Model United Nations at UCSD presents
TRITON MUN XIV
On Saturday, April 22nd , and Sunday, April 23rd, 2017
SPECPOL
TritonMUN XV
I. Introduction
Greetings Delegates!
My name is Jenna Goosen, and I’m a first year here at UCSD. I’m majoring in
Political Science with an emphasis on International Relations, and this is my third year
doing Model UN! As someone who is very interested in international politics, I
particularly like Model UN because of all the interesting and pressing issues that are
debated. I really enjoy being able to simulate discussions that are actually happening in
the United Nations as we speak! Here is a short introduction paragraph from my vice
chair, Mustafa Almahjoub:
My name is Mustafa Almahjoub. I’m currently a junior at UCSD, studying political
science with an emphasis in international relations.I was born in Libya but I spent the majority
of my upbringing in Dubai, where I also attended high-school and got introduced to
model UN in my senior year. MUN gave me a chance to better my public speaking skills
and engage in political debates of which I was passionate about. Working with other
delegates in the four conferences I’ve attended also drastically helped me progress my
diplomacy and critical thinking skills and gave me the opportunity to meet and form
friendships with a lot of like-minded individuals. My hobbies include traveling, playing
soccer and pretty much all things music related. I look forward to meeting all of you and
hearing all the brilliant ideas you have to offer!
Apart from Model UN, I participate in the College Democrats club here at UCSD.
I also play a wide variety of instruments and sometimes participate in musical groups on
campus. If I’m not busy studying, you can also find me at the beach with a good book,
hiking up in Torrey Pines, or baking.
I hope that the topics I have chosen for debate will invoke thoughtful and diverse
debate. Mustafa and I look forward to seeing your creative ideas in tackling the difficult
situations that arise from separatist groups fighting for independence against an unwilling
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sovereign nation. As your chair, I am specifically looking for quality research and
dynamic, but diplomatic discussion from every delegate in committee. Please be aware of
the Position Paper deadline. Submit your position papers to the email
[email protected] by April 15th. We look forward to meeting you all
in committee!
Sincerely your chair,
Jenna Goosen
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Topic I: Kosovo
I.
Background
The Republic of Kosovo is a small, landlocked, partially recognized state in the
central Balkan Peninsula. In the late 12th and early 13th centuries, Kosovo was absorbed
into the medieval state of Serbia. Kosovo became the main residencies for the rulers
during the Nemanjic Dynasty and one of the main trading hubs for the empire in the
Adriatic Sea1. Kosovo, along with the rest of the empire, lost to the Ottomans at the
Battle of Kosovo in 1389, and remained in the Ottoman empire until 1912 when Kosovo
was absorbed back into an independent Serbia2.
While under Ottoman rule, conflict arose between the Albanians and Serbs on the
basis of religion, with many Albanians converting to Islam and thus gaining power over
their Christian counterparts3. This conflict was further deepened with the rise of
nationalism in 19th century Europe, as an independent Serbia tried to push Ottoman rule
out of Kosovo and return Kosovo to Serbia. Albanians within Kosovo did not outwardly
support the movement, causing the movement to stall until the Russo-Ottoman War in
18774. In 1912 an Albanian uprising within Kosovo allowed Montenegro to invade in the
1
Young, Antonia, and John R. Lampe. "Kosovo." Encyclopedia Britannica. Encyclopedia Britannica Inc, 14 July 2016.
Web.
2
Young, Antonia, and John R. Lampe. "Kosovo." Encyclopedia Britannica. Encyclopedia Britannica Inc, 14 July 2016.
Web.
3
Sagal, Sabby. "Balkan Flashpoints." Kosovo: A History of Clashing Empires. Socialist Review, May 1999. Web. 26 Mar.
2017.
4
Sagal, Sabby. "Balkan Flashpoints." Kosovo: A History of Clashing Empires. Socialist Review, May 1999. Web. 26 Mar.
2017.
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north of Kosovo. Albanians throughout Kosovo fought back against Ottoman forces, and
even Albanians within the Ottoman army refused to fight their own kin5. Joint Balkan
forces delivered the final blow, pushing the Ottomans out of their territories held within
Kosovo. Kosovo was split in two, with East Kosovo ceded to the Kingdom of Serbia and
West Kosovo ceded to the Kingdom of Montenegro under the Treaty of London in 19136.
Kosovo, which was considered to be a part of Serbia, became integrated in the creation of
the Kingdom of Yugoslavia, dividing Kosovo into several territories within Yugoslavia7.
Beginning in the late 1910s and continuing onwards into the 1940s, Serbia
nationalists aimed to reorganize the ethnic population in Kosovo. A huge Serbian recolonization effort took place, and the Albanians within Kosovo were oppressed. The
Serbians refused to allow the Albanian language to be taught in schools, and did not
recognize Albania as one of the three slavic nations8. Following the Second World War,
Kosovo was granted autonomy. In the 1960s, the government eased up on Albanians,
recognizing Albanian ethnicity and even allowing Albanians to rise in the ranks of
provincial and federal administrations9. This growing acceptance most likely had to do
with the rising birth rates of Albanians and the Serbian population falling to only 15% by
5
Bideleux, Robert. "Kosovo's Conflict." Kosovo's Conflict | History Today. History Today, Nov. 1998. Web. 26 Mar. 2017.
Sagal, Sabby. "Balkan Flashpoints." Kosovo: A History of Clashing Empires. Socialist Review, May 1999. Web. 26 Mar.
2017.
7
Bideleux, Robert. "Kosovo's Conflict." Kosovo's Conflict | History Today. History Today, Nov. 1998. Web. 26 Mar. 2017.
8
Jovanić, Vladan. "The Colonization of Kosovo." Peščanik. N.p., 8 Apr. 2013. Web. 26 Mar. 2017.
9
Melissa Katherine Bokovoy, Jill A. Irvine, Carol S. Lilly. State-society relations in Yugoslavia, 1945–1992. Scranton,
Pennsylvania, US: Palgrave Macmillan, 1997. Pp. 296.
6
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198110. Kosovo was also granted more autonomy from Yugoslavia with its own judiciary,
administrative, and assembly.
However, in the 1980s, Serbia revoked Kosovo’s special autonomous powers and
Serbia’s president began to oppress the Albanian population once more, as well as
revoking the autonomous power and centralizing authority once more under the
Yugoslavian government11. Schools, radio stations, and even newspapers were
“Serbanized”.12 In September 1992, The Republic of Kosova was declared as an
independent state, only recognized by the nation of Albania, with a new President elected
in an election only Kosovo Albanians participated in13. Tensions between Serbs and
Albanians in Kosovo drove the Kosovo Liberation Army (KLA) to attack Serbian
authorities in 1996, causing fear amongst the Serbian population to drive further
oppression against the Albanians14. The KLA continued to commit attacks against Serbs
in Kosovo, creating a feedback loop. The more violence perpetrated by the KLA, the
more harsh the Serbian military fights back in order to squash further rebellion, which in
turn just drove more recruits to the KLA15.
In 1998, the Kosovo War broke out when Serbian police and KLA began
firefights in villages and committing massacres, resulting in the Yugoslav forces
10
Bideleux, Robert. "Kosovo's Conflict." Kosovo's Conflict | History Today. History Today, Nov. 1998. Web. 26 Mar. 2017.
Krieger, Heike (2001). The Kosovo Conflict and International Law: An Analytical Documentation 1974–1999. Cambridge
University Press. ISBN 9780521800716.
12
Bideleux, Robert. "Kosovo's Conflict." Kosovo's Conflict | History Today. History Today, Nov. 1998. Web. 26 Mar. 2017.
13
PBS. "A Kosovo Cronology." PBS. Public Broadcasting Service, n.d. Web. 26 Mar. 2017.
14
PBS. "A Kosovo Cronology." PBS. Public Broadcasting Service, n.d. Web. 26 Mar. 2017.
15
Young, Antonia, and John R. Lampe. "Kosovo." Encyclopedia Britannica. Encyclopedia Britannica Inc, 14 July 2016.
Web.
11
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intervening in attempts to stamp out the KLA16. These forces swept through Kosovo,
attempting to eliminate what they thought to be a terrorist group and continuing a
widespread campaign of ethnic cleansing17. The KLA advanced into Northern Kosovo,
holding most of the territory in the central and northern part of the country and the
Drenica Valley18.
After the diplomatic approach failed, NATO became involved in the conflict in
March of 1999, when they authorized airstrikes in Kosovo and declared the war a
“humanitarian war”19. However, NATO was highly scrutinized by the international
community for their airstrikes after NATO planes mistakenly bombed an Albanian
refugee camp, killing dozens of refugees20. In response to the growing criticism, NATO
put forces on the ground to combat the Yugoslav forces, with the intention to clear
Kosovo to allow peacekeepers and the Albanian refugees back into the nation21.
Yugoslavian forces agreed to pull out of Kosovo in June of 1999 with the signing of the
Kumanovo agreement, and NATO forces advanced into Kosovo, leading a peacekeeping
force in order to restore order within Kosovo22.
16
Stacy Sullivan (2005-03-11). "Ramush Haradinaj". IWPR.
Young, Antonia, and John R. Lampe. "Kosovo." Encyclopedia Britannica. Encyclopedia Britannica Inc, 14 July 2016.
Web.
18
Paul Watson (1998-10-20). "Serb Troops Digging In To Battle Kosovo Rebels". Sun Sentinel. Retrieved 2012-11-08.
19
PBS. "A Kosovo Cronology." PBS. Public Broadcasting Service, n.d. Web. 26 Mar. 2017.
20
Gordon, Michael R. "NATO Admits the Mistaken Bombing of Civilians." The New York Times. The New York Times, 15
Apr. 1999. Web. 26 Mar. 2017.
21
"NATO & Kosovo: Historical Overview." NATO & Kosovo: Historical Overview. N.p., 15 July 1999. Web. 26 Mar. 2017.
22
"NATO & Kosovo: Military Technical Agreement." NATO & Kosovo: Military Technical Agreement - 9 June 1999. N.p.,
09 June 1999. Web. 26 Mar. 2017.
17
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Serbians were afraid to return to Kosovo after the Kosovo War, and the Serbs
who remained in Kosovo suffered from violence that did not cease until around 200423.
The aftermath of the war left Kosovo under UN Administration under the jurisdiction of
UN Security Council Resolution 1244, which allowed Kosovo to have autonomy within
the Federal Republic of Yugoslavia but would still retain the territorial integrity of
Yugoslavia, which has been succeeded by the Republic of Serbia24. In 2008, the Republic
of Kosovo declared independence from the Republic of Serbia, which Serbia refuses to
acknowledge and the Serbs within Kosovo refuse to accept25. In 2010, Serbia filed a case
against the legality of Kosovo’s declaration of independence. The ICJ issued a ruling in
favor of Kosovo, declaring that Kosovo had not violated international law by declaring
independence from Serbia unilaterally26.
Currently, the tensions between Serbs in Kosovo and Serbia are mounting.
Kosovo has put into motion a plan to turn the current security force into a standing army.
This decision made by Kosovo is supported by some in the international community, but
NATO and the United States warn of decreased cooperation if Kosovo creates a standing
army27. As of today, 113 nations recognize the Republic of Kosovo as a legitimate,
independent nation28.
23
Iain King and Whit Mason (2006). Peace at Any Price: How the World Failed Kosovo. Cornell University Press. ISBN
978-0-8014-4539-2.
24
"Security Council Resolution 1244." International Organization 16.2, Africa and International Organization (1962): 42225. 10 June 1999. Web.
25
Posnatov, Maja. "Serbia Confirms It Will Not Recognise Kosovo." EURACTIV.com. N.p., 08 Sept. 2016. Web. 26 Mar.
2017.
26
"ICJ Rules on Kosovo's Declaration of Independence » The Hague Justice Portal." ICJ Rules on Kosovo's Declaration
of Independence » The Hague Justice Portal. N.p., 23 July 2010. Web. 26 Mar. 2017.
27
McLaughlin, Daniel. "US and Nato Warn Kosovo against Plans to Form Army." The Irish Times. The Irish Times, 09
Mar. 2017. Web. 26 Mar. 2017.
28
Ministry of Foreign Affairs. "International Recognitions Of The Republic Of Kosovo." Ministry of Foreign Affairs Republic of Kosovo. N.p., n.d. Web. 26 Mar. 2017.
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II.
United Nations Involvement
Security Council Resolution 1244, established in 1999, called for the removal of
Yugoslavian troops from Kosovo and further established a body under the sovereignty of
the United Nations, as well as demilitarizing the Kosovo Liberation Army in order to
reduce tensions within the region and to halt the conflict29. It also established the United
Nations Mission in Kosovo, or UNMIK. The mandate for UNMIK dictates “ensure[d]
conditions for a peaceful and normal for all inhabitants of Kosovo and advance regional
stability in the Western Balkans”30. Regardless of the fact that Kosovo declared
independence in 2008, UNMIK continues to enforce its mandate in a neutral manner
within the Western Balkans.
Alongside UNMIK is the European Union Rule of Law Mission in Kosovo, or
EULEX, whose two main objectives in Kosovo are the “Monitoring, Mentoring and
Advising (MMA)” objective and the “Executive” objective31. The Strengthening
Division’s Monitoring, Mentoring and Advising (MMA) program works closely with
Kosovo’s law and justice departments in order to uphold law and justice. The Division
actively addresses weakness within the governmental structure to prevent political
espionage or interference, as well as expand the capabilities of the Kosovo Police in
29
"Security Council Resolution 1244." International Organization 16.2, Africa and International Organization (1962): 42225. 10 June 1999. Web.
30
"Mandate." UNMIK. United Nations Mission in Kosovo, 17 Feb. 2016. Web. 26 Mar. 2017.
31
"EULEX Mandate Through Two Operational Objectives." EULEX. European Union Rule of Law Mission Kosovo, n.d.
Web. 26 Mar. 2017.
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combatting crime. It monitors serious and large scale crime from investigation to
correctional facilities and manages detention centers. The Division also works with
Kosovo Border Police and Kosovo Customs to implement Kosovo border strategies and
agreements32.The Executive Division collaborates with EULEX judges, prosecutors, and
police to combat, adjudicate, and prosecute crime in Kosovo. EULEX plays a mostly
hands-off role in the justice system now. Old cases and specific extraordinary
circumstances are exclusively or jointly prosecuted with Kosovo. Cases in the Mitrovica
region will be jointly prosecuted by EULEX and Kosovo. Civil justice cases under the
jurisdiction of the Special Chamber of the Supreme Court on Kosovo Privatization
Agency will be prosecuted by EULEX. Cases relating to decisions from the Kosovo
Property Claims Commission that fall under the Appeal Panels will be handled by
Kosovo. EULEX Police will assist Kosovo in investigation and prosecution of EULEX
sensitive cases33.
In 2010 the International Court of Justice (ICJ), in response to the United Nations
General Assembly calling for a ruling on the legitimacy of Kosovo’s declaration of
independence, ruled in favor of the Republic of Kosovo. This granted legal legitimacy to
Kosovo’s formal declaration of independence from Serbia, despite allegations by the
Serbian and Russian governments. The ICJ justified their ruling by noting that the
declaration had not broken any rules established by Security Council Resolution 1244 or
32
"The Strengthening Division." The Strengthening Division - EULEX, Kosovo, European Union Rule of Law Mission in
Kosovo, EU, European Union, European Union External Action. European Union Rule of Law Mission Kosovo, n.d. Web.
26 Mar. 2017.
33
"Executive Division." Executive Division. European Union Rule of Law Mission Kosovo, n.d. Web. 26 Mar. 2017.
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the constitution established under the United Nations Mission in Kosovo34. Additionally,
under the last Yugoslav constitution, Kosovo was granted the same legal right to selfdetermination process as the base for independence as the other Yugoslav Republics35.
Because Kosovo’s universal declaration of independence was not breaking any preexisting laws regarding the status of Kosovo and Kosovo was granted the same selfdetermination rights under the last Yugoslav constitution, in a 10-4 vote the ICJ ruled that
the declaration of independence was not an illegal document and can be considered by
the international community36.
III.
Bloc Positions
 Western Bloc (Europe, North America, Australia): Most of NATO member
states support Kosovo and recognize them as an independent nation, as well as
western nations such as Australia and New Zealand37. They hope that Kosovo’s
independence and recognition will help stabilize the Balkans, which is in the best
interests of these nations. Even if some nations do not recognize Kosovo’s
independence, such as Greece, they are still in support of Kosovo’s membership
in some international organizations.38 However, there are some nations in the
Western bloc that are vehemently against Kosovo’s independence. Spain refuses
34
"ICJ Rules on Kosovo's Declaration of Independence » The Hague Justice Portal." ICJ Rules on Kosovo's Declaration
of Independence » The Hague Justice Portal. N.p., 23 July 2010. Web. 26 Mar. 2017.
35
Ober, J.; Williams, P. R. (2006). "Is it true that there is no right of self-determination for Kosova?". In A. D. Lellio. The
case for Kosova: Passage to independence. New York: Anthem Press. pp. 109–120.
36
"ICJ Rules on Kosovo's Declaration of Independence » The Hague Justice Portal." ICJ Rules on Kosovo's Declaration
of Independence » The Hague Justice Portal. N.p., 23 July 2010. Web. 26 Mar. 2017.
37
"Who Recognized Kosova?" KosovoThanksYou. N.p., Feb. 2017. Web. 26 Mar. 2017.
38
Blic, Danas, and Tanjug. "Recognition of Kosovo Condition for Greece." B92.net. N.p., 14 Aug. 2015. Web. 26 Mar.
2017.
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to recognize Kosovo as a sovereign nation, citing that Serbia’s sovereignty must
be respected and Kosovo broke international law when they declared
independence. Spain is also a nation that has several issues dealing with separatist
groups within their own nation, and fears that if they recognize Kosovo’s
independence the groups within their country will be encouraged to declare
independence. Spain believes that allowing Kosovo to be an independent nation
sets a dangerous precedent in the future39.
 Eastern Europe Bloc: The Balkans are divided in their response to Kosovo’s
independence. Russia refuses to accept Kosovo’s declaration of independence as
legal, siding with the Serbians and arguing that allowing Kosovo to be
independent will potentially destabilize the world order. Russia also has very
close relations with Serbia, continuing their historic alliance.40 Ukraine also does
not wish to recognize Kosovo, citing their support for upholding territorial
integrity in light of the Ukraine-Russia conflict in 201441. However countries such
as Croatia and Montenegro have chosen to recognize Kosovo, continuing the
decades-long standoff between Serbia. Serbia refuses to have any positive
relations with any nation that has recognized Kosovo42.
39
Fazliu, Eraldin. "Recognition Denied: Spain." Kosovo 2.0. N.p., 15 Nov. 2016. Web. 26 Mar. 2017.
Ramani, Samuel. "Why Serbia Is Strengthening Its Alliance with Russia." The Huffington Post. TheHuffingtonPost.com,
12 Feb. 2016. Web. 26 Mar. 2017.
41
Beta, and Tanjug. "Ukraine's Vice PM Says Her Country Won't Recognize Kosovo." B92.net. N.p., 28 July 2016. Web.
26 Mar. 2017.
42
"Croatia and Hungary Recognize Kosovo." The New York Times. The New York Times, 19 Mar. 2008. Web. 26 Mar.
2017.
40
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 Asia Bloc - China is deeply concerned with the precedent that a ruling on Kosovo
could have on its current disputed territories, such as Taiwan.43 China is also
concerned by their multiethnic population and the effects of Kosovo’s
independence on the stability in the Balkans. India also fears that recognizing
Kosovo will encourage independence for Kashmir, as well as declaring that
Kosovo was missing qualifications required for recognition44. However, Japan has
recognized Kosovo’s independence since 2008, and has a trade relationship with
the Republic of Kosovo45.
 Middle East Bloc: Despite the majority Muslim population in Kosovo, nations
such as Iran, Iraq, and Lebanon have wavering support for their independence and
do not recognize Kosovo as an independent nation. Israel doesn’t recognize
Kosovo as an independent nation, fearing that the unilateral path that Kosovo took
could be used by the Palestinians to break away from Israel46. Other nations in
the Middle East that have strong ties with Russia also do not recognize Kosovo.
However, even though Turkey has the Kurdish separatist population, they
strongly support and recognize Kosovo as an independent nation. Turkey47. Other
43
Beck, Lindsay. "China "deeply Concerned" over Kosovo Independence." Reuters. Thomson Reuters, 18 Feb. 2008.
Web. 26 Mar. 2017.
44
Sivaramakrishnan, Arvind. "Kashmir Issue Clouds Indian View of Kosovo." The Hindu. N.p., 26 Sept. 2016. Web. 26
Mar. 2017.
45
"Japan-Kosovo Relations (Basic Data)." Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan. N.p., 22 Dec. 2014. Web. 26 Mar. 2017.
46
Lazaroff, Tovah, and Ilan Ivyatar. "Israel-Kosovo Relations Marked by Shared Sympathies, Hampered by Identity
Politics." The Jerusalem Post | JPost.com. N.p., 28 Feb. 2015. Web. 26 Mar. 2017.
47
"From Rep. of Turkey Ministry of Foreign Affairs." Republic of Turkey Ministry of Foreign Affairs. N.p., n.d. Web. 26 Mar.
2017.
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nations, such as Saudi Arabia, have expressed strong support in favor of Kosovo’s
recognition.
 Africa Bloc The African Union has not reached a joint consensus on the
recognition of Kosovo48. Because of this, support for Kosovo varies in Africa,
with some nations like Nigeria in support of Serbia’s territorial integrity49, while
others, like South Sudan, support Kosovo’s declaration of independence. Some
nations in Africa, such as Algeria, wish to stand alongside the Muslim population
in Kosovo, but feels that they cannot because they believe Kosovo has violated
international law. Algeria, like several countries in Africa, have a strong
relationship with Serbia50.
 Latin America Bloc: Kosovo has been making attempts to gain the recognition
of important nations within the Latin America Bloc. Many nations in Latin
America, such as Brazil, emphasize that thorough cooperation and
communication between Serbia and Kosovo will make it easier for them to
recognize Kosovo as a nation. Other nations in Latin America follow a
sovereignty philosophy similar to Serbia, making recognition difficult51. While
most nations in Latin America are willing to meet with politicians from Kosovo,
there are a few nations that have taken a very strong stance against Kosovo.
48
"Jeremic: Majority of African Union Member States Against Kosovo Independence." Kosovo Compromise. N.p., 3 July
2009. Web. 26 Mar. 2017.
49
"Nigeria Yet to Recognise Kosovo as Independent Country." Premium Times Nigeria. N.p., 28 Mar. 2014. Web. 26 Mar.
2017.
50
InSerbia Staff. "Algeria Will Not Recognize Kosovo." InSerbia News. N.p., 22 May 2015. Web. 26 Mar. 2017.
51
"Kosovo Seeks Various Forms of Cooperation with Latin America." Ministry of Foreign Affairs - Republic of Kosovo.
N.p., n.d. Web. 26 Mar. 2017.
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Venezuela does not recognize Kosovo, claiming that the republic was created
because of U.S.interference in the Balkans. Venezuela believes that accepting
Kosovo sets a dangerous precedent for further U.S. involvement in the creation of
states52.
52
Daniel, Frank, and Sandra Maler. "Venezuela's Chavez Does Not Recognize Kosovo." Reuters. Thomson Reuters, 21
Feb. 2008. Web. 26 Mar. 2017.
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IV. Questions to Consider
1. How does Kosovo’s independence affect stability within the Balkans? Will their
recognition as an independent nation and their independence create more chaos or will it
further stabilize the Balkans?
2. Consider the demographic of the people living in Kosovo. Should a minority of the
population within the territory play a key role in determining the status of this territory?
3. How does religion affect the situation in Kosovo?
4. How will the UN’s decision on the legitimacy of Kosovo’s independence set precedent
for other separatist states? How has it already set precedent for separatist states?
5. Given the history of ethnic tension within Kosovo, how does your nation propose to
respond to the growing ethnic divide and clash in Kosovo
V. Suggested Sites
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• http://www.haguejusticeportal.net/index.php?id=11906 - This is a
summary of the ruling on the Kosovo Case
• http://www.eulex-kosovo.eu/?page=2,1 The Homepage for EULEX
Mission in Kosovo’s Website
• https://unmik.unmissions.org/ UNMIK’s Website
• http://www.securitycouncilreport.org/atf/cf/%7B65BFCF9B-6D274E9C-8CD3-CF6E4FF96FF9%7D/kos%20SRES%201244.pdf
Resolution 1244
• https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/ The CIA
Factbook. This is very helpful in getting a general idea about your own
country’s policy
• http://www.assembly-kosova.org/?cid=2,128,1635 Kosovo’s declaration
of Independence
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VI. Bibliography
Beck, Lindsay. "China "deeply Concerned" over Kosovo Independence." Reuters.
Thomson Reuters, 18 Feb. 2008. Web. 26 Mar. 2017.
Beta, and Tanjug. "Ukraine's Vice PM Says Her Country Won't Recognize Kosovo."
B92.net. N.p., 28 July 2016. Web. 26 Mar. 2017.
Blic, Danas, and Tanjug. "Recognition of Kosovo Condition for Greece." B92.net. N.p.,
14 Aug. 2015. Web. 26 Mar. 2017.
Bideleux, Robert. "Kosovo's Conflict." Kosovo's Conflict | History Today. History
Today, Nov. 1998. Web. 26 Mar. 2017.
"Croatia and Hungary Recognize Kosovo." The New York Times. The New York Times,
19 Mar. 2008. Web. 26 Mar. 2017.
Daniel, Frank, and Sandra Maler. "Venezuela's Chavez Does Not Recognize Kosovo."
Reuters. Thomson Reuters, 21 Feb. 2008. Web. 26 Mar. 2017.
"EULEX Mandate Through Two Operational Objectives." EULEX. European Union
Rule of Law Mission Kosovo, n.d. Web. 26 Mar. 2017.
"Executive Division." Executive Division. European Union Rule of Law Mission
Kosovo, n.d. Web. 26 Mar. 2017.
Fazliu, Eraldin. "Recognition Denied: Spain." Kosovo 2.0. N.p., 15 Nov. 2016. Web. 26
Mar. 2017.
"From Rep. of Turkey Ministry of Foreign Affairs." Republic of Turkey Ministry of
Foreign Affairs. N.p., n.d. Web. 26 Mar. 2017.
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Gordon, Michael R. "NATO Admits the Mistaken Bombing of Civilians." The New York
Times. The New York Times, 15 Apr. 1999. Web. 26 Mar. 2017.
"ICJ Rules on Kosovo's Declaration of Independence » The Hague Justice Portal." ICJ
Rules on Kosovo's Declaration of Independence » The Hague Justice Portal. N.p.,
23 July 2010. Web. 26 Mar. 2017.
InSerbia Staff. "Algeria Will Not Recognize Kosovo." InSerbia News. N.p., 22 May
2015. Web. 26 Mar. 2017.
"Japan-Kosovo Relations (Basic Data)." Ministry of Foreign Affairs of Japan. N.p., 22
Dec. 2014. Web. 26 Mar. 2017.
"Jeremic: Majority of African Union Member States Against Kosovo Independence."
Kosovo Compromise. N.p., 3 July 2009. Web. 26 Mar. 2017.
Jovanić, Vladan. "The Colonization of Kosovo." Peščanik. N.p., 8 Apr. 2013. Web. 26
Mar. 2017.
Krieger, Heike (2001). The Kosovo Conflict and International Law: An Analytical
Documentation 1974–1999. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 9780521800716.
"Kosovo Seeks Various Forms of Cooperation with Latin America." Ministry of Foreign
Affairs - Republic of Kosovo. N.p., n.d. Web. 26 Mar. 2017.
Lazaroff, Tovah, and Ilan Ivyatar. "Israel-Kosovo Relations Marked by Shared
Sympathies, Hampered by Identity Politics." The Jerusalem Post | JPost.com.
N.p., 28 Feb. 2015. Web. 26 Mar. 2017.
"Mandate." UNMIK. United Nations Mission in Kosovo, 17 Feb. 2016. Web. 26 Mar.
2017.
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McLaughlin, Daniel. "US and Nato Warn Kosovo against Plans to Form Army." The
Irish Times. The Irish Times, 09 Mar. 2017. Web. 26 Mar. 2017.
Melissa Katherine Bokovoy, Jill A. Irvine, Carol S. Lilly. State-society relations in
Yugoslavia, 1945–1992. Scranton, Pennsylvania, US: Palgrave Macmillan, 1997.
Pp. 296.
Ministry of Foreign Affairs. "International Recognitions Of The Republic Of Kosovo."
Ministry of Foreign Affairs - Republic of Kosovo. N.p., n.d. Web. 26 Mar. 2017.
"NATO & Kosovo: Historical Overview." NATO & Kosovo: Historical Overview. N.p.,
15 July 1999. Web. 26 Mar. 2017.
"NATO & Kosovo: Military Technical Agreement." NATO & Kosovo: Military
Technical Agreement - 9 June 1999. N.p., 09 June 1999. Web. 26 Mar. 2017.
Ober, J.; Williams, P. R. (2006). "Is it true that there is no right of self-determination for
Kosova?". In A. D. Lellio. The case for Kosova: Passage to independence. New
York: Anthem Press. pp. 109–120.
PBS. "A Kosovo Cronology." PBS. Public Broadcasting Service, n.d. Web. 26 Mar.
2017.
Ramani, Samuel. "Why Serbia Is Strengthening Its Alliance with Russia." The
Huffington Post. TheHuffingtonPost.com, 12 Feb. 2016. Web. 26 Mar. 2017.
Sagal, Sabby. "Balkan Flashpoints." Kosovo: A History of Clashing Empires. Socialist
Review, May 1999.
Web. 26 Mar. 2017.
"Security Council Resolution 1244." International Organization 16.2, Africa and
International Organization (1962): 422-25. 10 June 1999. Web.
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Sivaramakrishnan, Arvind. "Kashmir Issue Clouds Indian View of Kosovo." The Hindu.
N.p., 26 Sept. 2016. Web. 26 Mar. 2017.
"The Strengthening Division." The Strengthening Division - EULEX, Kosovo, European
Union Rule of Law Mission in Kosovo, EU, European Union, European Union
External Action. European Union Rule of Law Mission Kosovo, n.d. Web. 26
Mar. 2017.
"Who Recognized Kosova?" KosovoThanksYou. N.p., Feb. 2017. Web. 26 Mar. 2017.
Young, Antonia, and John R. Lampe. "Kosovo." Encyclopedia Britannica. Encyclopedia
Britannica Inc, 14 July 2016. Web.
Topic II: Kurdistan
I. Historical Background
Within the area that borders Turkey, Syria, Iraq, and Iran is a roughly defined region
consisting of a majority Kurdish population. Some Kurdish nationalist groups call for an
independent Kurdish state, while others simply seek autonomy within the existing
national boundaries of the area. In Turkey, Kurdish people face oppression through
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erasure of culture, language, and identity. A militant separatist organization, The
Kurdistan Workers Party (PKK), sparked a guerilla war within Turkey in the 1980s and
1990s, further feeding into anti-Kurdish sentiment. The Kurdish people have also been
participating in the ongoing Syrian Civil War by allying with the Syrian Democratic
Forces (SDF) and holding territory for themselves in northern Syria. While the Kurdish
people have been given autonomy in nations such as Iraq, the demands for autonomy in
sovereign nations or for their own separate nation are being met with resistance in the
region.With an estimated population of 28 million, the Kurds are one of the largest ethnic
groups in the world without an independent state. The Kurds have long sought autonomy,
but were never granted their own independence within the region. The fall of the
Ottoman Empire after World War 1 and the emergence of new nation states in the Middle
East did not work in their favor, as the lands where Kurdish population was the majority,
was divided between Turkey, Syria, Iraq and Iran53.
In Iraq, the kurds were repeatedly targeted and persecuted by the regime of
Saddam Hussein. Years of conflict led to an agreement between the government and the
Kurds in March of 1970, allowing the kurds to create their own autonomy within the
region of kurdish-majority cities. However, the agreement was not implemented and by
1974, Iraq began to witness another Iraqi Kurdish war. The 1980-88 Iran-Iraq war was
also disastrous for the Kurds. Efforts by Saddam Hussein to crush the rebellion of
Kurdish forces in the north led to genocide, as Saddam used chemical weapons killing
53
Roy, Sonia. "The Kurdish Issue." Foreign Policy Journal. 05 Sept. 2016. Web.
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thousands of civilians54. The Halabja massacre on March 16th, 1988, was the deadliest,
with estimated accounts of 5000 civilians deaths and more than 7000 injuries in just one
day55. An uprising in 1991 succeeded as the Peshmerga (Military forces of Iraqi
Kurdistan) were able to push out government forces from the north. The same year, a nofly zone implemented due to the first gulf war helped the Kurds maintain control of their
region and begin the process of turning their autonomy into a reality. Though not free of
conflict, the Kurds were able to maintain their autonomy. Following the U.S. Invasion
and the collapse of the Saddam Hussein regime, the Kurds were granted constitutional
autonomy, with the 2005 constitution defining northern Iraq as the Kurdistan region
within a federalist Iraq. Today, it remains an autonomous region known as Iraqi
Kurdistan, with its own flag, anthem and military forces (Peshmerga). The estimated
population of Iraqi Kurdistan is 5.5 million, and its capital is Erbil56.
In Syria, Kurdish forces were able to prove themselves as one of the main fighting
forces against ISIL. In 2012 following the intensifying of the Syrian War, the People’s
Protection Unit (YPG) was formed by an alliance of Kurdish militias and parties, after
government forces were deployed to other areas. The YPG continued its attacks against
ISIL militias and was successful in gaining territory in northern Syria. The region in
northern Syria currently controlled and inhabited by Kurds is known as Rojava, and
includes 3 self-governing districts. Much like the Kurds in Iraq, the YPG and more
54
"Iraqi Kurdistan Profile." BBC News. BBC, 05 Feb. 2016. Web.
Kinsley, Susan F. "Whatever Happened To The Iraqi Kurds? (Human Rights Watch Report, March 11, 1991)."
56
"The Kurdistan Region in Brief." Kurdistan Regional Government. Web.
55
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generally the coalition of Kurdish forces in northern Syria has enabled an increase in civil
and institutional independence57. Today, Rojava has two co-presidents, representing the
importance of gender equality for Kurds in Syria and the diversity of including both
ethnic Kurds and ethnic Arabs58. Although it is unclear, due to the Syrian civil war and
the war with ISIL, how the situation will pan out in the future; there have been
indications that the Kurds in Syria would ideally pursuit maintaining their autonomy
within a future federalist Syria59.
In Iran, Kurds live in numerous provinces, including the Kurdistan province
(within Iran only), that border northern Iraq and southeastern Turkey. It is estimated that
the population of that area is 6.7 million, with the majority of them being Kurds. The
majority of Iranian Kurds make up the minority Sunni Muslim population in majority
Shia iran. After World War II and the occupation of Iran by allied forces, a small
‘Republic of Kurdistan’ was established in the city of Mahabad. However, the territory
was too small to include all Iranian kurds and the Republic didn’t even last a year.
Although the situation between the government and Kurdish groups has been always
tense, leading to demonstrations in 1996 and 1999, Iranian Kurds today have not showed
as much interest in their having own state or autonomy as Kurds in Iraq, Syria and
Turkey have60.
"PYD Announces Surprise Interim Government in Syria’s Kurdish Regions." Rudaw, 13 Nov. 2013. Web.
"Syrian Kurds Declare New Federation in Bid for Recognition." Middle East Eye. N.p., 17 Mar. 2016. Web.
59
"Kurds Want Lands They Control in Syria to Become Federation under Damascus." RT International. Russia Today, 16
Mar. 2016. Web.
60
"Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization." UNPO: Iranian Kurdistan. 25 Mar. 2008. Web.
57
58
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The situation in Turkey remains to be one of the most violent and complicated
aspects of the whole conflict. After World War I, the Treaty of Sèvres was signed
between representatives of Ottoman Turkey and the Allied powers (British Empire,
France, Italy and others) on August 10th, 1920. Formally beginning the end of the
Ottoman Empire, the treaty was also supposed to grant Armenians their own state and
give the kurds autonomy within Turkey. However, leaders of the new Turkish nationalist
movement, such as Mustafa Kemal Atatürk, rejected it and it was ultimately replaced by
the Treaty of Lausanne three years later61. The treaty of Lausanne ended the conflict
between Turkey and allied powers, finalized the borders of the new state of Turkey with
many of the demands in the previous treaty being dropped, such as the call for autonomy
for Kurds within Turkey62. In 1925, a Kurdish uprising led by Sheikh Said, but the
insurgency was unsuccessful and its aftermath resulted in the large-scale suppression of
Kurdish identity in Turkey63. Over the following years, Turkey continued its attempts at
erasing Kurdish identity within its borders, outlawing Kurdish language and referring to
Kurds in Turkey as ‘Mountain Turks’64. By 1931, the Ararat rebellion, which created a
self-proclaimed Kurdish state in southeast Turkey by the name of The Republic of Ararat
in 1927, was also defeated and Turkey regained control over all the territory it had lost in
the last couple of years due to numerous Kurdish uprisings65. Turkey continued policies
61
"Treaty of Sèvres." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 20 July 1998. Web.
"Treaty of Lausanne." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 20 July 1998. Web
63
Turkey/Kurds (1922-present)." University of Arkansas Political Science. University of Arkansas
64
Roy, Sonia. "The Kurdish Issue." Foreign Policy Journal. 05 Sept. 2016. Web.
65
"Ararat Rebellion." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 21 Mar. 2017. Web. 27 Mar. 2017
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of ‘Turficiation’, changing names of provinces and resettling populations of minorities
within it. The uprisings did not stop, and by 1937, the Dersim Rebellion began in the
eastern Turkey province of Dersim. The rebellion was brutally repressed by the Turkish
Military, with different accounts of 13,000 to 70,000 deaths as a result66. Turkey’s
President, Recep Tayyip Erdoğan, even apologized for the massacre in 2011, calling it
“the most tragic event in our recent history”67. Turkey completely militarized the region
and suppression of kurds further continued for the following years.
In the late 1978, the Kurdistan Workers Party (PKK), an extreme left wingideology group was formed in Turkey by Abdallah Öcalan, with the intention of
‘liberating’ Kurdish regions and creating an independent Kurdish state within the borders
of Turkey. By 1984, the PKK became violent and launched an armed uprising, and
although several ceasefires were implemented, the conflict has continued until this day.
Öcalan was captured in 1999, convicted of treason and sentenced to death, but his
sentence was later commuted to life in prison as Turkey had abolished the death penalty.
The ideology of the PKK has changed over the years, but its call for Kurdish self
determination within Turkey remains to be the cornerstone of its movement. The conflict
between the PKK and Turkey has resulted in more than 50,000 deaths on both sides over
the last 38 years, and has been sparked again in july of 2015 after a ceasefire was agreed
upon in 2012 More recently, PKK leaders have declared that they seek autonomy within
Turkey rather than their own independent state. PKK attacks have also not been
66
"Dersim Rebellion." Military Wiki. Web
Mustafah, Ruwayda. "Why Did Erdogan Apologise For The Dersim Massacre?" The Huffington Post.
TheHuffingtonPost.com, 29 Nov. 2011. Web.
67
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specifically targeted against the Turkish military only, and many of its offensives have
resulted in civilian deaths within Turkey. This has resulted in the classification of PKK as
a terrorist organization, not only but Turkey, but also by the United States, European
Union and other international actors68. Turkey’s repressive treatment against its kurds
have resulted in a lot of scrutiny from the international community, with multiple reports
of human rights violations by the UN Committee Against Torture, Human Rights Watch
and other international agencies6970.
II. United Nations Involvement
UN involvement in the debate over a Kurdish independent state extends back to
1923 when several states involved in World War I signed the Treaty of Lausanne. This
treaty separated the territories which now encompass Turkey, Iraq, and Iran. Kurdish
leaders considered this treaty to be a missed opportunity as they were unable to get
recognition of an autonomous Kurdish state71. More recently regional conflicts and
increased Kurdish involvement in the joint military efforts against the Islamic State have
rekindled Kurdish nationalism and the international dialogues over the issue of a potential
autonomous state in Iraq. The United Nations Security Council passed resolution 1546,
for example, in 2004 and brought an end to the foreign occupation in Iraq and established
a framework for an interim government called the Transitional Administrative Law72.
68
"Who Are Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK) Rebels?" BBC News. BBC, 04 Nov. 2016. Web.
"UN Committee against Torture: Review of Turkey." Human Rights Watch. 22 Apr. 2016. Web.
70
"Turkey." Human Rights Watch. N.p., 27 Jan. 2016. Web.
71
The Editors of Encyclopædia Britannica. "Treaty of Lausanne." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.,
20 July 1998. Web. 27 Mar. 2017.
72
"IRAQ: U.N. Resolution 1546." Council on Foreign Relations. Council on Foreign Relations, n.d. Web. 27 Mar. 2017.
69
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This interim government was highly controversial in Iraq as it provided unprecedented
protections for minority groups, such as the Kurds, effectively reigniting the issue of
Kurdish representation. Kurds also received protections under United Nations Security
Council resolution 688 passed in 1991. The resolution, which followed brutal suppression
of Kurds and other ethnic minority groups in Iraq following the Gulf War, condemned
the repression of civilians in Iraq by the Iraqi authorities, provided humanitarian aid and
relief to victimized groups, and ultimately implemented a no-fly zone in northern Iraq,
protecting the Kurdish population there. Furthermore, the resolution called upon Iraq to
report on the status of Kurdish populations and to fully cooperate with the United
Nations, as well as associated non-governmental organizations, in the implementation of
humanitarian aid efforts73.
Another recent request made in 2016 to Turkey by the United Nations Security
Council emphasized the international commitment to the Munich agreement and the
desire of the United Nations to “allow humanitarian access for every place in the Syrian
territory”74. This request highlighted the continued mistreatment of Kurds in Syria, and
throughout the Middle East, while also bringing attention to the problems caused by a
lack of Kurdish representation internationally and domestically. An effort in 2014 made
by the president of the Kurdish region in Iraq to hold a referendum on Kurdish secession
and independence would have worked to provide the Kurds with the representation for
73
"Security Council Resolutions 1991." United Nations. United Nations, n.d. Web. 27 Mar. 2017.
"UNSC Urges Turkey to 'comply with Intl Law' in Syria after Russia Requests Meeting." RT International. N.p., n.d. Web.
27 Mar. 2017.
74
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which they have long requested; however, the Arab League rejected the notion of a
referendum citing the fact that the Iraqi constitution does not allow such an action75.
In March of 1970, the Iraqi government and Kurdish party members sat down to
issue a peace accord between the two groups. After years of tension between the Iraqi
government and Kurdish groups, the peace accord not only recognized the Kurds as an
official nationality in Iraq, but also grants the Kurds an autonomous Kurdish State in
northern Iraq76. However, this peace accord did not last, and the country was torn apart
due to the Iraq-Iran War and the division between Iraqis and the Kurds within Iraq. It
wasn’t until 2005 that the first session of the Kurdish parliament was held. The Iraqi
constitution has divided the nation into several regions, with the Iraqi-Kurdistan region
being one of those federal regions. In the Iraqi Constitution, the Kurdish parliament is
allowed to have jurisdiction over domestic affairs that concern and involve their states,
while the government in Baghdad deals with international affairs and disputes abroad77.
III. Bloc Positions:
• Middle Eastern Bloc: Having its own violent conflict with Kurds within its region,
Turkey has naturally opposed other Kurdish groups in the neighboring countries of
Syria and Iraq. Turkey views groups like the YPG in Syria as allies of the PKK, thus
classifying them as terrorists and objecting support by international actors for them.
75
Mamoun, Abdelhak. "Arab League Rejects Kurdistan Independence." Iraq News, the Latest Iraq News by Iraqi News.
N.p., 02 July 2014. Web. 27 Mar. 2017.
76
"Iraqi Kurdistan Profile - Timeline." BBC News. BBC, 01 Aug. 2015. Web. 27 Mar. 2017.
77
"Kurdistan Regional Government." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 23 Mar. 2017. Web. 27 Mar. 2017.
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The PKK in Turkey has also supported the YPG in Syria7879. Iran also has a Kurdish
population within their borders that has been trying to achieve power through the
government instead of reviving a separatist group. Regardless of this, Iran still
discriminates against them socioeconomically and politically80. Iran fears that any
Kurdish group granted autonomy within their neighboring states is a threat to their
national security, and supports the containment of Kurdish separatist groups. Iraq has
granted autonomy to a Kurdish region in the North, being the only state that has
allowed the Kurds to maintain a stable government of their own81. The Arab League
has also rejected the proposal for a Kurdish State within Syria in order to maintain the
unity and territorial integrity of Syria, and not wanting to cause more division for the
nation in the midst of their civil war82.
•
Eastern Bloc: Russia and China: Both countries may have an interest in balancing
U.S. influence in the region, and this becomes apparent when one directly looks at the
Syrian war and how these international actors have behaved in relation to the different
aspects of the war. Both countries also have substantial minority populations, making
them both more cautious in acting on issues of autonomy and independence for
minority groups. Russia is also an ally of the Syrian government, which puts it at odds
with the YPG and Kurdish groups within Syria.
78
Wallace, Sarah Almukhtar and Tim. "Why Turkey Is Fighting the Kurds Who Are Fighting ISIS." The New York Times.
The New York Times, 12 Aug. 2015. Web.
79
Toksabay, Ece. "Turkey Calls for Unconditional U.S. Support against Kurdish YPG." Reuters. Thomson Reuters, 20
Feb. 2016. Web.
80
Namazi, Marjan. "Why Iran Fears Iraq's Kurds." The Daily Beast. The Daily Beast Company, 12 Aug. 2014. Web. 27
Mar. 2017.
81
"Iraqi Kurdistan Profile." BBC News. BBC, 05 Feb. 2016. Web. 27 Mar. 2017.
82
MEE Staff. "Arab League Rejects Kurdish Federation in Syria." Middle East Eye. Middle East Eye, 21 Mar. 2016. Web. 27 Mar.
2017.
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•
Western Bloc : While the United States has never formally supported the idea of a an
independent Kurdish State, it has approached and dealt with the various Kurdish
groups in the region differently. Although it may be in its best interest to avoid
controversy with the relevant states in the middle east and remain neutral, its previous
involvement in Iraq as well as it's leading role in the fight against ISIL puts in a
position where it is hard to do so. The US has trained Iraqi Kurds in the past, but has
not directly armed their military faction (Peshmerga) and instead deals with the
central government of Iraq in Baghdad. The United States has also supported Syrian
kurds (YPG) in their fight against ISIL, but has not shown absolute commitment to
their overall cause83.European States’ main interest resides in their relations with
Turkey, as the ‘Kurdish problem’ was one of the main reasons the European Union
was reluctant in its negotiations with Turkey about EU membership84. The European
Union has previously provided training and weapons to Iraqi Kurds. Turkey has
currently been bombing Syrian Kurdish groups that have been fighting against ISIS
and providing weapons to anti-Kurdish groups within Syria, which may cause Europe
to not tolerate Turkey’s treatment of the Kurds due to their hindrance in the fight
against ISIS85.
83
Huzaif, Sayyed. "The Time of the Kurds." Council On Foreign Relations. Cfr.org, n.d. Web.
Macdonald, Alastair. "EU Very Worried by Turkey's Arrests of Kurdish Leaders." Reuters. Thomson Reuters, 04 Nov.
2016. Web.
85
Isik, Ebubekir. "The EU-Turkey Refugee Deal and the Kurdish Issue." Al Jazeera English. Al Jazeera Media Network, 5
Mar. 2016. Web. 27 Mar. 2017.
84
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•
Africa/Latin America Bloc: Most nations in Latin America are non-aligned states
on the topic of Kurdistan, as well as many nations in southern Africa. However, some
countries that are against separatist groups, such as Nigeria, will not support any
group that threatens the integrity of a state due to their own personal history with
separatist groups86.
IV. Questions to Consider
1.
Does the United Nations have a direct responsibility to intervene in granting Kurdish
populations their rights of self determination?
86
"Nigeria Yet to Recognise Kosovo as Independent Country." Premium Times Nigeria. N.p., 28 Mar. 2014. Web. 26 Mar.
2017.
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2.
How can the United Nations ensure the protection of civilians and the enforcement
of human rights in the relevant conflicts throughout the Kurdistan region, without
interfering in the affairs of sovereign States?
3.
Would it be better if Kurds were granted their own independent state of Kurdistan or
whether they each had their own autonomy within the current countries they reside
in?
4.
Should the United States, given that it has supported the YPG as one of the main
opponents of ISIL, actively support YPG aspiration of having their own autonomy
within Syria?
5.
What mistakes has the international community done in the past in relevance to this
issue, and how should it re-approach it?
V. Suggested Sites
•
http://thekurdishproject.org/
•
http://www.economist.com/news/international/21644167-iraqs-kurds-areindependent-all-name-they-must-play-their-cards-cleverly-if-they
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•
http://www.kurdistan24.net/en/
•
http://www.aljazeera.com/topics/people/kurds.html
•
http://www.newyorker.com/culture/photo-booth/iraqi-kurdistan-caught-betweenworlds
VI. Bibliography
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2017.
"Dersim Rebellion." Military Wiki. Web
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Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 20 July 1998. Web. 27 Mar. 2017.
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Huzaif, Sayyed. "The Time of the Kurds." Council On Foreign Relations. Cfr.org, n.d.
Web.
"IRAQ: U.N. Resolution 1546." Council on Foreign Relations. Council on Foreign
Relations, n.d. Web. 27 Mar. 2017.
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"Iraqi Kurdistan Profile - Timeline." BBC News. BBC, 01 Aug. 2015. Web. 27 Mar.
2017.
Isik, Ebubekir. "The EU-Turkey Refugee Deal and the Kurdish Issue." Al Jazeera
English. Al Jazeera Media Network, 5 Mar. 2016. Web. 27 Mar. 2017.
Kinsley, Susan F. "Whatever Happened To The Iraqi Kurds? (Human Rights Watch
Report, March 11, 1991)."
"Kurds Want Lands They Control in Syria to Become Federation under Damascus." RT
International. Russia Today, 16 Mar. 2016. Web.
"Kurdistan Regional Government." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation, 23 Mar. 2017.
Web. 27 Mar. 2017.
"The Kurdistan Region in Brief." Kurdistan Regional Government. Web.
Macdonald, Alastair. "EU Very Worried by Turkey's Arrests of Kurdish Leaders."
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Mamoun, Abdelhak. "Arab League Rejects Kurdistan Independence." Iraq News, the
Latest Iraq News by Iraqi News. N.p., 02 July 2014. Web. 27 Mar. 2017.
MEE Staff. "Arab League Rejects Kurdish Federation in Syria." Middle East Eye. Middle
East Eye, 21 Mar. 2016. Web. 27 Mar. 2017.
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Mustafah, Ruwayda. "Why Did Erdogan Apologise For The Dersim Massacre?" The
Huffington Post. TheHuffingtonPost.com, 29 Nov. 2011. Web.
Namazi, Marjan. "Why Iran Fears Iraq's Kurds." The Daily Beast. The Daily Beast
Company, 12 Aug. 2014. Web. 27 Mar. 2017."PYD Announces Surprise Interim
Government in Syria’s Kurdish Regions." Rudaw, 13 Nov. 2013. Web.
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17 Mar. 2016. Web.
"Treaty of Lausanne." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 20 July
1998. Web
"Treaty of Sèvres." Encyclopædia Britannica. Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc., 20 July
1998. Web.
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Reuters. Thomson Reuters, 20 Feb. 2016. Web.
"Turkey." Human Rights Watch. N.p., 27 Jan. 2016. Web.
Turkey/Kurds (1922-present)." University of Arkansas Political Science. University of
Arkansas
"UN Committee against Torture: Review of Turkey." Human Rights Watch. 22 Apr.
2016. Web.
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"UNSC Urges Turkey to 'comply with Intl Law' in Syria after Russia Requests Meeting."
RT International. N.p., n.d. Web. 27 Mar. 2017.
UN Security Council Resolution 688, Iraq." Council On Foreign Relations. Cfr.org, n.d.
Web
"United Nations Security Council Resolution 688." Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation.
Web.
"Unrepresented Nations and Peoples Organization." UNPO: Iranian Kurdistan. 25 Mar.
2008. Web.
Wallace, Sarah Almukhtar and Tim. "Why Turkey Is Fighting the Kurds Who Are
Fighting ISIS." The New York Times. The New York Times, 12 Aug. 2015. Web.
"Who Are Kurdistan Workers' Party (PKK) Rebels?" BBC News. BBC, 04 Nov. 2016.
Web.
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