ELSEVIER
Archives of Gerontology and Geriatrics
24 (1997) 249-259
ARCHIVES OF
GERONTOLOGY
AND GERIATRICS
A self-training program in inductive reasoning for
low-education elderly: tutor-guided training vs.
self-training
M . D . Calero "'*, T.M. Garcia-Berb6n b
a Departamento Personalidad, Evaluaci6n y Tratamiento Psicol6gico, Facultad de Psicologia,
Universidad de Granada, 18071 Granada, Spain
b Departamento Psicologia, Facultad de Humanidades, Universidad de Jakn, 23071 Jakn, Spain
Received 6 May 1996; received in revised form 18 November 1996; accepted 19 November 1996
Abstract
The main aim of this study was to compare the effectiveness of a self-training program in
inductive reasoning run for elderly with low levels of education. Two different training
settings were considered, i.e. tutor-guided training and self-training, to ascertain whether
results obtained in both settings would be similar. A total of 25 subjects took part in this
study (average age = 68.266, range = 60-85 years), all volunteers and residents of the city of
Granada. A quasi-experimental design was used with random assignment to either training
setting. The design was applied in four stages: pre-test, cognitive training (tutor-guided vs.
self-trained inductive reasoning), post-test immediately after training and follow-up at 3
months. Results show considerable gains in inductive reasoning training both in tutor-guided
and self-trained groups. © 1997 Elsevier Science Ireland Ltd.
Keywords: Cognitive training; Elderly; Self-guided training; Inductive reasoning
* Corresponding author. Tel.: + 34 58 243937; fax: + 34 58 243749.
0167-4943/97/$17.00 © 1997 Elsevier Science Ireland Ltd. All rights reserved.
PII S01 67-4943(96)00762-5
250
M.D. Calero, T.M. Garcia-BerbOn Arch. Gerontol. Geriatr. 24 (1997) 249 259
I. Introduction
A great deal of research has been undertaken over the past two decades that
reveals plasticity throughout the entire life cycle (Schaie, 1990; Vega, 1990). Indeed,
some authors, such as Baltes, consider that plasticity, or modification of intellectual
performance, may be a feature of life cycles (Baltes, 1993). Many research papers
have proved that cognitive training may be conducted among the elderly and for
some authors such training may provide the means of offsetting the decline of later
life (Schaie, 1993, 1994). Most of these studies were conducted using tasks close to
fluid intelligence precisely because they are the most distant from everyday tasks,
since they may be taken to be relatively independent from educational effects and
decline at an advanced age (Cavanaugh, 1993). The general conclusion drawn to
account for the results obtained in the elderly has been to accept that, although the
elderly achieve lower scores and are less experienced in tests and tasks related to
fluid intelligence, they have the reserve required for reaching a similar level of
performance as younger adults, if they are trained in their solving strategies (Baltes,
1993~ Garcia-Berb6n, 1995).
Many research studies have revealed that the elderly benefit considerably from
cognitive training in this kind of task (Willis et al., 1981; Baltes and Willis, 1982;
Willis, 1989; Willis and Nesselroade, 1990), although very little is yet known of the
mechanisms underlying improved performance.
Almost all training programs focus on guided practice, modelling, moulding and
feedback supplied by the trainer on correct responses and appropriate use of the
solving strategy, thereby accepting the fundamental role of the trainer as the
strategy generator for the subject. Baltes et al. (1988), however, maintain that the
elderly may generate their own strategies in order to carry out such tasks if only
provided with the chance to practice. This view assumes that interventions among
the elderly activates abilities generated by the trainer. Baltes et al. (1989) developed
a training program along these lines, in which the main condition was self-guided
practice. The elderly participants were given the opportunity to practice alone with
identical materials to those used previously with the trainer in group training. This
led to confirmation of the initial hypothesis. With self-training, elderly German
subjects with a high level of education managed to achieve similar gains to those
achieved by tutor-trained groups (Baltes et al., 1989).
When accounting for intellectual changes or cognitive performance occurring in
the elderly related either to age decline or training-induced improvement, a series of
age-related covariant factors are taken to exist which may account for inter-subject
differences (Schaie, 1993, 1994). Socio-economic and health status and educational
level amongst others, are all such factors (Fernfindez-Ballesteros et al., 1992:
Calero and Lozano, 1994). To study improvement in the performance of tasks
related to fluid intelligence following self-training, if we take the assumptions of
Baltes et al. (which implies activation of pre-existing abilities) it would, therefore,
seem logical to think that individual improvement is modulated by the educational
levels of the trained subjects. In other words, the higher the educational level, the
more easily such abilities will emerge after simple, programmed practice (Baltes et
al., 1989).
M.D. Calero, T.M. Garcia-Berbkn/Arch. Gerontol. Geriatr. 24 (1997)249 259
251
The aim of this study is based on the following general hypothesis: while it is true
that improvements obtained with self-guided practice in high-level education elderly
subjects are similar to those achieved with tutor-guided practice, low-level education elderly subjects should achieve greater gains with tutor-guided rather than
self-guided practice. The aim, therefore, was to reproduce the research conducted
by Baltes et al. (1989) with elderly Spanish subjects.
2. Subjects and method
2.1. Selection o f subjects
A total of 25 subjects took part in the study, with ages ranging between 60 and
85 years, the average being 68. Of these elderly subjects, 96% have received only
primary education and come from low social and economic backgrounds. Further
details on socio-economic distribution specifying profession, education and independence are given in Table 1. All the subjects were volunteers, and attended public
day centres on a regular basis. They were given a cheque for 3000 Pesetas
(approximately US$30) as a gift at the end of the study.
2.2. Design and procedure
A quasi-experimental design, chosen for this study, was applied in four distinct
stages, namely pre-test, cognitive training (with two different training settings),
Table 1
Sociodemographic data of the total sample
Age (mean (rar~ge))
Autonomy (mean (range))
Intelligence (TEl) (mean (range))
Gender
Male
Female
Educational level
Elementary
Middle
Higher
Cultural level
Low
Middle
Higher
Professional status
Housewives and casual workers
Unskilled worker
Skilled worker
Technician
68.266 (60-85)
54.087 (48-57)
20.388 (7 29)
20'/0
80%
96%
4°/,,
0%
16%
64%,
20%
56%
8%
32%
4%
252
M.D. Calero, T.M. Garcia-Berbkn / Arch. Gerontol. Geriatr. 24 (1997) 249-259
post-test immediately after training and follow-up at three months. Although three
of the 25 subjects had to abandon the study during follow-up due to ill health, no
significant differences were found to exist between the remaining 22 subjects and the
original 25. There were 13 subjects in the tutored setting and 12 in the self-training
setting in the pre-test and post-test evaluations, and 11 subjects in both settings in
the follow-up evaluation.
The requirements for participants included literacy (reading and writing), as this
was essential for the training application, and advanced age (over 60 years). Elderly
subjects interested in taking part attended the first session for data collection and
then went on to the assessment stage. Participants were initially assessed by means
of socio-demographic data sheets (Table 1), which included the following data: age,
gender, educational level, cultural level, professional status prior to retirement and
degree of independence (measured according to Montorio's Everyday Activity
Observation Scale (ADL Activities of Daily Living, Montorio, 1990). The Elementary Intelligence Test (TEI, Test Elemental de Inteligencia; Yela, 1989) was also
used to assess general intelligence levels.
The batch of tests included in the pre- and post-test and follow-up was identical,
i.e. two tests comprising a domain test and a generalisation test (for the same
trained ability). Two assessment sessions lasting approximately 1 h were conducted
in small groups.
Once the subjects had been assessed at each centre, they were randomly assigned
to one of the two settings: tutor-guided inductive reasoning or self-trained inductive
reasoning.
No significant differences were obtained for either of the groups in the two
experimental settings as regards sociodemographic variables, degree of independence and intelligence level. Nor were there any significant differences in pre-test
scores for the two reasoning tests used in both groups (Table 2).
2.3. Training program
The inductive reasoning training programme is a Spanish-language version of the
test analysis of Free Cultural Test conducted by Baltes et al. (1989), adapted by our
group for this study. The programme was designed for a five-session application.
The first four sessions addressed each of the test sub-components: Series, Classifications, Matrices and Conditions. The fifth session comprised a review of all the
materials, rules and concepts. The sessions, lasting 1 h each, were spread out over
approximately 4 weeks. Subjects were trained in groups of between six and eight
persons.
2.4. Sell-training setting
The afore-mentioned program as designed by Baltes et al. (1989) was applied in
the inductive reasoning self-training program. The analysis of tasks included in the
program identified the relational rule (size, shape, position) used to solve the items
in each subtest. In this application setting, problems were presented by means of
M.D. Calero, T.M. Garcla-Berbkn /Arch. Gerontol. Geriatr. 24 (1997)249-259
253
Table 2
Pre-test scores (mean and standard deviation) for both inductive reasoning training settings
Tutored setting
Self-training setting
23.692
7.273
21.667
4.053
6.615
1.895
5.500
1.168
6.846
1.951
6.250
1.603
6.000
2.915
5.917
1.88l
4.231
1.833
4.000
1.044
29.077
9.535
28.750
7.557
Cattell
F = 0.72
P = 0.4042
Cattell subtests
Series
F = 3.07
P = 0.0929
Classifications
F = 0.69
P = 0.4148
Matrices
F = 0.01
P = 0.9337
Conditions
F = 0.15
P = 0.7058
Raven
F = 0.01
P = 0.9256
*P<0.05
**P<0.01.
two or three sample items (using the same sample items preceding the standard
form of the tests involved), to ensure that the format of the items had been fully
understood. Subjects were also informed (individually, away from the group) that
they should practise on their own without any outside help and were given the
chance to practice with relevant materials. This self-training group was provided
with a minimum amount of instructions (in writing) on the kind of solutions to the
problems and abilities involved, with limited comments from the tutor as to the
quality of performance. The subject worked individually on the program material.
The subjects were given all the material, including the sample items, in printed
paper format during the five sessions included in the self-training program.
2.5. Tutor-guided training
This setting was an adaptation for group work of the original individual
programme as described above. Training was planned according to the usual design
of learning potential tests, specifically the EPA ('Evaluaci6n del Potencial de
Aprendizaje', Fern~indez-Ballesteros et al., 1987 1990) based on a series of interactions between subjects and tutor which allow the subjects to be guided through the
various strategies for solving different problems and modelling by the trainers on
the rules associated to the problems trained during the session. Feedback on the
quality of the subjects' responses was provided as well as group discussion. The
254
M.D. Calero, T.M. Garcia-Berbbn / Arch. Gerontol. Geriatr. 24 (1997)249-259
method was applied in small groups using standard material presented in a total of
42 slides, each representing a specific problem referring to one of the four
sub-components (Series, Classifications, Matrices and Conditions). The subjects
were shown the slides referring to the particular subcomponent to be addressed in
each session.
The number of participants and length of the sessions for this group were the
same as for the above-mentioned self-training group.
2. 6. M e a s u r e m e n t s
Inductive Reasoning Training was assessed by intelligence tests, G-2 factor
(Cattell, 1975) as the domain test, and by the Progressive Matrices test (General
Scale) (Raven, 1975) as the generalisation test. Both tests assessed inductive
reasoning with different figural problems, and maximum saturation tests were taken
into account in the 'g' factor.
3. Results
Apart from descriptive analyses, the results are presented in groups of three kinds
of analysis in order to fulfil the aims set for the study. Firstly, a variance analysis
for the overall group of 25 subjects, divided into the two experimental settings
(Tutor-IR: tutor-guided inductive reasoning training; and Self-IR: self-trained
inductive reasoning). Secondly, the correlations between the different tests are given
for the overall group and, lastly, the correlations for each of the control variables
with the gains achieved for each training group.
First of all, it should be pointed out that the inductive reasoning training was
effective in both training settings, with gain scores for the overall group of 3.6 for
Cattell and 5.4 for Raven. These improvements are not only relevant statistically
but means a total improvement of 12 I.Q. points for the domain test (Cattell) and
of eight I.Q. points for the generalization test (Raven). With the Cattell-Raven
inter-correlation rising from 0.75 in pre-test to 0.78 in post-test. This result may be
taken as an indicator that training is being provided in an ability common to both
tests.
On comparison of the direct scores obtained in the pre-test with results from the
post-test under both experimental conditions (Table 3), the highest scores are seen
in the post-tests both for tutor-guided and self-training groups. Pre- and post-test
differences are statistically significant in the Cattell test ( F = 3.86, P < 0.01) (mainly
in the Series subtest ( F = 4 . 0 6 , P <0.001) and in the Raven test ( F = 4 . 0 4 , P <
0.001) for the first setting and in the Cattell test ( F = 3.53, P < 0.01), mainly in the
Series subtest ( F = 3.03, P < 0.01), and in the Raven test ( F = 3.12, P < 0.01), for
the self-training setting.
Post-test direct gain scores are similar in both training settings, with no significant differences between direct gain scores in any of these tests or subtests: Cattell,
Series, Matrices, Conditions and Raven. These gains for both settings are shown in
M.D. Calero, T.M. Garcia-Berbkn / Arch. Gerontol. Geriatr. 24 (1997) 249-259
255
Table 3
Pre-test and post-test scores (mean and standard deviation) of the sample for the inductive reasoning
training conditions
Tests
Tutored setting
Cattell
Cattell subtests
Series
Classification
Matrices
Conditions
Raven
Self-training setting
Pre-test scores
Post-test scores
Pre-test scores
Post-test scores
23.692**
7.273
27.000**
5.788
21.667**
4.053
25.583**
4.963
6.615"*
1.895
6.846
1.951
6.000
2.915
4.231
1.833
29.077**
9.535
7.846**
1.676
7.308
1.797
7.231
2.279
4.615
1.557
35.000**
9.908
5.500*
1.168
6.250
1.603
5.917
1.881
4.000
1.044
28.750**
7.557
6.917"
1.621
6.500
1.931
7.250
2.454
4.917
1.240
33.667**
6.800
*P<0.05.
**P_<0.01.
Fig. 1. Similar gains are seen in the Cattell test for both training settings, with
self-training showing a slight increase over tutor-guided training. Gains for both
settings are obtained in the Raven test, showing a slight increase in gains in the
tutor-guided training group.
Although the gains seem to be higher in the Raven test, this may be due to the
fact that the range of possible scores is somewhat greater (60) compared to the
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4.
2-
0
CA'CI'ELL
Ser.
Clas.
Mat.
Cond.
Ser.= Series; Clas.= Classifications; Mat.= Matrices; Cond.= Conditions.
Fig. 1. Posttest gain direct scores in two treatment groups.
RAVEN
I IIITUTOR
L[]sE,F
256
M.D. Calero, T.M. Garcia-Berb~n ~Arch. Gerontol. Geriatr. 24 (1997)249-259
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
CA'I-FELL
Ser.
Clas.
Mat.
Cond
RAiN
Set.= Series; Clas.= Classifications; Mat.= Matrices; Cond.= Conditions.
I mTUTOR
sELF
Fig. 2. Follow-up gain direct scores in two treatment groups.
Cattell test (46). If the scores are represented as percentages (Fig. 2), it may be seen
that the gains achieved in both tests are similar.
The results obtained at the 3-month follow-up show that direct gain scores are
maintained with similar levels of significance in tests and subtests. The scores shown
in Table 4 are highest in the post-tests, both for the tutor-guided group - - Cattell
( F = 4 . 1 5 , P < 0 . 0 1 ) , Series subtest ( F = 3 . 6 7 , P < 0 . 0 1 ) and Raven test ( F = 4 . 5 ,
Table 4
Pre-test and follow-up scores (mean and standard deviation) for the sample for inductive reasoning
training conditions
Tests
Cattell
Cattell subtests
Series
Classification
Matrices
Conditions
Raven
*P_<0.05.
**P<0.01.
Tutored setting
Self-training setting
Pre-test scores
Post-test scores
Pre-test scores
Post-test scores
23.600**
7.090
27.400**
6.240
21.200*
3.615
25.300*
5.334
6.500**
1.780
6.800
0.593
6.000
3.232
4.300
1,703
28.900**
9.073
7.700**
1.636
7.300
1.947
7.600
2.459
4.800
1.619
35.300**
9,844
5.200**
0.919
6.300
1.703
5.700
1.947
4.00
0.667
27.500*
7.649
7.400**
1.350
6.800
2.201
6.000
2.459
4.500
1.434
32.600*
7.919
M.D. Calero, T.M. Garcla-Berbbn /Arch. Gerontol. Geriatr. 24 (1997) 249-259
257
20
18
16
14
12
10
8
6
4
2
0
CATTELL
Ser.
Clas.
Mat.
Cond.
Ser.= Series; Clas.= Classifications; Mat.= Mabices; Cond.= Conditions,
RAiN
I IIITUTORI
I sEL
Fig. 3. Posttest gain percentage scores in two treatment groups.
P < 0.001); and for the self-trained group - - Cattell ( F = 2.94, P < 0.01), Series
subtest ( F = 4.71, P < 0.001) and Raven ( F = 2.55, P < 0.05).
Furthermore, there is no significant difference between direct gain scores for
either setting for Cattell tests, the Series subtest and the Raven test. Follow-up
gains for both inductive reasoning training settings are shown in Fig. 3. Gain scores
for the Raven test are similar in both training settings and slightly higher than
results from the Cattell test using direct scoring, showing that the self-trained group
has a slight increase over the tutor-guided group.
Direct gain scores following training in the Cattell and Raven tests has no
correlation with any of the socio-demographic variables assessed, as seen in Table
5, although there is a significant correlation to 0.01 with intelligence according to
the TEI.
4. Discussion and conclusions
This paper examines the effects o f an inductive reasoning training programme on
low-education level elderly subjects. It must be pointed out first of all that, as in
Table 5
Correlation of the sociodemographic data with post-test gains
Cattell
Raven
* P = <0.05.
**P<0.01.
Age
Sex
Profession
Autonomy
Intelligence
0.0904
0.1486
0.0896
0.2669
0.1274
0.0721
0.0737
0.0452
0.6553**
0.6448**
258
M.D. Calero. T.M. Garcia-BerbOn / Arch. Gerontol. Geriatr. 24 (1997)249 259
other studies (Fern~,ndez-Ballesteros and Calero, 1995), low-education level elderly
subjects benefit from training aimed at improving their performance in this kind of
task.
According to the significance level of the results obtained in this study, it may be
stressed that, as in other studies (Blieszner et al., 1981; Baltes et al., 1986, 1988,
1989; Fernfindez-Ballesteros and Calero, 1995), training (both in self-training and
guided training settings) is capable of modifying subject performance both in tests
directly related to the inductive reasoning training provided (G by Cattell) as well
as in tests which assess the same ability (Raven) although using different material.
This finding may be interpreted, as many authors have already stated (Willis et al.,
1981; Willis and Schaie, 1986; Schaie et al., 1987; Willis and Nesselroade, 1990), as
proof that this modification affects the 'inductive reasoning' construct which occurs
regardless of the kind of training setting used. Increasing significantly the starting
I.Q of these older people in tests that evaluate this ability such as the Cattell and
the Raven tests. There is also an increase in the inter-test correlations (from 0.75 to
0.78) in the pre-test to post-test, which may be interpreted in the same way.
The positive effects also seem to be confirmed by evidence that the improvement
achieved in both tests is maintained for at least 3 months, the period chosen for
follow-up in this study, for both training settings.
From the analysis of results obtained, it may be stated that, for the self-training
setting, our data are also as significant, although to a lesser extent, as data collected
by Baltes et al (Baltes et al., 1989) when they applied the same training programme
to elderly German subjects with a higher educational level. These authors achieved
average gain scores of around 6 direct points for the tutor-guided group and of
around 7 points for the self-trained group in the domain test of the programme
(Cattell's G). In this study, we achieved gains of 3.3 direct points for the tutorguided group and 3.9 for the self-trained group. It should be pointed out that such
improvement following training, although less, is statistically significant. It is our
intention to conduct an in-depth study of this topic in order to understand the
underlying cause of the lower improvement rate seen in the group trained in this
study. One possible explanation may lie in the initially higher educational standard
of the Baltes subjects which may act as a modulator. There are, however, several
other reasons, such as uncontrolled differences in training variables triggering
different effects, which may account for the differences between the Baltes results
and our own.
Our results seem all the more interesting, however, in view of the fact that,
despite the initial educational level of the elderly subjects participating in this study,
significant improvement was achieved for both training settings and the effect (gain
score) does not appear to be correlated to any of the socio-demographic variables.
We feel that research into this kind of action provides proof supporting the
effectivity of systematic treatment for the modification of intellectual performance
among the elderly, showing that their performance in reasoning tasks may improve
after specific intervention. The fact that gains achieved by self-training are similar
to tutor-guided training results opens up a promising future for setting up selfguided therapeutic programmes aimed at maintaining certain abilities which seem
M.D. Calero, T.M. Garcia-Berbkn /Arch. Gerontol. Geriatr. 24 (1997)249-259
259
to decline with advancing age in some subjects. We must stress, however, that
further systematic research must be undertaken to deepen our current understanding of such topics.
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