The Institute for Domestic and International Affairs, Inc.
European Union Parliament
Energy Policy in the European Union
Director: Whitley Harris
© 2009 Institute for Domestic & International Affairs, Inc. (IDIA)
This document is solely for use in preparation for Rutgers Model
United Nations 2009. Use for other purposes is not permitted
without the express written consent of IDIA. For more
information, please write us at [email protected]
Policy Dilemma ____________________________________________________________1
Chronology ________________________________________________________________2
18 April 1951: Founding of the European Coal and Steel Community___________________ 2
16 October 1973: Arab Oil Embargo ______________________________________________ 3
1979: Energy Crisis ____________________________________________________________ 3
2000: EU - Russian Energy Dialogue ______________________________________________ 4
2006: European Council--Energy Policy for Europe _________________________________ 5
Possible Causes ____________________________________________________________6
Actors and Interests _________________________________________________________8
Russia _______________________________________________________________________ 8
Caspian / Black Sea Regions _____________________________________________________ 9
MENA Region________________________________________________________________ 10
Norway _____________________________________________________________________ 11
China _______________________________________________________________________ 11
Projections and Implications_________________________________________________12
Bibliography ______________________________________________________________15
For Further Reading __________________________________________________________ 15
Works Cited _________________________________________________________________ 16
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Policy Dilemma
Energy security has never been more important in the European Union then it
is today. In the 21st Century, Europe needs energy in order to function but the
vulnerability they face from political turmoil, armed conflict, geopolitical rivalry and
natural disasters in procuring energy is growing steadily. Currently, the European
Union imports 50 per cent of its energy needs. By 2030 this number is expected to be
around 65 per cent. In previous years, the European Union has used very little of its
power to influence individual member state energy policy.1 This changed in 2007:
Increased fears and concern about Europe’s reliance on Russian energy and energy
from states in turmoil have forced the 27 member states of the European Union to
create a common energy policy for Europe. This has been addressed by the creation
European Union –wide energy targets (some of these targets are legally binding)
which include an increase in renewable energy initiatives and the reduction of carbon
emissions. Currently, the European Union has joined together to achieve its core
objectives concerning energy which include sustainability, competitiveness, and
security of supply in their 20-20-20 plan, reducing greenhouse gases by 20 per cent,
increasing the share of renewable energy sources by 20 per cent, and improving
energy efficiency by 20 per cent, all by 2020. 2
The European Unions new found interest in energy security has been
influenced by a variety of factors. Inside of the European Union, rising energy prices,
declining production of energy in Europe, and a fragmented European energy market
have created fears over Europe’s ability to meet future energy demands. Externally,
the global demand for energy from emerging economies, such as India and China,
instability in energy producing regions in the Middle East and Africa, and Russia’s
ability to exert its energy power for geopolitical gains, are raising concerns over how
Europe will address its impending energy deficit.
Belkin, Paul . "The European Union's Energy Security Challenges." Federation of
American Scientists. 30 July 2008. 11 July 2009
<www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL33636.pdf>.
1
2
Ibid.
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The European Union has exercised influence over energy policy thorough its authority
to pursue internal market competition, environment and consumer protection policies.
However, the practice of individual states making energy-related decisions without
consulting or assessing the impact of decisions on other states has made it difficult for
the EU to coordinate common policies or practices for the Union as a whole.
Although the European Unions 27 member states have ceded much of their national
sovereignty to the European Unions Institutions in areas such as the economy and
trade policy, energy policy remains largely in control of member states. Two of the
largest problems surrounding the energy security debate concern the fact that member
states are continuing to pursue external energy policies along with an overwhelming
reluctance to cede national control over energy markets. 3
The European Union has always been concerned with energy policy, having
evolved from the European Coal and Steel Community in the mid-1950s. Until very
recently, however, the idea of introducing a mandatory European energy policy was
widely considered unnecessary. Energy Security revolves around many concerns for
the European Union, including increasing reliance on foreign energy sources,
geopolitical concerns such as supporting dictatorships, instability in regions where
energy is gathered, and environmental issues like climate change. Because energy
insecurity poses risks that will only serve to exacerbate other pressing global matters
this issue is now being taken more seriously not just by the European Union but
around the world. 4
Chronology
18 April 1951: Founding of the European Coal and Steel
Community
In April 1951, six nations of Western Europe sign the Treaty of Paris,
established the European Coal and Steel Community, the precursor to the European
Union. The ECSC was founded in order to bring peace and stability to Europe
Petersen, Knud, Arno Behrens & Christian Egenhofer, “Energy Policy for Europe:
Identifying the European Added-Value: CEPS Taskforce”, CEPS 2009.
3
4
Bengtsson, Rikard. The EU and the European Security Order: Interfacing Security Actors (Contemporary
Security Studies). New York: Routledge, 2009.
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following the “war to end all wars” by linking Western Europe together politically and
economically. In terms of the economy coal and steel were and still are important
sources raw materials.
5
The collectivization of coal and steel resources were very
important to European nations. On one hand, coal was used more than any other fuel
and the Ruhr valley region between Germany and France was rich with the material.
The attempt by the European Commission to move towards a common policy on
energy in the form of the European Coal and Steel Community and EURATOM (an
attempt to address nuclear energy) were blocked by national monopolies and the
difficulty surrounding different national energies.6 With divergent interests
surrounding the energy debate in the European Union and no clear consensus on the
path that the EU should take to holistically achieve security, energy remained largely
in the hands of governments.
16 October 1973: Arab Oil Embargo
The issue of energy security first appeared on the agenda of the European
Union during the energy crisis following an oil embargo imposed by the Organization
of Arab Petroleum Exporting Countries on all western nations supporting Israel during
the1973/74 Yom Kippur War. The embargo banned the exportation of petroleum and
cut oil production in the region. 1973 has become a pivotal year in energy history as it
highlighted to nations not just in Europe, but also around the world the importance of
becoming self-sufficient in terms of gaining energy. 7
1979: Energy Crisis
The 1979, or second, energy crisis occurred in response to the Iranian Revolution.
When the Shah of Iran, Mohammed Reza Palavi fled his country in 1979 and
Ayatollah Khomeini came to power, protesting caused the Iranian oil sector to come
to a standstill. Although Khomeini’s regime resumed oil exportation it was highly
inconsistent and at a much lower volume meaning that prices rose exponentially
Mccormick, John. Understanding the European Union. New York: Palgrave
Macmillan, 2008.
5
6
Ibid.
Bretherton, Charlotte, and John Vogler. The European Union as a Global Actor. New
York: Routledge, 2006.
7
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traumatizing oil markets that had only just begun to recover from the 1973 Oil
Embargo shocks. Both of these events highlighted how fragile the European energy
market was to suffering shocks brought on by external threats.8
1991: European Union launches the Energy Charter Declaration
The 1991 Energy Charter Declaration is the political foundation of the Energy
Treaty. Proposed in June 1991 in the form of a proposal for a European Energy
Community by Dutch Prime Minister Ruud Lubbers, the Energy Charter Declaration
seized an opportunity to overcome previous political drama at the end of the Cold
War. Within the energy sector there was an opportunity to create a foundation for
Energy Cooperation among the states of Europe and its energy trading partners in
order to secure energy supplies and create sustainable economic developments. The
1994 Energy Charter Treaty and the Energy Charter Protocol on Energy Efficiency
and Related Environmental Aspects was signed in December 1994 and came into legal
force in April 1998.9 To date, the Treaty has been signed by fifty-three members
including the European Community and Euratom. This treaty was created and
developed on the basis of the 1991 Energy Charter in order to create a legally binding
multilateral instrument and to strengthen the rule of law in regards to energy issues.10
2000: EU - Russian Energy Dialogue
Russia is arguably the European Union’s most important trading partner and its
largest source of foreign investment but relations between the two giants have often
been strained whether from political, social, or economic disagreements. In recent
years, the most important area where both sides have needed to find common
agreement has been in the area of energy. Russia sends more than half of its oil and
gas exports to the European Union. The European Union and Russia acknowledged
their interconnectedness by launching a bilateral energy dialogue at the Paris summit
in October 2000.11 The purpose of the talks was to “raise all issues of common interest
8
Ibid.
Dinan, Desmond. Ever Closer Union: An Introduction To European Integration. Boulder: Lynne Rienner
Publishers, 2005.
10
“European Union Energy Charter” http://www.encharter.org/index.php?id=7
9
Smith, Keith. Russia and European Energy Security: Divide and Dominate.
Washington, DC: Center For Strategic And International Studies, 2008.
11
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relating to the energy sector, including the introduction of cooperation on energy
saving, rationalization of production and transportation infrastructures, European
investment possibilities and relations between producers and consumer countries “
The dialogue includes regular meetings and high level political discussions during the
annual EU-Russia summits.
12
Subsequent summits have included discussion of
several gas and oil pipelines and interconnecting two electricity networks. This
dialogue has been beneficial to both Russia and Europe as they are both highly
dependent on one another as Russia needs more European investment in order to
develop energy and Europe needs long term access to Russia oil and gas. 13
2006: European Council--Energy Policy for Europe
After years of inaction in regard to Energy policy nations in the European
Community finally recognized the need for a more integrated EU energy policy based
on the new challenges (climate change) and the resurgence of old ones (security of
supply/competition) facing them in the 21st century. Agreement was finally reached in
2006 as to the areas that would be addressed by the Energy Policy. They included but
where not limited to:
1. Cutting Energy Consumption by 20 percent by 2020 through increasing efficiency,
2. Meet 25 per cent of primary energy demand from renewable sources by 2020,
3. Reverse unsustainable growth trends in the transport sector,
4. Phase out expensive and dangerous nuclear energy and,
5. Redirect money to promote renewable energy and efficiency industries.
Even with this declaration both the European Commission and the Energy Council
failed to make cutting energy waste and using the full potential of renewable energies
the central focus of the strategy. Instead they focused on securing oil and gas imports
(their external policy) from politically unstable providers and the diversification of
pipeline routes. 14
12
Smith, Keith. Russia and European Energy Security: Divide and Dominate. Washington, DC: Center For
Strategic And International Studies, 2008.
Commission of the European Communities, “Communication from the Commission
to the European Council and the European Parliament: An Energy Policy For Europe”
October
2007.ec.europa.eu/energy/energy_policy/.../01_energy_policy_for_europe_en.pd
13
14
Commission of the European Communities, “Communication from the Commission to the European Council
and the European Parliament: An Energy Policy For Europe” October 2007
ec.europa.eu/energy/energy_policy/.../01_energy_policy_for_europe_en.pd
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Possible Causes
In the 21st century, it comes as no surprise that we live in an increasingly
interconnected world. The issues that affect one nation have an impact on nations
around the globe to varying degrees. In the European Union, however, the
repercussions of these problems are felt together, among 27 states that differ in their
economic, social, and political make-up, which makes it harder to find adequate
solutions. Addressing the issue of Energy Security in the European Union means
finding methods to address the instability in regions where European energy is
gathered, the rising cost of energy in the European Union, the decline in European
energy production, environmental issues, and striking a balance between individual
state energy policies and practices and formulating a comprehensive common
European Union policy. While not an easy task in the past decade both member states
and European Union officials have shown their willingness to work towards achieving
solutions.15
Nearly half of the European Union’s natural gas imports currently are exported
from Russia while around 30 per cent of its imported oil comes from the nation.
Europe’s ever growing dependence on Russian energy and its long-term agreements
on energy between European governments and Russian firms has led many
speculators to believe that Russia’s government is using the “energy weapon” to
influence European foreign and economic policy.
16
Traditionally, the European Union has exerted little to no influence over
individual energy policies of member states. In March 2007, this changed when EU
member states agreed to forge an “Energy Policy for Europe”.17 Members of the
European Union have agreed to a set of EU-wide targets, many of them legally
binding, in order to increase the use of renewable energy and to reduce carbon
emissions. There are many obstacles standing in the way however to forging a strong
15
Youngs, Richard. Energy Security: Europe's New Foreign Policy Challenge (Routledge Advances in
European Politics). New York: Routledge, 2009.
16
Belkin, Paul . "The European Union's Energy Security Challenges." Federation of American Scientists. 30
July 2008. 11 July 2009 <www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL33636.pdf>.
17
European Strategies, “Second Strategic Energy Review—Securing Our Energy Future” November 2008,
European Commission.
http://ec.europa.eu/energy/strategies/2008/2008_11_ser2_en.htm
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energy policy throughout the Union including unwillingness of member states to give
up any national control over energy markets and the tendency of member states to
pursue external energy policies that are not aligned with that of the policy agreed upon
throughout the Union.18 Europe’s renewed interest in energy markets has been brought
about by many factors—both internal and external. Externally, global demands for
energy by emerging economies such as India and China, as well as the instability in
energy producing regions, along with Russia’s willingness and ability to exert control
over its energy power for political uses are all concerns for Europe’s ability to access
energy in the future. Internally, steadily rising energy prices, the inability of Europe to
produce sufficient energy, and a fragmented internal energy Markey all contribute to
Europe’s fears over producing energy to meet future demands. In recent years,
discussion of EU-wide energy policies have been caused by rising concern throughout
the European Union about the effects that energy production and consumption have on
global climate change. This explains why many of the European Union’s recent policy
decisions have focused mainly on building energy efficiency, while developing clean
fuel and renewable energy sources while reducing greenhouse gas emissions. 19
Europe’s energy imports come primarily from Russia and the Middle East
(where as much as 70 percent of global oil and gas originate) While Russia’s use of
energy for political gain is a strong reason for concern the Middle East also has many
issues that make energy policies difficult to create.20 The Middle Eastern region is
troubled by war, terrorism, and politically unstable regimes. Iran, as an example, has
threatened numerous times to cut back oil production if forced to abandon its plans for
a nuclear power program while many fear that terrorist groups could target pipelines
and production facilities throughout the region. 21
High demands for oil and gas has brought increased awareness to future
availability of these resources and while significant shortages aren’t projected for
several decades, uncertainty over future exploration and production in troubled areas
18
Ibid.
Baran, Z. “EU Energy Security: Time to End Russian Leverage” Autumn 2007
www.twq.com/07autumn/docs/07autumn_baran.pdf
20
The European Union and World Politics: Consensus and Division. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2009.
21
Ibid.
19
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has raised concerns over long-term supply usage. The International Atomic Energy
Agency has estimated that $16 trillion in new investments may be needed over the
next three decades to meet future global energy needs.
Europe’s concern over energy security was first established during the Arab oil
embargo 1973. The embargo showed European nations many important aspects of
energy security: First, the need for policy collaboration between Europe and the
energy-producing world. Secondly, institutional braches were needed to oversee
policy in case future supply disruptions occurred and finally, that Europe needed to
prepare strategies to prevent the continent from becoming victims of being held
hostage to its energy needs.22 The creation of the International Energy Agency was
one response to the embargo and has become Europe’s main instrument for
monitoring and analyzing world energy markets. Additionally, European nations also
began to seek ways to diversify the energy supply market. All of these means of
gaining further energy sources have been verbalized in numerous declarations and
policy statements but Europe still faces a problem where energy is concerned because
not all states are on the same page when it comes to ceding power over their
individual national powers to the European Union. 23
Actors and Interests
Russia
Russia is one of the world’s most important participants in the energy markets.
In 2004, its natural gas reserves were the largest in the world, granting it the title of
both largest gas producer and exporter. Russia also exports the world’s second largest
share of oil. With gas consumption expected to rise more than oil in the future, many
experts have predicted that Europe may rely on Russia for more than 40 per cent of its
natural gas in the next 10 years. Russia’s proximity to Europe makes it the clear
choice for gaining energy resources but their willingness to use energy to achieve their
foreign policy objectives has fueled world debate on how Europe should best manage
22
Economic Commission for Europe, “Emerging Global Energy Security Risks”, ECE energy series no. 36,
2007
23
Ibid.
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energy relations with Russia.24 Energy is an important force both politically and
economically for Russia and if Europe is to be successful in creating a single market
for electricity and gas Russia is in a prime position to become part of the largest and
most integrated energy market in the world. Two of Russia’s largest energy firms,
Gazprom and Rosneft, highlight the political importance of energy to the nation.25
Dimitry Medvedev, Russia’s current president and former first Deputy Prime Minister
and Gazprom controls 100 per cent of Russian gas flowing to the EU formerly ran
Gazprom. Russia’s state run energy companies may aim to increase their influence
while Europe attempts to further diversify its energy markets by acquiring stakes in
North African natural gas markets.26
Caspian / Black Sea Regions
In November 2007, Azerbaijan and Turkmenistan announced that their
maritime borders would become clearer—an event that holds far-reaching
implications for Europe. A resolution in this matter would mean that building a transCaspian pipeline would become more realistic while the unexplored offshore
Kyapaz/Serdar field lying between the two nations. For Turkmenistan this settlement
would mean that it could begin to export gas through the Caucasus bypassing Russian
pipelines. For Europe, this could solve its dependence on Russian gas.27 The
geopolitical situation in the region is markedly different than it has ever been in the
last few decades. The transition in leadership that occurred in Turkmenistan in 2006
along with improved relations between the country and Azerbaijan has increased the
likelihood of Turkmenistan providing gas to Europe The Caspian/Black sea region has
long held interest for Europe as a means for finding alternative sources of energy
supply. In Turkey, the Nabucco natural gas pipeline will soon become a part of
Europe’s solution for natural gas diversifications. The pipeline would run from Turkey
to Austria, through Bulgaria, Romania and Hungary.
24
In July 2009, the prime
Baran, Z. “EU Energy Security: Time to End Russian Leverage” Autumn 2007
www.twq.com/07autumn/docs/07autumn_baran.pdf
25
Ibid.
26
Ibid.
27
Economic Commission for Europe, “Emerging Global Energy Security Risks”, ECE energy series no. 36,
2007
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ministers of these five nations signed an intergovernmental agreement in Ankara. The
Nabucco pipeline is intended to transport 31 billion Cubic meters of Central Asian gas
West through much of the European Union and, after numerous delays, construction
will begin in mid-2010 and last for roughly five years. Gazprom, who has repeatedly
undermined the Nabucco project, is reported to have acquired a 50 per cent stake in
the planned ending center of the Pipeline in Austria in January 2008. 28
The Caspian Sea region will have continued importance as an energy source in
the foreseeable future, holding that its reserve estimates are accurate. The region is a
prime target for energy diversification and will also help to add to Europe’s energy
security. 29
MENA Region
The Persian Gulf nations hold over half of the world’s oil reserves while the
Middle East produces just over 30 per cent of the world’s oil. Stronger political and
economic diversity would help Europe to diversify its energy supplies and decrease
dependence on Russia but the political instability and the competition for its energy
resources from countries in Africa and North America present strong obstacles to
European efforts.30
Europe already gains 30 per cent of its oil imports and around 15 per cent of its
natural gas from the MENA region. The largest percentage of that oil comes from
Saudi Arabia, followed by Libya and Iran nations with long histories of human rights
abuses and political instability. The MENA region also has a large quantity of
liquefied natural gas (LNG) and accounts for 8 per cent of the world’s total
consumption. LNG is a major factor in the development of gas exports from the
Persian Gulf and European energy companies are increasingly interested in purchasing
this type of gas.31
Europe’s relationship with nations in this region is remarkable stronger than
that of their counterparts in the Caspian Sea region or Russia and relations with much
28
Ibid.
Ibid.
30
International Relations and the European Union (New European Union Series). New York: Oxford University
Press, USA, 2005.
31
Ibid.
29
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of the region were formalized in 1995 with the Euro-Mediterranean Energy
Partnership. There is a strong potential for growth in energy diversification in the
region but the long-term political and social issues occurring in the region will likely
influence any agreements Europe seeks to make within the region.32
Norway
Norway is not a member of the European Union, despite being surrounded by
member states. The nation is, after Russia, the second largest exporter of natural gas to
the EU, representing close to 20 per cent of European gas consumption in 2004. The
U.S. Geological Survey has estimated that almost 25 per cent of the globe’s
undiscovered resources are located in the Artic region. Norway has strong potential
for enhancing Europe’s energy security. Nations such as Poland, along with other
Baltic states, have begun talks about the construction of an LNG terminal along the
Polish coast in order to receive gas from Norway to transport to other parts of the
Union. 33
China
China’s rapidly growing economy has been the driving force behind its
emergence as a global power in the last decade. In regards to European foreign policy,
China in particular, has thrown up many challenges. The European Union is China’s
largest trading partner in front of both the United States and Japan and both China and
the European Union share common goals on the global scale. In spite of this many of
the policies that China pursues run against those promoted by the European Union.
For one, China is a resource hungry economy, especially in terms of energy.34 In
2000, its oil import figures nearly double those of the mid 1990s from 36.6m to 70.2m
tons. Just like the European Union China relies heavily on Middle Eastern and North
African region to provide oil imports and in doing so has pursued closer diplomatic
ties with governments who have strong records of human rights abuses like Sudan,
Zimbabwe, and Iran. This should be alarming for more nations in the European Union
32
Ibid.
The European Union and World Politics: Consensus and Division. New York:
Palgrave Macmillan, 2009.
33
34
Ibid
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and in the west in general but just like China, EU member states have adopted the
stance that “business is business” 35
Projections and Implications
The European Union’s 27 member states account for around 17 per cent of the
world’s total energy consumption. Europe imports about 50 percent of its total energy
supply—over 80 per cent of its oil and close to 57 per cent of its natural gas. The
continued dependence by member states on imported energy sources, particularly
natural gas, is expected to climb substantially in coming decades. Reports estimate
that by 2030, Europe will import nearly 65 per cent of its total energy needs.
Additionally, forecasts predict that natural gas consumption will double over the next
25 years. It is clear that common policies regarding energy consumption are needed
for Europe and European leaders have responded by renewing their commitment to
establishing more connected energy initiatives in Europe largely focusing on
increasing sustainability by liberalizing EU energy markets and increasing foreign
policy coordination on securing energy. 36
Projections for European energy demand indicate that the EU will face the most
serious challenge in regards to energy security in its ability to diversify sources and
transportation of energy imports. The majority of the world’s energy resources—
which are located in Russia, the Caspian Sea area, and the Middle East and North
Africa (MENA) region, are within close range of all EU nations. Europe’s growing
dependence on these energy resources in troubled regions has been met with
increasing alarm from member states as well as other nations around the world. 37
35
Ibid.
Belkin, Paul . "The European Union's Energy Security Challenges." Federation of American Scientists. 30
July 2008. 11 July 2009 <www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL33636.pdf>.
37
Ibid.
36
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Conclusion
Most European Union member states have long held the idea that energy policy
should remain the primary responsibility of the states. In recent years, European
nations have begun to rethink this policy of energy as a distinct part of individual
national security and changed it into an element of the European Union’s Common
Foreign and Security Policy. There is rising concern among the European public and
political sphere that has forced European action in increasing its grasp on energy in
the region. 38
Europe must focus on three aspects of European Union energy security: it’s
external relations, energy supply, and the internal energy market. In regards to its
external relations the European Union has come up against many obstacles in that
have forced it to change its direction in the context of energy policy. The European
Union has dealt with difficult external relations for many years from 1973, when faced
with the Arab Oil Embargo until today, with threats from Russia and others who are
willing to use energy as a weapon to gain their own political ambitions, Finding ways
in which to prevent other nations using the “energy weapon” against the European
Union is key in taking off at least some of the strain from Europe’s challenges with
energy. Secondly, Europe’s indigenous energy supply is lacking. In order to stop it’s
heavy dependence on other nations for its energy consumption, Europe must begin to
diversify it’s own energy supply within the region. Europe has made an effort in this
arena by increasing European-wide production targets and investing in alternative and
renewable energy sources.39 Currently, hydropower, wind, solar, and biomass energy
account for just below 7 per cent of European energy consumption and 15 per cent of
its electricity generation. This will hopefully change in the next decade as Europe has
proposed that by 2020, a full 20 percent of total European energy consumption by
fueled by renewable energy as part of its 20-20-20 plan.40 Finally, Europe must begin
to provide its energy security through an internal energy Markey. The European
38
Economic Commission for Europe, “Emerging Global Energy Security Risks”, ECE energy series no. 36,
2007
39
Belkin, Paul . "The European Union's Energy Security Challenges." Federation of American Scientists. 30
July 2008. 11 July 2009 <www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL33636.pdf>.
40
Ibid.
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Commission, especially, has espoused this plan arguing that member could increase
energy supply security by introducing national gas and electricity markets into the
European Union’s single European market. The liberalization of markets in some
member states has been difficult however but with rising concern for energy security
in Europe many contend that integration and liberalization could be key to carving out
a new space for European energy supply and security. 41
41
Mccormick, John. Understanding the European Union. New York: Palgrave Macmillan, 2008.
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Bibliography
For Further Reading
Economic Commission for Europe, “Emerging Global Energy Security Risks”, ECE
energy series no. 36, 2007
This is a very informative and interesting publication that uses analyses
and discussions conducted by the Energy Security forum to highlight the
emerging security risks facing UNECE member states. It looks at the
energy security risks from three important viewpoints: The European
Union, North America, and the Russian Federation. It also looks at how
the Caspian Sea Region may be a great contributor to energy supply
diversification.
Petersen, Knud, Arno Behrens & Christian Egenhofer, “Energy Policy for Europe:
Identifying the European Added-Value: CEPS Taskforce”, CEPS 2009.
This report from the Centre for European Policy Study’ Task Force on
Energy Policy in Europe contributes greatly to the debate about
Europe’s emerging energy policy. It identifies areas where greater
indicators for assessing member states policies can be achieved and
also looks at how to ensure energy policy coherence at the EU and
member state level. The report offers numerous ways in which the 27
member states could implement targets in this most crucial stage of
energy policy debates.
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Works Cited
Baran, Z. “EU Energy Security: Time to End Russian Leverage” Autumn 2007
http://www.twq.com/07autumn/docs/07autumn_baran.pdf
Belkin, Paul . "The European Union's Energy Security Challenges." Federation of
American Scientists. 30 July 2008. 11 July 2009
<www.fas.org/sgp/crs/row/RL33636.pdf>.
Bengtsson, Rikard. The EU and the European Security Order: Interfacing Security
Actors (Contemporary Security Studies). New York: Routledge, 2009.
Bretherton, Charlotte, and John Vogler. The European Union as a Global Actor. New
York: Routledge, 2006.
Commission of the European Communities, “Communication to the European
Council and the European Parliament: An Energy Policy for Europe” October
2007.
http://ec.europa.eu/energy/energy_policy/.../01_energy_policy_for_europe_en.
pdf
Dinan, Desmond. Ever-Closer Union: An Introduction To European Integration.
Boulder: Lynne Rienner Publishers, 2005.
Economic Commission for Europe, “Emerging Global Energy Security Risks”, ECE
energy series no. 36, 2007
Energy and Security: Toward a New Foreign Policy Strategy (Woodrow Wilson
Center Press). Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 2005.
European Strategies, “Second Strategic Energy Review—Securing Our Energy
Future” November 2008, European
Commission.http://ec.europa.eu/energy/strategies/2008/2008_11_ser2_en.htm
The European Union and World Politics: Consensus and Division. New York:
Palgrave Macmillan, 2009.
International Relations and the European Union (New European Union Series). New
York: Oxford University Press, USA, 2005.
Kramer, Franklin, and John Lyman. Transatlantic Cooperation for Sustainable Energy
Security: A Report of the Global Dialogue between the European Union and
the United States. Washington, DC: Center For Strategic And International
Studies, 2009.
Rutgers Model United Nations
McCormick, John. Understanding the European Union. New York: Palgrave
Macmillan, 2008.
Smith, Keith. Russia and European Energy Security: Divide and Dominate.
Washington, DC: Center For Strategic And International Studies, 2008.
Youngs, Richard. Energy Security: Europe's New Foreign Policy Challenge
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