34
CHAPTER TWO
IRONIC COMEDY
Aristotle defined irony as "a dissembling toward
the inner core of truth"; Cicero supplied a
simpler and more helpful explanation: "Irony is
the saying of one thing and meaning another."
Socratic irony is so called because Socrates
adopted another's point of view in order to reveal
that person's weaknesses and eventually to
ridicule him. (Harry Shaw Dictionary of Literary Terms
208)
Irony is a very widely used literary weapon. It is subtle in
nature and has different shades of uses. It has been applied
significantly from the time of Homer. D.C.Muecke in his Irony and
I
the Ironic
defines irony in terms of its corrective function:
irony has basically a corrective function. It is like a
gyroscope that keeps life on even keel or straight course,
restoring the balance when life is being taken too seriously... ."
(Irony and the Ironic 4).
Northrop Frye in his essay on irony describes it in the
following words:
Ironic literature begins with realism and tends
35
towards myth, its mythical Dat.terns being as rule,
more sugestive of the demonic than of the
apocalyptic, though sometimes it simply continues
the romantic tradition of stylization (Frye, Anatomy
of Criticism
140)
The various forms that irony can take are at the verbal,
situational, dramatic, romantic and the comic levels.
In the novels of Narayan, the predominant aspect present is
comedy and that too ironic, which has been employed through
various means like plot, character, narration, place, name and
title.
The title of Narayan!s first novel Swami and Friends itself is
ironic. An ignorant reader at the first instance, on a mere glance
at the title, will feel that the novel is about a sage, or a
sanyasi. Only after reading through the novel he will understand
that it is only the name of a character and not what he thought so (
at first. The irony does not stop here. Swami is a name which
means God, in Tamil. The implication of this is that the person
thus named, will be blessed by Gods and that he would be a
possessor of the talent of the particular God. Here, the name
Swaminathan is a combination of God plus leader. The irony is in
the fact that Swarninathan neither possesses the Godly quality nor
the potential of a leader. He is an ordinary middle class boy, son
of a government servant. His feelings are just customary and there
36
is not an iota of an unicue personality. Swami is a normal school
going boy who just hates the arrival of Mondays and have a near
hatred towards studies. The opening passage is an apt example for
this.
It was onday morning. Swaminathan was reluctant
to open his eyes. He considered Monday specially
unpleasant in the calender. After the delicious
freedom of Saturday and Sunday, it was difficult
to get into the Monday mood of work and
discipline. He shuddered at the very thought of
school: that dismal yellow building; the fire-eyed
Vedanayagarn, his class teacher; and the Head
Master with his thin long cane. . . (3)
The picture portrayed is an ironical projection of the sordid
tate of education in India. It is also a universal phenomena. The
ame attitude is reflected in Mark Twain's The Adventures of To.
awyer. The difference between Swami and Tom Sawyer or Huck Finn is
hat the rebel in them is missing in their Indian counterpart.
are, Narayan not only presents the attitude of Swami but also the
pproach of the teachers. The words 'delicious freedom" is
ronically contrasd with "unpleasant, difficult, work and
iscipline, shuddered, dismal yellow, fire-eyed and thin long
3ne." As an ironist Narayan graphically picturises the
ipleasantness of the modern education system. The teachers do not
ke life in school or studies pleasant. This has been variously
presented in Narayan's work and he even took this matter to the
37
Indian Parliament when he was a Rajya Sabha Member. Swami's
friends are no better. Only Rajam and Sankar are dignified. Samuel
and Mani are portrayed as almost good for nothing fellows. Narayan
gives the readers the feeling that he had been scrupulously
following the activities of Swami and his friends. At no point of
time Swami is shown as having interest in academic work. At school
he is more of a gazer than a grasper of knowledge. It has been
ironically illustrated by the author:
The teacher called for home exercises. Swaminathan
left his seat, jumped on the platform, and placed
his note book on the table while the teacher was
scrutinising the sums, Swaminathan was gazing on
his face, which seemed so tame at close quarters.
His criticism of the teache;'s face was that his
eyes were too near each other, that there was
more hair on his chin than one saw from the bench,
and that he was very bad-looking. (4)
Narayan's irony is all pervading. The scripture teacher who
plans to plough through The Bhagvad Gita is another character who is
ironically caricatured. In trying to speak good of Christ, this
teacher in turn invites only hatred from the students. And Swami
unable to bear his wild tantrums shouts back: "If he was a God, why
did he eat, flesh and fish and drink wine?" (6). And the teacher
could not answer this and could only punish Swami for being so
impudent. Swami has the knack of getting into troubles. He brings
a letter of complaint from his father against Ebenezar, the
38
cripture teacher, to be handed to the Headmaster. But
nfortunately and ironically, the scripture teacher is seen with
he Headmaster. Swami does not know what to do and he is caught in
antacles. The Headmaster turns the table on him saying that he is
here just to look after him.
Northrop Frye on writing about irony speaks about low mimetic
Dmedy. Narayan's works vividly demonstrates this idea to a full
,ctent. Frye defines one category of irony in this way:
The figure of the low-born eiron is irony's
substitute of the hero, and when he is removed
from satire we can see more clearly that one of
the central themes of the mythos is the
disappearance of the heroic. (Frye, Northop. "The
Mythos of Winter: Irony and Satire" 238)
Truly Swami has no kind of heroic inclination. Even though
iere seems to be a resemblance of Twain's Tom Sawyer, he lacks
rn Sawyer's rebellious attitude. Mark Twain also concentrates
re on the taboos prevalent in the American Society. The daring
iality of Huck is also missing in Swami. But what takes Swami and
iends to the forefront solely depends on the author's ability to
• eate ironical and comic situations which are authentically
Ldian in character. Narayan does not make any tall claims about
s work. Paul C.Verghese very succinctly draws a line on the
ture of Narayan's art. "Narayan's comedy covers a wide range
39
ram wry farce and simple witticism to the irony of incongruous
orids" (Problems of the Indian Creative Writer in English 134).
Swami gets upset when he is called a 'Tail'. He returns home
ejected and is seen lonely thinking about his plight. In a mood
f despair he makes a paper boat and leaves it in the gutter. He
uts an ant into the boat. In the gushing movement of the gutter
oth the boat and the ant are lost. As a Brahmin boy he could not
ear the death of a life. And as obsequies he takes a pinch of
arth, utters a prayer for the soul of the ant, and drops it into
he gutter. This is an entirely different aspect of Swami's
haracter and the irony is that the reader is taken aback at the
dult level thinking of Swami.
The chapter titled 'A Friend in Need' is highly comical.
ajam plans to unite the two warring groups of friends and he
nvites all of them. Mani is already in fight with Sankar and Pea.
arayan brings out the murderous instinct of Mani in this episode.
I
n a playful mood Mani and Swami enter Rajam's house taking the
orm of a blind puppy and a cat. Rajam also joins the fun by
ewing and barking in answer every few seconds. Mani \acting as a
lind puppy, brushes against and bites a leg thinking that it is
.ajam's. When he opens his eyes he realises his folly and feels
tupid when he becomes aware that the leg belongs to his arch
nemy Sankar. Mani is overtaken by shame and rage. Only Rajam's
presence prevents any more fight. This incident is an ironic
evelation of a school bo y ' s tendency of doing adult things so
40
maturely. It must be noted that even the name Rajam is suggestive.
Narayan may have had his own wife in mind while naming. He has
modelled Rajam on the lines of the good natured angelic qualities
of his wife. Though a school going boy Rajam is depicted as one
who is seen far above his friends in every field. At so young an
age, he presents his friends gifts for becoming friends again for
which he took such great efforts. This quality is ironically
contrasted with the sham adult world.
Another episode where irony and comedy are seen in abundance
is when Mani visits the school clerk for knowing the questions
that are to be asked for the exam. At first the clerk confesses
the fact that he does not know anything about the questions. But
Mani persuades him to give 'valuable hints'. The clerk not wanting
to disappoint Mani and for the fresh bringals he has brought,
replies vaguely. Mani idiotically takes into mind what the clerk
says:
'You must pay particular attention to Geography.
Maybe you will have to practise map-drawing a
lot. And in arithmetic make it a point to solve at
least five problems every day, and you'll be able
to tackle arithmetic as easily as you swallow
plantains. (53-54)
And when asked about the questions in English the clerk
nonchalantly says "'Oh, don't worry about that. Have you read all
your lessons?" (54). When Mani affirms this, the clerk gives this
valuable tip:"It is all right then. You must read all the
41
important lessons again, and if you have time, yet again, and
that will be ample" (54).
Mani believes this and is happy about it. He feels important
among his friends. Narayan has efficiently projected the idiocy of
Mani and the clerk's handling of the incident ironically. The
clerk's gratitude for the fresh brinjal as well as his commitment
to his professional ethics is nicely illustrated here. On
Narayan's irony A.V.Suresh Kumar aptly comments: "Narayan reveals
in caricaturing the frailities and foibles of the common man. He
is at his regal best highlighting the eccentricities and vices of
common men. . ." (Six Indian Novelists 80).
While Mani's difficulty is in knowing the questions, Swami's
predicament is entirely different. Immature as he is, he is more
particular in preparing the paraphernalia than for the actual
exam. He is concerned with unruled white papers, nibs, ink, clips
and pins. He is confused on how much quantity to purchase on each
item for the exam. The description of the enormous non-academic
preparation for the examination provides ample opportunity for
Narayan's humour and gentle irony. Swami is not worried about the
subjects he is going to write. His father notices this and is
angry that Swami is wasting his time. He vents his anger then and
there:
what preposterous list is this? Do you think
rupees, annas and pies drop from the sky.. . You
can take from me anything you want. I haven't got
42
clips. You don't need them. And then the pad, why
do you want a pad? Are there no desks in your
rooms? In our days slates were good enough for
us.. ."(59)
Swami's bright and enthusiastic mind is suddenly snuffed and
snubbed by his father's irritant character. He is so hurt and
feels very sad. This kind of misunderstanding between the father
and the son is later developed in novels like The Financial Expert,
The Vendor of Sweets and The World of Nagaraj. This has prompted Cynthia
Vanden Driesen to comment thus: "Inextricably twined with the
comedy are the touches of pathos, often the pathos derives from
the complete indifference of the adults (except, perhaps, granny,
herself a marginalised figure) to his keenest wants" ("Swami and
Friends" 169).
Swami's other interest is to gain a hoop. For this he is
prepared to do anything. Infact he induces Mani to some extent.
But he shows his inability to do so. This incident later turns
highly comical. Swami is cheated by a cartman's son. He complains
to Mani about this and Mani says he would take on that fellow.
Mani is made to realize the fact that he is not all too powerful
when the slum dwellers turn on their dogs. They had to make a
hasty return for safety.
Swami's encounter with his father's teaching of mathematics
is highly comical in tone. When he is unable to find the cost of
43
one mango, his father twists his ears so badly that Swami is
forced to think on this line: "Swaminathan kept blinking. Where
was the urgency to know its price? Anyway, if father wanted so
badly to know, instead of harassing him, let him go to the market
and find it out" (88).
The classic irony in the whole novel is seen in the way in
which Swami gets himself involved in the freedom movement. He is
not mature in mind and he would not have known the implications of
the freedom movement. The irony lies in the fact that while many
lost their lives, Swami looses his cap. Somebody from the crowd
forces Swami to throw his cap into the fire saying that it is
foreign. Only later does he realize that the cap is made of
Khaddar and that he has been fooled.
Children assuming the role of adults have been exploited by
Narayan for ironic effect. Rajam and his friends decide to start
a cricket team and they name it Malgudi Cricket Club, paradying
the famous English Club Marlybon Cricket Club. They write to
Messrs. Binns, a famous sports store at Madras for their kits.
They receive a prompt reply from them. But the friends unable to
understand the business language decide to send it back. They once
again request Messrs.BiflflS to send their orders immediately. On
their first practice day Rajam is clean bowled by the first ball
by Swami and he is instantly given the title 'Tate'. The children
taking the role of adult world is seen else where also. When Swami
is deprived of the much needed practice by the after-school
44
physical education class, Rajam represents his case on behalf of
Swami. But this brings no worthwhile result. In fact the
Headmaster punishes Swami for lying about 'delirium'. Unable to
bear the pain, he plucks the cane from the Headmaster, flings it
out of the window and runs away from school. He confesses this to
Rajam but he only chides him. Swami runs away from home and
returns afterwards with the help of the DFO. Rajam is very angry
with him whereas Mani is so anxious about Swami. The ending of the
novel is pathetic. Rajam is unrelenting and Swami is seen
sentimental. Mani is the only linking factor between them. The
irony in this novel is used only as a technique according to
Prof .M.K.Naik:
Narayan's use of irony in Swami and Friends is an
ubiquitous as it is engaging, but it is manifest
that the irony here is mainly a technique of the
repeated reaction of amused observation to
incongriuties of behaviour and situation, it is
certainly not a stable ironic vision encompassing
the large concerns of human nature and life. (The
Ironic Vision 10)
Irony as an appliance against the frailities of human nature
the
is used in Narayan'S novel Mr.Sampath. Like Swami and Friends,
title of the novel itself is ironic. And the novel deals with the
activities and absurdities of Sampath, the protagonist. But what
for does Narayan give a respectable 'Mr' for the title is not
known. Critics have also seemed to take no notice on this fact so
45
far. The fact remains that Sampath, the chief character is
introduced only after fifty pages or so. Narayan has also left it
ambiguous deliberately perhaps-who the lead role is - Srinivas or
Sampath.
The novel opens with a description of the offices of the
Truth Printing Works and The Banner - a press and a paper
respectively. What is ironical here is that there is nothing
truthful in the printing press and nothing proclamatory in the
paper. The printer never allows anyone beyond the blue curtain
but gives a facade of many men working there.
He never let anyone look through the curtain
behind him. "I don't like my staff watch me
talking to my customers", he often explained...
Srinivas could only vaguely conjecture how many
might be working there. All that he could hear was
the sound of the treadle. (20-21)
Narayan ironically comments on the intention of Srinivas on
starting the paper The Banner. He says, "Within twelve pages of
foolscap it attempted to set the world right" (6). The office of
The Banner
functions not in a room but in a garret. It is so very
delicate and appears as if it might go up in dust any moment. The
owner, a pugnacious old man does not mind it.
The creation of the old man is highly ironical. He claims
himself to be a Sanyasi. He declares to everyone: "The true Sanyasi
46
has no need to live on anything more than the leavings of God"
(7). But in actuality he is not so. That he is as earthly as any
ordinary mortal is clearly visible in two incidents. The first one
is when he relishingly eats and drinks at Srinivas's house. When
Srinivas asks his wife to prepare some coffee for the guest, the
old man gingerly remarks: "No, no. I never eat anywhere. Oh, don't
trouble yourself about it... No, no. . ." he said, but all the same
got up and followed Srinivas into the kitchen" (53).
The old man greedily eats the cakes offered to him and drinks
in delight the coffee that followed. Hariprassana correctly
analyses this character:" The incongruity in the human conduct is
brought out when the old man professing pious and abstemious
living becomes incoherent with joy at the sight of coffee and
tiffin" (176).
Though the old man claims to hate his family and disowns his
children, he is very much attached to one grand daughter. He wants
her to settle in a nice way and asks the help of Srinivas. He is
prepared to shell out money for her sake which he won't do for any
other purpose. He visits her often at school to know her well
being. The most critical aspect of his character is that this
'Sanyasi' infact falls prey to Mr.Sampath's smooth tongue and
accepts to invest in the movie. This is because he is offered two
percent interest.
47
Srinivas, who lives alone, is taken aback when he learns that
his wife and son have arrived. Though a family man, Srinvas is not
keen on a family way of existence, for he feels that it would
intrude in his professional path. Chitra Sankaran in her work The
Myth Connection observes in terms of philosophy:
In Srinivas we feel the two sides, Juana and Karma
constantly at odds with each other. He is driven
by an inner compulsion to free himself of the
shackles of human bondage to pursue his
ontological quest but is yet torn by guilt because
this results in having to neglect his family.
(143)
The sudden arrival of his better half and his progeny
compounds his problems but ironically it feeds some material for
his paper. When he is informed of their arrival, he is
exasperated, but grips his pen and writes on family life as matter
for the ensuing issue.
Family life: Did the philosopher mean family
life's all - absorbing nature when he cries for
relief from its night mare? Family preoccupation
is no better than occupying oneself solely with
one's body and keeping it in a flourishing
condition. Man is condemned to be charged with
neglect either here or in the heavens. Let him
choose where he would rather face the calumny.(34)
48
The appearance of Mr. Sampath in the flow of the novel in
person itself is ironical. P.S.Sundaram, an eminent Narayan
critic, feels that the flash back technique used in this novel is
rather clumsy. The film company formed as Sampath's brain child
is christened "Sunrise Pictures". But pathetically there is only
an attempt to rise and the sun - the film - does not shine
brightly. The author is thus so ironical in every possible way.
The film being produced is also ironically named as "The Burning of
Kama". The fact is that three important characters of the movie,
Sampath, Srinivas, and Ravi behave in contrast to the title. While
Sampath is calculatively amorous towards "Parvathi' of the movie,
Shanthi, Ravi is foolishly courting the same girl. Srinivas on the
other hand is a mere watcher of the events. VLG, as the chief
actor is known, has acted always as Shiva and says he does not do
any other part because he is a devotee of Shiva.
Srinivas completely looses himself to the whims and fancies
of Sampath. Though given the job of the script writer ,Srinivas is
unable to work freely and independently. Every now and then
3arnpath interferes in his work. Ramesh Dynate in regard to this
rightly feels.
The most glaring folly of Srinivas may be seen in
his involvement with Sampath's film project, as a
script writer... It is ironic that Srinivas, a
devotee of Natraj fails to imbibe the principle of
balancing the unruly world. But the telling irony
strikes as Srinivas, the script writer of "The
49
Burning of Kama" contrary to the message of the
film, finds himself unknowingly perhaps, charmed
by the youthful beauty, Shanti, playing Parvathi.
(75)
The insane Ravi instead of being given an artist's job, is
made to do the accounts. In the process of making the movie,
Sampath is totally devoured by the love of Shanti. Ravi on the
other hand feels that Shanti is the girl whom he had seen and
fallen in love with long ago. Though it is one sided, he does not
leave her alone. One day on the sets of "The Burning of Kama",
Ravi violently embraces Shanti and in the commotion the snake
around Shiva is let loose. For Srinivas, it is a total set back.
He had left his editor's job for a script writer and this has back
fired. Keith Garebian in his "The Spirit of Place" argues in
favour of Srinivas and is sympathetic towards him:
Life, as Srinivas discovers in The Printer of Malgudi
(1949), is largely a hysterical distraction whose
madness must be dispelled in order that the
individual might attain clarity of direction,
meaning in life, and a metaphysical balance. (297)
The death of the old man is as limpid as the death of Vasu in
The Man Eater of Malgudi. While an unsuspected mosquito kills Vasu, a
cricket ball kills the old man. The death ironically brings forth
what life is. The old man's relation, claiming to be his sons,
come there to take over the custody of the houses which are
50
rented. And again the butter tongued Sampath rescues the tenants.
The film which ends in a fiasco that provokes a crushing comment
from H.M.Williams. "Narayan mocks Srinivas' high mindedness, while
at the same time pillorying the absurd activities of film-makers
who unite Hollywoods' meretricious glamour with Indian confusion"
(Indo Anglian Literature 56).
One of the master strokes of irony is found in the Inaugural
speech of the president. He starts the speech by condemning
mythological films, but when pointed out to him that the actual
movie is about a mythological story, about Shiva and Parvathi, he
swiftly changes his argument and begins a speech in favour of it.
The ending of the novel is rather melodramatic. When Ravi
gets mentally off he is sent to a hill station. Srinivas restarts
his Banner sans the printer. And suddenly Sampath crops up again
saying that he had been ditched by Shanti. He conveys the news
that Shanti had gone back to Madras to live with her son. She had
also threatened Sarnpath that if ever he tries to follow her she
would shave her head and would disfigure herself. And when
Srinivas later asks Sampath about the fate of the film, Sarnpath
answers meaningfully and ironically: "It must be dropped, we've
been abandoned by both Shiva and Parvathi. And only kaina, the God
of Love, is left in the studio" (218).
The novel is flat and it is insipid in nature. Reacting to
the nature of the novel, William Walsh criticizes: "uncertain in
C5
1)intention and queerly hump-backed in shape" (Common wealthLit era ture
12).
The heroine "Shanti" is also ironically named. While the
meaning of the name is peace and harmony, what she actually does
is to make people mad.
Waiting for the Mahatma
is another novel which is once again
ironically titled. In the first instance the definite article
'the' confirms that the Mahatma referred to is none other than
Mahatma Gandhiji. The reader's interest is now kindled as to
whether Narayan has ventured on a political novel. This suspicion
is removed from the mind of the reader when P.S.Sundaram's view is
taken note of:
Narayan is not writing a political novel and is
not primarily concerned with tne çuit inaia
Movement either in its tragic or less tragic
aspects. He is telling us a story of Sriram and
his relationship with his granny and with Bharati.
(R.K. Narayan 85-6)
The Waiting for the Mahatma
is not a waiting for something grand,
but it is an ordinary kind of waiting. Bharati, a devout
nationalist accepts the proposal of Sriram but wants the
permission of Mahatmaji for getting married. Though the great soul
knows the urgency of Sriram, he does not readily grant the
sanction. It is ironically brought out that the last action to be
52
performed by Mahatmaji, while alive is to say yes for the
marriage. It is possible that he must have thought Sriram's
maturity is not in line with Bharati's.
The title has evolved a great response among the critics.
K.Radha writing on the presence of Mahatma Gandhi in the writings
of R.K.Narayan and Chaman Nahal observes:" The title reminds us of
Clifford Odet's Waiting for Lefty (1935) and Samuel Beckett's Waiting
for Godot
(1954). It may be the hero's waiting for Mahatma or the
assassin's waiting for his prey" ("Mahatma Gandhi in R.K.Narayan
and Chaman Nahal" 106).
P.S.Sundaram's underscorers the complexity of the title in this
way.
Waiting for the Mahatma
is not like Waiting for Godot.
Sriram waits on him for permission to marry
Bharati. Godse waits for him pistol in hand. A
sub-continent waited in the confident hope that he
will bring Swaraj for its millions. He did not
fail any of them. (R.K.Narayan 88)
The central character Sriram, for the most part of the
narration, is so immature in behaviour and attitude. For him the
guiding spirit is Bharati and not Mahatma. He resembles more of
Swaminathan of Swami and Friends. His involvement in the freedom
struggle is neither sincere nor spontaneous but forced. Had it not
been for Bharati he would not have entered it. This is in line
53
with Swami's involvement. These two characters do not know the
implications of entering the movement. For Swami it is an escape
from the boredom of class room. For Sriram it is his love for
Bharati. Bharati is as committed as Daisy of The Painter of Signs. If
one applies Frye's concept, then the character of Sriram can be
termed as absurd. In his Anatomy of Criticism, Frye expresses his
view thus:"If inferior in power or intelligence to ourselves, so
that we have the sense of looking down on a sense of bondage,
frustration,or absurdity,the hero belongs to the ironic mode"(34).
Unable to own the love of Bharati atonce, Sriram is
frustrated. There As almost no place in the novel where he behaves
intelligently or maturely. Right from the time of getting the
savings pass book from his grandmother, there is not an iota of
maturity. This induces the shopkeeper Kanni to pull out an old
account-book which is supposed to have his grandfather's unpaid
bill. For this Sriram reacts rather clumsily: "Sriram was for a
moment seized with the problem of life on earth: was one born and
tended and brought up to the twentieth year just in order to pay
off a cheroot bill?" (11).
His sudden riches make him confused. Even though a grown up
man, he does not know what to do with the money he suddenly comes
to possess. It is highly ironical that he knows nothing except to
follow Bharati. The one thing that is worth mentioning about him
is his unwavering and steadfast love for Bharati. S.C.Harrex
;uccinctly signifies this point: 'He is the traditional romantic
54
over cast in an amusing role. He falls in love with Bharati at
irst sight and becomes (a disciple of Gandhi) solely (at first)
o pursue his amatory suit" (The Fire and the Offering Vol.2 112).
The youthful ironic love is portrayed from the first instance
hen Sriram and Bharati meet. It is again ironical that of all
imes Sriram finds this moment to romantically get inclined when
harati is collecting money for the Gandhian Movement. When
harati leaves, he feels like a stupid love stricken teenager.
Who could she be and where did she come from?
Could it be that she was the daughter of a judge
or might be an other wordly creature who had come
suddenly to meet him and whom he did not know how
to treat? (14)
rid what immediately follows is the master stroke of the author's
)mment: "What a fool he was! He felt how sadly he lacked the
cessary polish for such encounters" (14).
.
This is what Frye calls as absurd and this manifests
iroughout the novel. The domestic or romantic intensity is
iddenly intervened by the introduction of Mahatma Gandhi. But
iat follows is not a political novel. R.K.Narayan does not intend
) propagate Gandhian philosophy. This novel lacks the quality of
political novel. Irving Home defines this subgenre in the
)llowlng manner: "By a political novel I mean a novel which
)litical ideas play a dominant role or in which a political
Llieu is the dominant setting" (Politics and The Novel 17).
55
The presence of Gandhi is a guiding factor for the freedom
movement and for Bharati but not for Sriram. Cynthia Vanden
Driesen effectively explains this factor.
While Gandhi himself is not the central focus of
the novel, he remains a persuasive influence. As
though well aware of the innate difficulties of
rendering the saint himself interesting as a
fictional subject, Narayan concentrates rather on
the portrait of the sinner who aspires to follow
his teachings. ( "R.K.Narayan's Neglected Novel:
Waiting for the Mahatma" 365).
The love of Bharati makes Sriram run away from home at the
dead of the night. This symbolically establishes the state of his
mind. As they say love is blind, he leaves his grandmother to
fate and goes and joins the Gandhi wagon. Even there he is not
comfortable. He waits outside the hut of Gandhi and it is only the
beloved who takes the lead. It is ironically comical that whenever
Bharati wants to control Sriram, she threatens to complain against
him to the Mahatma. But Bharati uses the threat only as a warning
weapon. She humanely instructs Sriram to go and visit his
bedridden Granny. Daisy of The Painter of Signs is not as humane
as Bharati is. K.R.Srinivasa Iyengar calls Bharati as "Malgudi
Portia" (373). Though bold and committed Bharati is angelic if not
feminine whereas Daisy is arrogantly extreme in her commitment.
Bharati has the ability to understand other's feelings, while
Daisy is selfishly motivated. There is a sort of progress in the
56
riouIding
of Sriram's character after coming into her contact. When
e comes home to visit his sick granny on her instruction, he is
ware of the death of his granny. Again it is ironic that Kanni,
rho shamelessly asked for an old debt of nine rupees and twelve
nnas, takes the lead role in the last rites. Sriram now becomes
n extremist and the police is after him. Even on seeing the dead
ranny, Sriram is emotionless. This evokes Ramesh Dynate to
ompare Sriram with Camus' Mersault.
Characteristic is Sriram's behaviour as he watches
the dead body of his granny. He neither strikes as
a guilty person nor as a grieved grandson; instead
he feels uncontrollably hungry and feeds himself
at Kanni's shop, leaving the dead to the vigilance
of the sleeping woman. Ironically enough, one is
reminded of Camus's rebel under a similar
situation. Needless to say Sriram is a far cry
from Mersault. (85)
More comedy and irony is seen when the granny is found to be
Live. After the pyre was alighted, fire smoulders and crackles.
reryone, including Sriram, thinks that all is over with her. At
ie last possible moment before being swallowed by the fire, the
md-office Manager excitedly finds granny's big toe of the left
ot moving. Suddenly everything happens and Sriram blurts out,
he is not dead, take her out" (122). It is ironical that the
ctor who attended her could not say correctly if she is alive or
ad. The priests butts in and warns that no one who has been
57
carried to the ghat could be taken back to the town.
Sriram's immaturity and idiocy is seen in his conversation
with the estate owner F.O.MathieSefl. His idea of saving the red
paint in writing the 'Q' in the Quit India invokes reader's
laughter and projects Sriram's foolhardiness. Sriram's lack of
real involvement is explained by M.K.Naik: "Sriram'S sudden
conversion into a freedom fighter is unconvincing, because he is
(Mother
so obviously interested in Bharati and not in Bharat-mata
India) (A History of Indian English Literature 164).
Irony is all pervasive when Gandhiji visits the house of the
Municipal Chairman Mr.NateSh. Here one gets a good illustration of
Mahatmaji. His simplicit y , his secular thinking and his affection
are all evident in ample measure. Mr.Natesh wants to show off his
money powerand for him this is the only reason for inviting the
great soul. But Gandhiji, for whom all these are insignificant
does not show any interest in the arrangements. He in fact calls
inside, an under privileged boy who has come to have a glance at
Gandhiji. He makes the boy sit on the costly sofa and enquires
about him and his family. From him the Mahatma understands that
his father is a scavenger who lives on the outskirts of the town.
When the boy eyes the oranges offered by Mr.Natesh to Gandhiji,
Gandhiji takes one and gives it to the boy. When he makes the
place dirty, Gandhiji himself teaches him how to eat orange
neatly. This incident shows how minutely he takes care of every
action. Ironicall y
this is what is inherent in Sriram. Uma
58
'arameswaran smartly differentiates the two: "Mahatma Gandhi was a
;uperman; Sriram, the hero is a good man (66).
The way in which Sriram protested to the shop keeper for
la y ing foreign biscuits itself is presented ironically. Sriram
rants to destroy them when he finds the shopkeeper in possession
f foreign made goods. Any amount of persuasion does not move the
;alesman and Sriram is forced to do a dharna against him. He lies
lown in front of the shop and compels him to destroy goods that
iad come from England. Instead of becoming a motivator, Sriram
:urns out to be a comedian. The people who were around him were
:ather amused by his behaviour and they are not bothered to
Lmpress upon him to stop the fight nor do they force the shop
:eeper to do away with it. The people are rather happy at the
redicament of Sriram for which he only is responsible. Later he
ealises that all his protests are aimless. People were happy to
;ee him as a monkey doing some mischievous activity. Sriram stops
us protest when he realises: "It seemed to Sriram that the people
iere liked to see him lying there on the ground, and were doing
verything to keep him down. When this struck him, he raised
uimself on his hand and sat up " (81).
People turn their interest from Sriram to the boy who had
een stopped by Sriram from buying stuff from the shop. William
ayden Moore considers this as a fine example of comedy:
The finest piece of comedy is Sriram's attempt to
organize a boycott on a village shopkeeper who is
59
selling English and foreign food. The villagers
seem more interested in the antics of the boy
addicted tree-climbing and Sriram is disconceited
by a little boy's ludicurous endeavours to evade
the boycott to buy snuff for an angry grand
father. (Studies in Modern Indian Fiction in English Vol 1
88)
Thus the novel contains irony in ample measure. According to
Frye's principle of comedy this novel ends happily - that is in
marriage though there is an element of tragedy in the death of
Gandhi.1i. M.K.Naik considers this novel as a total failure. And
the present researcher feels that this view is harsh in
perspective. Uma Parameswarafl's idea is moderate and acceptable in
this regard. She observes:" Narayan certainly entertains but not
as a brisk rollicking pace. On the other hand, the laughter he
evokes is not recorded laughter edited into a video-tape but
genuine and simple laughter"(47).
The Guide
(1958), which is Narayan'S masterpiece accordin g to
many critics, abounds in ironical perceptions. The characters,
situations, humour, pathos are all ironical in manner. The story
is about Raju, a Railway tourist guide. Raju acts as a guide but
ironically is misguided. The events that follow are beyond his
control. His coming back from the prison with a beard and his noncommital and evasive statements make the people believe that he is
a Swami and so, he is compelled to undergo a fast, in order to
60
ring rain. No amount of confession that he is just a normal man
es not evoke any suspicion among the villagers. His death is
rne out of his guile. Narayan has used irony to the fullest
Ktent in revealing the plot.
According to Surendra Narayan, Narayan's vision is
;sentially ironic. In this regard, he argues:
To Narayan, . .., irony is the only mode of
perception which can enable him to achieve a
balanced, all round view of human life and the
world. Since the ironic mode calls for the spirit
of acceptance, Narayan accepts the reality
ungrudgingly. He sees no part in attempting to
criticise or correct things. ("The Ironic Mode of
R.K.Narayan"
169)
Writing on the purpose of making this novel, Narayan
nf ides:
novel is about an individual luring his life
in a world imagined by the author, performing a
set of actions (upto a limit) contrived by the
author. But to take a work of fiction as a
sociological study or a social document could be
very misleading. My novel The Guide was not about
the saints or the pseudo-saints of India, but
about a particular person. (Reluctant Guru 9-10)
61
The beauty of Raju's character is that he does not care about
or long for sainthood. But the irony is that sainthood is thrust
upon him. He talks grandly and feels that he is attaining the
status of sainthood. He is overtaken by his own voice. Often he
proves to the sensitive reader that he is role playing. Assuming
that he would change the adamant half-sister of Velan into
marrying the boy of the family's choice, his mind wanders about
her. As Narayan comments, he ruminates: "I wish I had asked him
what the age of the girl was. Hope she is uninteresting. I have
had enough trouble in life" (15).
Though Raju is cunning and intelligent he is ironically silly
sometimes. Having nothing worthwhile to do, he casually gazes at
the sky and starts counting the stars. While counting he says to
himself:
I shall be rewarded for this profound service
to humanity. People will say, "Here is the man who
knows the exact number of stars in the sky. If you
have any trouble on that account, you had better
consult him. He will be your night guide for the
stars. (15)
Raju is seen even here as "a guide". Even though he did
nothing miraculous, the girl accepts the marriage and Raju is
considered as a saviour. There is no sensible link between Raju as
a transformer of minds and Raju as a guide of the night star.
While the former state shows the gullibility of the villagers, the
62
later state shows the silliness of Raju's mind. The process of he
becoming a saint is effectively analysed by Prof. Naik:
Raju is transformed into a sadhu without any
conscious effort on his part, the process is
actually set in motion by his own eagerness,
derived from his tourist guide days to interest
himself in other people's problems. There is
simple irony in the phase, arising out of the
incongruity of the freshly released criminal being
mistaken for a holy man. (The Ironic Vision 55)
Raju slowly realises that he is getting trapped by his own
,ords. And he decides to stop talking intelligently: "'True, true,'
Zaju said, having nothing else to say and not wishing to utter
inything that might be too brilliant. He was beginning to dread
us own smartness nowadays. He was afraid to open his lips (27).
But he has no other go. He has his stomach to feed without
lexing his muscles. So he decides to continue the mask as long as
t is not risky. He changes his place from the outside to the
nside of the temple. Ironically he chooses to play smart.
The thing that had really bothered him was that he
might sound too brilliant in everything he said.
He had observed silence as precaution. But the
fear was now gone. He decided to look as brilliant
as he could manage, let drop gems of thought from
his lips, assume all the radiance available and
63
afford them all the guidance they required without
stint. He decided to arrange the stage for the
display with more thoroughness. (30-31)
The words 'stage, 'display, let drop gems' all indicate
his decision to continue to decieve the people. He begins to
address the people more philosophically and aims both their heart
and mind to defeat. He decides to grow a beard to look visually
authentic.
When the villagers ask him for a discourse, he escapes by
making them meditate. The irony is that with the help of the
villagers, Raju is able to wear the mask perfectly. Lakshmi
Holmstorm likens the role of Raju's way of Sanyasi with that of
Chandran of the The Bachelor of Arts. She says:"Raju accepts the role
of sanyasi for the reason that Chandran In The Bachelor of Arts
rejects it: it provides him with an adequate living for which he
doles out counterfeit form of spiritual guidance" (67). The irony
does not confine itself to his sanyasi life. The touches of irony
can be seen in his life as a guide. While reminisising on the
success of being a tourist guide he says.
I often succeeded in including a sort of
melancholia in my customer by remarking, 'This is
some thing that should be en j o yed by the whole
family,' and the man would swear that he would be
back with his entire brood in the coming
season. (51)
64
For Deepavali, the villagers bring new clothes and crackers
for the 'saint'. He, as a great soul would do, celebrates
heartily with the children. Fate slowly catches up with Raju in
the form of drought. When the drought situation turns grave Raju
is worried about how he would get his next meal.
The scarcity and draught forces people to fight with each
Dther. Cattles fall dead unable to bear the famine. Raju is
afraid that this would bring the police and he would be made known
:o the people. Through Velan's brother Raju sends word that he
gould not eat unless they stop fighting. This moron misinterprets
:his and takes it as 'the swami won't eat because it won't rain.'
'hey compare him with the Mahatma. Raju's selfishness brings forth
us downfall.
When people thrust their idea on him, he doesn't react
Ldversely. His selfishness turns inverse and he begins to view the
rhole thing in a new perspective:
The babble was confusing. But their devotion to
him was unquestionable. There was so much warmth
in their approach that he began to feel it was but
right they would touch his feet; as a matter of
fact, it seemed possible that he himself might bow
low, take the dust of his own feet and press it to
his eyes. He began to think that his personality
radiated a glory. (94)
65
How ironical this sounds when it is compared with his craving
or bonda. When Velan prescribes the remedy of standing in knee
-
Jeep water and praying for bringing rain, Raju realizes that he is
aught in his own trap. As Viney Kirpal says: "... caught in the
'eb of his own making Raju is forced to play the swami, the
'ascetic', to the end. But in the process his spiritual
transformation becomes complete" ("Moksha For Raju" 360).
Ironicall y Raju is moved by the faith bestowed on him by the
villagers. He begins to make true the role play he has so far
scruplously maintained. He prepares to help the people who have
helped him. He does not want to disappoint them. MeenakShi
Mukheriee very clearly brings out this point: "What keeps him back
is not practical considerations or fear of being caught, but very
surprisingly, the faith of the people"(The
Twice Born Fiction 124).
This is one of the best qualities that is found in Raju. Even
though he thinks of escaping from the predicament earlier, he
never actually does so. Likewise, when everyone including his
mother and uncle disregards Rosie and discards him, he never
thinks of leaving her. So much of dirt has been splashed on him
but he does not bother about it. When his explanation that he is
no saint is not taken well by the people, Raju decides to perform
the fast. At this point it would be worthwhile to note Frye's
opinion "The comic hero will get his triumph whether what he has
done is sensible or silly, honest or rascally"
Criticism 43-44).
(The Anatom y of
66
Thus the 'silly' and 'rascally' Raju now turns 'sensible' and
honest'. But before undertaking the fast he tries to explain his
ascally past. But Velan does not mind it and he is particular in
ringing rain. Things move fast from here. A government enquiry is
rdered on the draught situation; newspaper correspondent visit
ie place. People's interest is aroused. Crowd gather's everyday
) watch him. He starts his penance by standing knee-deep in the
ter. This act brings forth an apt comment from William Walsh:
He stands at the end upto his knees in water
utterly isolated from the enormous crowd, and yet
it is his colloboration-uneasy, desperate and
finally total-with the expectations of the people
that turns their immense illusion into something
like truth. ("Sweet Mangoes and Malt Vinegar" 139)
Now Raju starts to play the role he is expected to play. And
quote, Meenakshi Mukerjee again: "... towards the end Raju
'oses the feelings of an actor performing an act, the act becomes
Le reality, the mask becomes the reality, the mask becomes the
n, and Raj u the guide turns into a "Guru"" (Twice Born Fiction 124).
A TV anchor man from California arrives at the scene and he
terviews Raju. A couple of doctors have been deputed by the
vernment to check Raju. A railway guide turned forger is now the
1k of the country. The penance slowly deteriorates Raju's
alth. The whole process is captured in TV. When he becomes
able to walk he is carried to the river as if he were a baby.
67
And there he mutters, "'Velan, it is raining in the hills. I can
feel it coming up under my feet, up my legs - " (221).
The ending has brought about a lot of criticism. The most
pertaining question is whether the rain really came or not.
K.R.Srinivasa Iyengar considers the ending as an open ended one.
In his Indian Writing in English he says:
Does it really rain, or is it only Raju's optical
delusion? Does he really die, or merely sink down
in exhaustion? Has the lie really become the
truth, or has it been merely exposed? We are free
to conclude as we like; Narayan might say in
Pirandellian fashion: 'Right you are, if you think
so'! (378)
Hariprasanna on the other hand thinks that this kind of an
analysis is irrelevant. He views the ending thus:
Whether Raju's penance really brings down rains or
not is an irrelevant question. Narayan
intentionally leaves it ambiguous. It is quite
possible that Raju's feeling that it is raining in
the hills is not anything more than deceptive
impression caused by fasting. (119)
The ending of Raju's life is as ambiguous as his life was.
The other track in the novel is the domestic
I
romantic world.
Raju, the only son of small time business man occupies his
68
father's shop. There he reads a lot from the books that were
there. That helped him to widen his knowledge. He continues his
job as a guide and his life changes dramatically when Rosie and
Marco arrive at the Malgudi station. Ironically the name "Rosie"
which indirectly means goodness or smoothness brings only thorns
in Raju's life, though at first it is rosy. Marco on the other
hand is as strange as his name is. He is interested only in the
statues and cave paintings of the Mempi Hills. He has no use of
the live Rosie. This factor helps Raju in winning Rosie for his
amorous longings. He artfully and quickly makes Rosie fall for
him. Raju seems to know where to strike psychologically. He takes
Marco's way of treating Rosie to his advantage. The loneliness
Rosie felt and the way Marco hated dance were given vent to by
Rosie through Raju. William Walsh captures their life in this way.
she and Raju are two of a kind and they fall
in love at once. Not that there is anything
headlong or tumultous about their affiar, which
strikes one as being as much as crisis of nerves
as of passion. Their relationship, both at the
beginning and later when she breaks off with Marco
and comes to live with Raju, appears to be much
more one of
feeling than sensuality, a
temperamental rather than a passionate union.
("Sweet Mangoes and Malt Vinegar" 135)
Rosie though not glamorous, did have a slight and slender
figure and sparkling eyes. Her complexion, though not white, is
69
dusky. From the very first sight Raju hates Marco. At the
subconscious level he might have thought Marco as the other man,
which is ironical. Gaffur, the taxi driver has better intuition
and he warns Raju not to have anything to do with the damsel. But
Raju does not heed to this advice. He considers her as a 'divine
creature' and this is the exact sentiment that arises out of
Chandran when he sees Malathi at the river in The Bachelor of Arts.
It is strange that Rosie is much interested in seeing the snake
dance and she takes the help of Raju for that. Marco does not
understand the value of Rosie. Narayan so beautifully captures
this aspect in the novel: "Dead and decaying things seemed to
unloosen his tongue and fire his imagination, rather than things
that lived and moved and swung their limbs" (72).
In this context it is important to note the comment of
M.K.Naik: "Marco is a devoted student of ancient art, and the
figures of dances in a temple of frieze interest him far more than
his own wife,who is an accomplished dancer"(The Ironic Vision 60).
It is only through Raju that Rosie could satisfy her ordinary
expectations. She has to take the help of Raju to satisfy her
normal needs like going to a market or eating in a crowded hotel.
This aspect evokes Ramesh Dynate to observe:
Having such a deep sense of gratitude for Raju,
Rosie also finds in him an intimate friend and a
confidant. And, as Marco gets mercifully engrossed
in his obsessive research far away in the cave,
70
taking Rosie's faithfulness and Raju's trust for
granted, the forbidden fruit appeared too enticing
and too irresistable to the lovers. (89)
Marco as a gentleman believes Raju and accepts him as a
nember of the family. To clear any doubt on the rectitude of the
railway guide, Rosie shows extra care on her husband. She fusses
ibout him a great deal. But Marco is not a man who easily gives in
:o this treatment. On his part Raju confesses that he is obsessed
)y the thoughts of Rosie. He practises conscious villainy when he
:alks to Marco about Nehru's visit to London and the new taxes,
just to divert him and to keep him in good cheers. He is a man of
Lntelligence par comparison. Shirely Chew aptly describes Raju in
:his way:
Raju's character has no solid centre but he can
always rely on a darting intelligence, the
instinct of an actor who cannot let his audience
down, an adroitness in parrying objections and
challenges ... and at surrounding himself with
tourists, Nalini's admirers, warders and
prisoners, or awe inspired villagers. (Readings in
Commonwealth Literature 69)
Rosie is sometimes shown as having a guilt conscience. At
imes she would feel that she is unfaithful and she is forgetting
er womanly duties. But Raju always keeps her in check by
romising her to do the needful to bring her dancing wishes to
71
reality. Meanwhile Marco finds out that she is not worthy to be
his wife and leaves Meinpi Hills abruptly for Madras. Rosie comes
to live with Raju. Though Raju's mother takes things lightly at
first, later she warns her son about her as a snake woman. She
says in a hissed whisper, "She is a real snake-woman, I tell you.
I never liked her from the first day you mentioned her" (137).
After a great struggle, Raju gets a chance for Rosie. He
converts her name to a more conventional Nalini. Raju's mother
wants Nalini out, and she takes her brother's help to convince and
compel Raju. But they both fail in their venture and they decide
to leave home. Raju is so thoroughly immersed in passion that he
does not feel for it. In a way Raju must be commended for the
staunch support he extends for her sake. He does not mind his
uncle calling him 'puppy'. After this thefortunes of Nalini and
Raju rise phenomenally. Raju monopolises her and considers her as
his property. He sometimes behaves jealously and always tries to
shield her from others. He considers her as his plaything and as
a toy in his hand. He vehemently feels that she must dance
whenever he gives the key as if she were a doll. All along money
and social status pour in.
One day Raju receives a copy of the monograph The Cultural
History of South India written by Marco. He carefully hides this from
Rosie lest she should begin to think about her husband. But his
office boy Mani conveys the news to Rosie and she wants to see the
book. There erupts a fight between them because of this. When he
72
iears her cries he askes angrily "What has come over you?"(179)
nd for that she pathetically replies, "After all, after all, he
s my husband." Ironically Rosie though a dancer and born in a
evadasi family does not loose her Indian womanhood. Within a few
ays, Raju receives a letter addressed to Rosie. From it he comes
o know that it is from Marco. It is a letter asking for her
ignature to release jewels from the bank. When Raju realises that
t would be finally handed over to her after the procedure, he
orges Nalini's signature. He is caught in this act and is put in
rison. The point is that Raju's indulgence in this kind of
rickery is not out of the intention of usurping the wealth, but
Ut of the fear that it might induce Rosie to think of her
usband. Joshi Krishna Nand argues in this line:
Raju lacks both the conscience and consciousness
of an artist... He is worried over the prospect of
loosing Rosie. In his anxiety he commits the
tragic blunder of forging Nalini's signature in
connection with Marco's despatch of Rosie's
Jewellery. (Studies in Indo-Anglian Literature 156-7)
Marco very cleverly traps Raju and legal action is framed
jainst him. Thus the irony gets compounded that Marco, Velan and
ie little moron all individually spoils the party for Raju. The
.fe before being caught is ended by Marco purposefully and the
.fe after the imprisonment is snuffed out by Velan and his
other. M.K.Naik sums up the novel thus:
The Guide is unique among Narayan's novels in
73
another respect also: it is his only narrative in
which the auto-biographical method of narration
and the omniscient author strategy complement each
other. This provides the author with a dual
perspective which is highly conducive to irony.
(The Ironic
Vision 64)
The analysis of the four novels has established the fact that
Narayan's comedy primarily is ironic. He just directs the story
and leaves the interpretation to the readers. Narayan does not
embark on changing the society. Nor is he interested in teaching
morals for them. He neither prescribes any remedies to remove the
silly frailities and foibles of the society. Another aspect to be
mentioned is that the comedy is ironic and not satirical. His form
of irony does not sting or bite. And clearly Narayan's novels
fall under the purview of Frye's view: "There is a general
distinction between fictions in which the hero becomes isolated
from his society, and fictions in which he is incorporated into
it" (Anatomy of Criticism 35).
Swami's isolation stems from his misplaced boyhood's
immaturity. Sriram's isolation comes forth from his romantic
illusions. Sampath feels disintegrated when the film he undertakes
fails. Raju is isolated after coming out of prison. But Frye's
concept of low mimetic comedy holds good at this point since all
of them are once again taken back into society. Only Raju's case
is composed of both comic irony as well as tragedy. The
74
Dbservation of Jaidev supports the case of Frye.
The pattern is comic in a classical sense; the
individual is "infected" with self. Consciousness,
asserts his self, is isolated from community,
suffers, but at last is reabsorbed in the stream
of community. The deviant individual is clearly
useful to the novelist, for it is his foibles that
becomes the subject of the comedy. The lesson of
nearly all the Narayan's novel is identical: the
individual's deviation suggests his sickness,
perhaps his madness, and his recovery follows his
submission to the healthy will of the community.
("The Importance of Being a Child" 11)
The discussion on the novels clearly shows that the novels of
irayan belong to the mode of irony. In this mode, particular
?ntioning of the low-mimetic is needed. The contention that
rayan is just a story teller and an objective narrator of events
:and corroborated. There is no element of realism *and only a
nge of myth and certainly there is no evidence of the demonic or
e apocalyptic. The writings of Narayan thus is superficial and
t in depth. Frye's comment authenticates this point of view:
rony, as a mode, is born from the low mimetic; it takes life
actly as it finds. But the ironist fables without moralizing,
d has no object but his subject" (The Anatomy of Criticism
41).
75
The redeeming factor is that even in his low-mimetic comedy,
Narayan is sophisticated. Irony, as pointed out by Frye, can be
differentiated into the sophisticated and the naive. Narayan's
works fall under the category of the former. In this state, he
just conveys what happens in the flow of the story and if it is
ironic, it depends wholly on the reader to interpret it so. The
comedy revealed in the domestic atmosphere is the concern of the
next chapter.