IJBPAS, August, 2015, 4(8), Special Issue: 233-244
ISSN: 2277–4998
THE RELATIONSHIP AMONG EARLY MALADAPTIVE SCHEMAS, SELFEFFICACY AND INFERIORITY FEELING IN STUDENTS
MOHAMAD REZA ESMAIL NIA1*, SARA GHAREHGOZLOU HAMEDANI2,
REYHANEH SIGARCHI3, MOHAMAD DAVOUDI4
1,2,3,4
Department of Psychology, Ayatollah Amoli Branch, Islamic Azad University, Amol, Iran
*
Corresponding Author Email: [email protected]
ABSTRACT
The current study was an attempt to investigate the relationship among early maladaptive
schemas, self-efficacy and inferiority feeling in students. A correlational research design was
adopted to pursue the study. The population was comprised of all the state university students of
Khorramabad County in 2013-2014. Of these, 200 students were selected through cluster random
sampling as the research sample. The instruments adopted to collect the data include Young
Schema Questionnaire (SQ-SF), General Self-Efficacy- Sherer(GSES) and inferiority scale. The
gathered data were analyzed conducting Pearson correlation and stepwise multivariate regression
analysis using SPSS software. The results revealed a positive significant relationship between the
components of early maladaptive schemas (cut and exclusion, autonomy and impaired
performance,impaired limits, other directedness, alertness and inhibition) and inferiority feeling
in students while it was observed to exist a negative significant correlation between self-efficacy
and inferiority feeling in students. In addition, early maladaptive schemas and self-efficacy
together could predict 8% of the variances occurred in inferiority feeling.
Keywords: Early Maladaptive Schemas, Self-Efficacy, Inferiority Feeling, Students
INTRODUCTION
Accompanied by living in social situations,
sense of self-worth is critical for the
the need to feel worthy −in ahealthy and
maintenance of one’s mental and physical
stable way −would bearoused in humans. This
health as well asexistential developmental. In
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Research Article
casethe need to feel worthy is impaired in
lowering of values and feeling worthless
some way or another, the inferiority feeling
(Swami, Taylor & Carvalho, 2009).
would be evoked. Inferiority feeling is an
A mental effort begins to expandin people
indicative of the fact that in the event of a
with inferiority feeling; behind which they
disruption in sense of worthiness the person
hide their fear and lack of self-sufficiency.
would not be able to understand the realities
Adler considers this mental effort to have a
and others’ reactions to themselves (Aronson
role to play in a healthy or sick status of life,
& Elliott, 2002; translated by: Shekar-Kan,
by which the person could prevail over his
2008).
fear and lack of self-sufficiency;and thereby
There are important contributing factors that
re-establishes
create and maintain inferiority feeling such as
inferiority feeling is regardedas one of the
family, school or university, society and
cognitive characteristicsofpeople with anxiety
available facilities as well as some other
disorders. This is a case for patients with
factors which are out of reach and govern
social
these ones (Toutounchi, Fakhari & Kolahi,
disorder that carry out more negative and
2006).
maladaptive appraisals about themselves and
In the meantime, the role of the schools or
their social functions (Spangler & Stice,
universities, teachers and professors is of a
2001).
high importance. As Wite and Daker declare
Early maladaptive schemas are one of the
that many countries have reconsidered the
many
idea
and
feeling.Schemas could be known as the
classification of the students to be the major
structures for the retrieval of general concepts
role of the schools and universities; rather,
stored in the memory or as an organized set of
they have come to the understanding that the
information, beliefs and assumptions (Lotfi,
main role of the schools and universities is to
Donyavi & Khosravi, 2007).
help students progress academically. A low
Schemas act as specs which shape the process
self-esteem could also be derived from a
of interpretation, selection and evaluation of
sense of inferiority or a deep, unrealistic and
individuals’ experiences. It is believed that
permanent belief about one’s low level of
the beneficial or harmful effects of the
intellectual and physical abilitywhich result in
schemas
whichassumes
selection
phobia
factors
greatness.
and
that
eventuate
Additionally,
obsessive-compulsive
enhance
in
inferiority
broadening
restricting potentials development
or
in an
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IJBPAS, August, Special Issue, 2015, 4(8)
Seyed Mahdi Jalali et al
Research Article
individual.The content of each schema will be
I can – referrers to individuals’ belief about
made
personal
their ability to work under certain conditions.
in
the
In like manner, there is another type of self-
new
efficacy which alludes to the general belief
and
experiences
organized
and
understanding
it
and
through
is
used
assessment
of
information (Nik-khah, 2010).
about one’scompetencies and capabilities
Young Jeffry holds the idea that these
(Karademas, 2006).
schemas – which he speaks of them as a
Self-efficacy beliefs play a fundamental role
frame of reference – are stable and durable
in creating balance (Gol-Navaz, 2010). Some
structures that influence an individual’s
researchers and psychologists have used the
perception of the world, others and self. Such
concept of self-efficacy to refer to the overall
schemas have been formed during early
ability of individuals in competencies and
childhood experiences (which have often
eventsor threatening and stressful incidents
played a traumatic role in the child’s life) and
(Sarvqad, Rezai & Masumi, 2010).
have been controllingan individual's response
Various studies have demonstrated that family
to environmental events (Anderson & Prris,
and social environments play a substantial
2006).
role in fostering talents and health as well as
Many
studies
early
promoting self-efficacy. Various theories
inefficient
have also emphasized the point that the secure
mechanisms that directly or indirectly lead to
attachment bond which is built in a mother-
psychological distresses. Schemas influence
child interaction leads in the long run to
behavior through information processing and
intimate
assist with decision-making when thinking.
psychological
They also provide the most expectable
Buzzell & Primeau, 2001).
predictions and duly build self-efficacy
With
beliefs (Haqiqat-manesh, Aqa-Mohamadian-
(1977)discusses
Sherbaf, Qanbari-Hashem-Abadi & Mehram,
constructive ability by which cognitive,
2010).
social, emotional and behavioral skills are
Self-efficacy is one of the most important
organized in an effective manner in order for
components of success and compromise and
achieving various objectives. According to
is included in the field of positive psychology.
him,
The construct of self-efficacy – an opinion of
achievements of people are not suitable
maladaptive
have
schemas
considered
as
relationships,
respect
self-belief
development
to
Bliese,
self-efficacy,
that
knowledge,
(Jex,
Bandura
self-efficacy
skills
and
and
is
a
previous
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IJBPAS, August, Special Issue, 2015, 4(8)
Seyed Mahdi Jalali et al
Research Article
predictors of their future functioning;rather it
METHODOLOGY
is their beliefs and attitudes toward their
A correlational research design was adopted
capabilities that are effective in fulfilling their
to pursue the study. The population was
objectives and in how they will function in
comprised of all the state university students
the future (Bandura, 1997).
of Khorramabad County, Lorestan province,
Self-efficacybeliefs affect the goals and
Iran in 2013-2014. Of these, 200 students
aspirations;and outline the consequences of
were
human behavior. It is this self-efficacy which
sampling as the research sample. The
defines
instruments adopted to collect the data
how
people
identify
their
selected
through
cluster
random
barriers.People with low self-efficacy are
include the following:
easily convinced in the face of adversity that
Young's
their conduct is useless; therefore, quickly
Form (SQ-SF): This 75-item questionnaire
stop making any further attempts; and this is
was developed by Young (1998). It evaluates
what develops in them an inferiority complex.
fifteen early non-adaptive schemas. These
However, people with high self-efficacy
schemas include: abandonment / instability,
remove barriers by self-management and
mistrust / abuse, social isolation / alienation,
perseverance skills while resisting against
defectiveness / shame, emotional deprivation,
their problems (Moradi, Malek-Pour, Amiri et
dependence / incompetence, vulnerability to
al,
harm or illness, enmeshment / undeveloped
2012).
Nowadays,
mental
health
Schema
promotion of universities has been one of the
self,
most principal aspects of development and
insufficient self control, subjugation, self-
improvement of human resources; and in the
sacrifice, emotional inhibition, unrelenting
past few decades it has interestededucational
standards / hyper-criticalness. Each item is
institutions in physically and mentally healthy
scored on a scale of 6 degrees (1for absolutely
individualsfor
institutions
untrue and 6 for absolutely true) while every
(Mohamad-Panah-Ardakan & Yousefi, 2011).
5 figures assess one schema. If the mean of
To this end, the present study aimed to
every subscale getsto above 25, that schema is
explore the possible correlation among early
regarded to be maladaptive.The reliability and
maladaptive schemas, self-efficacy (as the
validity
predictor variables) and inferiority feeling (as
approved in numerous studies. SQ-SFwas
the criterion variable).
standardized by Ahi (2005) inthe University
academic
failure,
Questionnaire-Short
of
this
entitlement/
instrument
grandiosity,
have
been
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IJBPAS, August, Special Issue, 2015, 4(8)
Seyed Mahdi Jalali et al
Research Article
of Tehran. The internal consistency using
was reported to be 0.83 using Cronbach's
Cronbach's alpha was obtained 0.97 for
alpha coefficient. Woodroofe and Kashmn
females and 0.98 for males (Haqaqat-Manesh
(1993) confirmed the reliability and validity
et al, 2010).
of the scale.Cronbach's alpha coefficient
Sherer
related to the total scale along withindividual
(GSES): this scale is composed of 17
factors was used to evaluate the internal
statements. Not specifying the factors and
consistency of the total statements (Amini,
statements of this scale, Sherer and Maddux
Narimani,
(1982) believe that their instrument assesses
2008).
three aspects of behavior including the desire
Inferiority Scale: it was created by Yousefi
to boot the behavior, the desire to expand the
(1999).This scale was developed according to
effort to complete a task in the face of
Alfred Adler's theory in order for measuring
adversity and different measures. Asqar-
inferiority feeling and is consisted of 34
Zadeh, Qotboldini and Khoda-Panahi (2006)
items. The reliability coefficient came out to
examined the psychometric properties of this
be 0.69 using Cronbach's alpha in a sample of
scale. The present research work appertained
university students. In a study by Yousefi et al
to the psychometric properties of GSES. After
(2008),
being translated into Farsi, GSES was filled
inferiority scale was r=0.76 using test-retest
out by 344 of undergraduate students of
and the internal consistency of the items came
Shahid Beheshti University; and subsequent
out to be 0.89 usingCronbach's alpha.
statistical
completed
Moreover, the correlation between inferiority
questionnairesexhibited a good "reliability"
scale scores and Beck and Steer’s Depression
and "validity". Furthermore, exploratory and
Inventory(1990) was revealed to be r=0.15
confirmatory factor analyses were used to
(p<0.001) in the phobic subjects and r=0.41
determine the validity of the scale.The results
(p<0.05) in obsessive subjects (Mohamad-
of exploratory factor analysis showed that
Panah-Ardakan & Yousefi, 2011).
three factors are involved in the scale while
FINDINGS
the results of confirmatory factor analysis to
According to the results presented in table 1,
test the hypothesis suggested that there is a
the total cross-correlationsare significant at
pattern of three factors with a higher-ranked
0.99% and the components of maladaptive
factor (self-efficacy).The validity of GSES
schemas have a direct association with
General
Self-EfficacyScale-
analysis
of
the
Berahmand,
thereliability
Sobhi-Qaramlaki,
coefficient
of
the
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IJBPAS, August, Special Issue, 2015, 4(8)
Seyed Mahdi Jalali et al
Research Article
inferiority feeling while self-efficacy has an
with 99% of confidence that there exists a
inverse
correlation
with
inferiority
relationship between cuts and exclusion/ self-
multivariate
regression
efficacy. And inferiority feeling and cuts and
analysis was used in order to determine which
exclusion/ self-efficacy have the ability to
one of the independent variables could best
predict the criterion variable (inferiority
predict the criterion variable (inferiority
feeling).
feeling). It is worth mentioning that cut and
In the first model, cuts and exclusion has
exclusion and self-efficacy variables have
entered into the model and itsequation is as
entered into the model; the result of which is
follows:
feeling.Stepwise
demonstrated in table 2.
Inferiority feeling = 85.867 + (0.961) × (cuts
As is seen in the above table 2, cut and
and exclusion)
exclusion could predict 3.9% of the variances
As is seen in table 4, the amount of
occurred in inferiority feeling ( R 2 =0.039).
standardized βfor cuts and exclusion is 0.961.
By summating the variables of inferiority
This shows that cuts and exclusion had a
feeling and cut and exclusion, 4% was added
direct effect on inferiority feeling; and cuts
to the variances of inferiority feeling. And,
and exclusion could predict 0.209% of the
the variables of cut and exclusion and self-
variances occurred in the inferiority feeling. If
efficacy together could explain 7.6% of the
one unit change of the predictor variable (cuts
variances in inferiority feeling ( R 2 =0.076).
and exclusion) is observed, the criterion
According to table 3 and since the amount of
variable (inferiority feeling) changes to 0.209
F calculated for cuts and exclusion is
degree meaning that an increase in cuts and
significant at 0.01 (f (1, 198) = 9.032,
exclusion results in an increase in inferiority
p<0.01); therefore, it could be stated with
feeling. As is seen, the t amount of cuts and
99% of confidence that there exists a
exclusion (3.005) is significant at 0.01.
relationship between cuts and exclusion and
In the second model, the two predictor
inferiority feeling; and cuts and exclusion has
variables of cuts and exclusion and self-
the ability to predict the criterion variable
efficacy have entered into the model; the
(inferiority feeling). Additionally, the amount
equation of which is as the following:
of F calculated for cuts and exclusion/ self-
Inferiority feeling = 116.429 + 0.959 (cuts
efficacy is significant at 0.01 (f (2, 197) =
and exclusion) + −0.0833 (self-efficacy)
9.133, p<0.01); therefore, it could be stated
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IJBPAS, August, Special Issue, 2015, 4(8)
Seyed Mahdi Jalali et al
Research Article
According to table 4, the amount of
is seen, the t amount of self-efficacy (−2.979)
standardized βfor self-efficacy is −0.203. This
is significant at 0.01.
shows that self-efficacy had a direct impact
With regard to the significant relationship
on inferiority feeling; and self-efficacy could
found
predict −0.203% of the variances occurred in
investigation, it could be concluded with
the inferiority feeling variable. If one unit
0.99% of possibility that
the research
change of the predictor variable (self-
hypothesis
a
efficacy) is observed, the criterion variable
relationship
(inferiority feeling) changes to −0.203 degree
schemas, self-efficacy and inferiority feeling
meaning that an increase in self-efficacy
in students is confirmed.
between
i.e.
the
variables
there
among
is
early
under
significant
maladaptive
results in an increase in inferiority feeling. As
Variable
Cuts and
exclusion
Autonomy and
impaired
performance
Impaired
limits
Other
directedness
Over alertness
and inhibition
Self-efficacy
Inferiority
feeling
Model
Table 1:Correlation matrix for maladaptive schemas, self-efficacy and inferiority feeling
Cuts and
Autonomy and
Impaired
Other
Over
Selfexclusion
impaired
limits
directedness
alertness
efficacy
performance
and
inhibition
−
0.960**
0.961**
0.942**
0.895**
−0.003
Inferiority
feeling
0.209**
−
−
0.926**
0.960**
0.853**
−0.032
0.200**
−
−
−
0.924**
0.908**
−0.031
0.196**
−
−
−
−
0.836 **
−0.001
0.173**
−
−
−
−
−
−0.046
0.205**
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−
−0.204**
−
Table 2: Summary of stepwise regression analysis for cut and exclusion and self-efficacy
2
Predictor
R
R2
Standard error
R
variables
First
cut and exclusion
0.209
0.044
0.039
12.81
Second
cut and
0.291
0.085
0.076
12.56
exclusion/ selfefficacy
Table 3: ANOVA to test the significance of the stepwise regression model
Statistical indicators of the source
Sum of squares
df
Mean
of variance
squares
Regression of cuts and exclusion
1483.320
1
1483.320
Residual
32517.400
198
164.229
Total
34000.720
199
−
Regression of cuts and exclusion/
2885.143
2
1442.871
self-efficacy
F-test
Sig. level
9.032
0.003
9.133
0.001
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IJBPAS, August, Special Issue, 2015, 4(8)
Seyed Mahdi Jalali et al
Research Article
Residual
Total
3115.577
34000.720
197
199
157.947
−
Table 4: Regression analysis (of the variables which entered in the regression equation through stepwise model)
Statistical indicators of
Discriminant
SEM
Standardizeddisc
T-test of
Sig.
the source of variance
function
riminant function significance slope
level
coefficient (b)
coefficient (B)
of the regression
line
First model
fixed value
85.867
cuts and exclusion
0.961
0.320
0.209
3.005
0.003
Second
fixed value
116.429
model
cuts and exclusion
0.959
0.314
0.208
3.057
0.003
self-efficacy
−0.833
0.280
−0.203
−2.979
0.003
DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSION
Sahebi, 2007). According to Young, early
Examining the relationship among early
maladaptive schemas are deep and pervasive
maladaptive
and
patterns or themes. They are built from
inferiority feeling in students, a positive
memories, emotions, cognitions and physical
significant association was revealed between
sensations;were formed in early childhood or
all the components of early maladaptive
adolescence;have been continuing in the
schemas and inferiority feeling while a
course of life; anddeal withothers and self and
negative significant association was observed
are severely inefficient(Yousef-Nejad, 2007).
between self-efficacy and inferiority feeling.
Young (2003) also believes that schemas
In other words, the higher the components of
form the core concept of an individual; and
early maladaptive schemas expand, the more
influence the way people interact with their
the inferiority feeling increases; whereas, the
surrounding
more
different schemas could differently make
schemas,
self-efficacy
self-efficacy
increases
the
more
environment;
and
therefore,
inferiority feeling decreases.
people vulnerable to everyday problems.
To explain the result of the above hypothesis,
Schemas are used as templates for processing
it could be noted that those schemas which
the individuals’ experiences. Hence, they
provide the ground for the growth and
determine the thought and relation of an
development of psychological problems are
individual with others; and specify the
called early maladaptive schemas. These
perception each person has about the world
schemas are self-destructive cognitive and
and himself; a perception that pursues
emotional patterns which beginfrom theearly
throughout life due to its self-maintaining
growth
nature.
stage
continuingthroughout
life
(Young, 2003; translated by: Hamid-Pour &
Maladaptive
schemas
appear
differently to different people. They are
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IJBPAS, August, Special Issue, 2015, 4(8)
Seyed Mahdi Jalali et al
sometimes
Research Article
representedas
illustrating themselves
in
a
reaction
negative significant correlation between the
the
form of
components of early maladaptive schemas
commanding subordinates and weak people or
and inferiority feeling.
walking in pride, arrogance, pretentiousness
Self-efficacy is a constructive ability by
and
which
sciolism.
They
may
be
also
cognitive,
social,
emotional
and
exhibitedthrough whine and cry or through
behavioral skills are effectively organized to
expressing disappointment and frustration or
achieve different objectives. To Bandura
exaggerating defects and faults. People with
(1997)
maladaptive
achievements
schemas
usually
despise
knowledge,
of
skills
people
and
are
previous
not
good
themselves and even in some cases they
predictors of their future functioning; rather it
assume to be corrupt and decadent and deem
is their beliefs about their abilitiesthat are
that others feel hatred for them and cannot get
effective in how they will function in the
along with them or consider themselves
future. There exists a clear difference between
unable to overcome problems and difficulties.
different skills and their potential to combine
Such people express their inferiority feeling
properly for accomplishing different tasks in
by sentences like ̎ I am weak and unable to do
different conditions. People are quite aware of
the task ̎ or ̎ I do not seem to be capable of
what task they should perform and whether
doing things ̎ . In some cases, with their
they possess the skills needed to perform that
obvious weaknesses, they hide their feelings
task; however, they do not often succeed in
and start to speak ill of others in order to well
properly displaying such skills (Altoun,
present themselves and do not even hesitate to
2010).
badmouth, misbehave or obtrude themselves
Efficient belief is an important factor in
for relieving their pains (Yao, Cottraux &
manufacturing
Martin et al, 2007).Several studies have been
competency.Skills can be easily affected by
conducted in this field and denoted that early
suicide or a feeling of inferiority.In such
maladaptive schemas play a role in the
circumstances, even a very talented and
formation
many
competent person might less use his/ her
psychological problems such as inferiority,
abilities if s/heholds a low opinion of herself/
chronic depression and anxiety disorders.
himself. It is for this reason that a sense of
Taking into account all the above-stated facts,
self-efficacy enables people to use their skills
it could be concluded that there exists a
in the face of obstacles and to accomplish a
and
development
of
system
of
human
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IJBPAS, August, Special Issue, 2015, 4(8)
Seyed Mahdi Jalali et al
Research Article
great deal. To this end, an understood self-
6. Gol-Navaz,
L.
(2010).The
efficacy is a determining factor for successful
effectiveness of anger management
functioning and fundamental skills necessary
skills training in self-efficacy of a
to fulfill such functioning (Gol-Navaz, 2010)
group of teenagers and young people
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