, information for parents www.stammering.org
Flipsen, P., Jr (2006). Measuring the speech intelligibility of conversational speech in children.
Clinical Linguistics and Phonetics, (20) 4, 303-312.
Linguisystems, Inc. (2008). Guide to Communication Milestones. East Moline, Illinois, USA.
Lowry, L. (2014). Intervening with Dual Language Learners. The Hanen Centre, Toronto, Canada.
McLeod, S. & Bleile, K. (2003). Neurological and developmental foundations of speech acquisition.
American Speech-Language Hearing Association Convention.
Ministry of Education (2000). Much More Than Words. Reprinted in 2008. Wellington: Learning Media.
Ministry of Education (1996). Te Whäriki. Wellington: Learning Media.
Shriberg, L.D. (1993). Four new speech and prosody-voice measures for genetics research and other studies
in developmental phonological disorders. Journal of Speech and Hearing Research, (36), 105-140.
Shriberg, L.D., Kwiatkowski, J. & Gruber, F.A. (1992). Short-term and long-term normalization in developmental
phonological disorders. Paper presented at the Annual Convention of the American Speech-Hearing Association,
San Antonio, Tx.
St. Gabriel’s Curriculum (2005). St Gabriel’s Auditory-Verbal Early Intervention Centre –
A Curriculum, Jan Tuohy, Jackie Brown, Charmaine Mercer-Moseley, Leonie Walsh, © Trustees of the Christian Brothers
t/as St. Gabriel’s School for Hearing Impaired Children, NSW Australia, 2005.
Speech Pathology Australia, stuttering advice sheet www.speechpathologyaustralia.org.au
Stuttering Treatment And Research Trust (START) www.stuttering.co.nz
The Communication Trust (2011). Small Talk www.thecommunicationtrust.org.uk
The Hanen Centre – Early Literacy Development www.hanen.org/Guidebooks---DVDs/Parents/Im-Ready!.aspx
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Making a referral to the
Ministry of Education
Making a referral to the Ministry of Education
When?
• Have you talked to someone else who knows your child well and tried some of the recommended tips?
• Are you still concerned?
What?
• Think about your child’s communication skills, eg, speech, language, social interaction.
• Think about the impact on their daily activities and social interactions at home and in the early
childhood education setting.
• Are they having significant difficulties understanding or communicating with other children
or adults a lot of the time?
• Are they becoming withdrawn or showing different behaviours to communicate their needs
and wants a lot of the time?
How?
• If you answered ‘yes’ to the above questions then contact your local Ministry of Education office to
discuss your concerns or make a referral.
For your local Ministry of Education office, go to www.education.govt.nz and click Contact Us
or call the Ministry of Education on 0800 622 222.