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6-1-1993
Social work students' attitudes and perceptions
towards the afrocentric perspective
Sandra Hill Williams
Clark Atlanta University
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ABSTRACT
SOCIAL WORK
WILLIAMS, SANDRA HILL
B.A.
University of California,
Berkeley, 1988
SOCIAL WORK STUDENTS’ ATTITUDES AND PERCEPTIONS TOWARDS THE
AFROCENTRIC PERSPECTIVE:
AN EXPLORATORY DESCRIPTIVE STUDY
Advisor:
Professor Hattie Mitchell
Thesis Dated:
June, 1993
The purpose of this study is to explore social work
students’ perceptions of the Afrocentric Perspective.
The
study yields qualitative data on the students’ knowledge
base and attitudes towards Afrocentrism, and its
applicability to social work practice.
An exploratory
descriptive research design was used for this study.
A
convenience sample of forty—five graduate social work
students from Clark Atlanta University participated in the
study.
The study found that the respondents demonstrate a keen
sense of awareness and understanding of the general
principles of the Afrocentric Perspective, and have a strong
belief that Afrocentrism can serve as a viable alternative
to more”traditional” social work perspectives.
Further
empirical studies of the Afrocentric Perspective, however,
are warranted to conceptualize its role in social work
practice.
SOCIAL WORK STUDENTS’ ATTITUDES AND PERCEPTIONS TOWARDS THE
APROCENTRIC PERSPECTIVE:
AN EXPLORATORY DESCRIPTIVE STUDY
A THESIS
SUBMITTED TO THE FACULTY OF CLARK ATLANTA UNIVERSITY
IN PARTIAL FULFILLMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS FOR
THE DEGREE OF MASTER OF SOCIAL WORK
BY
SANDRA HILL WILLIAMS
SCHOOL OF SOCIAL WORK
ATLANTA, GEORGIA
JUNE 1993
(
(a)
1993
Sandra Hill Williams
All Rights Reserved
TABLE OF CONTENTS
PAGE
LIST OF TABLES
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . • • • • • • • • • • •
jjj
CHAPTER
I•
INTRODUCTION
1
. . . . . . . . . • . . • . .
3
Statement of the Problem
Significance/Purpose of Study
Endnotes
II.
..............
6
...............
8
9
REVIEW OF LITERATURE
Overview of Major Theoretical Orientations...
25
Definition of Terms
................
33
Endnotes
................
35
................
39
Research Design
................
39
Sampling
................
39
Data Collection
................
39
Data Analysis
• . . • . • . . . • . . • . . •
40
III. METHODOLOGY
• • • • • • • • • • • • • • . • . •
IV.
PRESENTATION OF RESULTS
41
V.
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
56
Limitations of the Study
58
Suggested Research Directions
VI.
..•.....••.•..
59
IMPLICATIONS FOR SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE
......
61
. • . • . • . . • • . . . • . • . . . • . . . • . . • • . • • . . • •
.......
63
. . . . . • . . • • . . . . . . • • . . • • • . . . • . • . . . .
•......
85
APPENDICES
BIBLIOGRAPHY
ii
LIST OF TABLES
PAGE
Tablel
DemographicData...........................42-45
Table 2
Afrocentric Perspective Centered on African
American Culture, Tradition, Values and
Experiences. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
47
Basic Maxims and Tenets of Afrocentric
Perspective Opposed to Those of
Eurocentric Perspective........ . .. . .........
48
Collectivity and Cooperation Basic to
Afrocentric Perspective.....................
49
Afrocentric Perspective Limits View
of World....................................
50
Afrocentric Perspective Towards
A fri can Liberation. . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . . . . . . .
51
Afrocentric Perspective and Educational
Curriculum..................................
51
Similar Values and Philosophical
Assumptions.................................
52
Afrocentric Perspective and
AfricanAmericanClient.....................
53
Transition From Afrocentric Perspective
to Practice.................................
54
Afrocentric Perspective Detracts from
~
Content. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . .
55
Afrocentric Perspective Emerged During
Black Power Movement........................
64
Table 2A
Historical Figures Were Afrocentric.........
64
Table 3A
Afrocentric Perspective View of
the Oppressed...............................
65
Individualism and Competition Basic
to Afrocentric Perspective...... . . . .
.... ....
65
Table 5A
African Customs and Rituals.................
66
Table 6A
Knowledge of “Pre—Slavery” History..........
66
Table 3
Table 4
Table 5
Table 6
Table 7
Table 8
Table 9
Table 10
Table 11
Table 1A
Table 4A
iii
LIST OF TABLES
PAGE
Table 7A
Separation From Non—Africans........
........
67
Table 8A
African American Church is Afrocentric......
67
Table 9A
Oneness With Nature.........................
68
Table 1OA African Americans are Afrocentric...........
68
Table hA Afrocentric Movement not Legitimate.........
69
Table l2A Simultaneous Afrocentric and Eurocentric
Perspective. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . .
69
Table l3A Afrocentric Perspective Promotes Separatism.
70
Table 14A European Americans Adopt Afroceritric
Perspective. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . . . . .
70
.. . . . .... . . .....
71
Table l6A Afrocentric Perspective Undermines
Assimilation................................
71
Table l7A Afrocentric Perspective in Families.........
72
Table l8A Working With African Americans Enhances
Perspective. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
. . . .
72
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .
73
Table 15A Betraying Race and Culture..
Table l9A Sensitize to Oppression and
Disenfranchisement. . . . . . . . . .
Table 20A African American Worker Obligation to
Afrocentric Perspective.. ..... . ..... . .
. .....
73
Table 21A NABSW Obligation to Afrocentric Perspective.
74
Table 22A African American Family Course Requirement..
74
Table 23A CAUSSW’s Curriculum is Afrocentric..........
75
Table 24A Afrocentric Perspective Applicable to
Social Work.................................
75
Table 25A CAUSSW’s Afrocentric Perspective
Attracted Me................................
76
iv
CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Much discussion and debate has been generated around the
notion
of
the
“Afrocentric
Perspective.”
The
term
“Afrocentric” has been used to describe cultural items, i.e.
dolls, literature, and visual arts, which reflect the images
and experiences of persons of African descent, thus creating
a sense of pride and belonging.
An Afrocentric Perspective
has also been applied to philosophical, political and social
thought.
Afrocentric
framework which
has
scholars
been
have
centered
adopted
on
the
a
conceptual
African
values
traditions, and experiences.
Although the discussion of the Afrocentric Perspective
has
recently stirred up much debate,
Afrocentricity
as
a
concept, as a perspective, has its roots in the beginnings of
human thought by virtue of the African origin of the human
race.
But even during the more recent past,
scholars like
Carter C. Woodson and Cheikh Anta Diop, and historical figures
like Sojourner Truth and Malcolm X reflected and spoke to the
principles of Afrocentricity before the term had been coined
as such.1
The
debate
Perspective
questions
surrounding
ranges
from
challenging
its
the
idea
discussions
very
of
of
an
its
existence.
discussion is plainly and simply a moot one.
1
Afrocentric
utility
The
to
latter
One’s view,
2
perception and interpretation of the world are influenced by
a set of axioms and maxims which are often determined by a
culturally—based
value
system,
hence
an
Afrocentric
perspective, an Eurocentric perspective, etc.
The former debate, however, is one which has raised very
valid arguments regarding the interpretation and the utility
of Afrocentricity.
A number of different interpretations of
Afrocentricity have emerged.
Molefi
African
Asante
and
descent
Maulana
to
adopt
Some Afrocentrists,
Karenga,
an
have
Afrocentric
urged
such as
people
perspective
of
and
lifestyle as means of the cultural and social uplift of the
African/African American.2
often
based
experience.
on
an
Scholars
The perception of a people
interpretation
such as
of
Carter G.
their
is
historical
Woodson and John
Henrik Clarke charge that revisionist history has been one of
the culprits of the continued oppression and subordination of
African peoples, and that the knowledge of the true history of
Africans can serve as a liberating force.3
The role of Afrocentricity has significant implications
for social work practice.
An Afrocentric perspective
is
congruent with the values and ethics promulgated by the social
work profession:
the
right
to
self-determination;
the
emphasis on human strengths rather than weaknesses; and the
appreciation and value of all human experiences.
The understanding and the appreciation of the unique
cultural nuances of the African American client in the context
3
of social work practice,
however,
have been scarce.
The
theoretical frameworks of which social work practice is based
are
deeply
rooted
in
EurocentriC values
and
ideals.
An
Afrocentric perspective could offer a very viable alternative
to traditional social work approaches.
Statement of Problem
Afrocentric scholars, specifically those representing the
social sciences, have stressed the need to develop theories
and constructs which are applicable to the experiences of
African Americans, and which are based on Afrocentric values
and philosophies.
Social
Work
Perspective”
The Clark Atlanta University School of
(CAUSSW)
in
its
has
integrated
curriculum
in
order
an
“Afrocentric
for
students
to
understand and appreciate the unique experiences of oppressed
peoples in a social context, particularly those people who are
of African descent.
The CAUSSW (formally AUSSW) was founded
with the commitment to train students to address and serve the
needs
of
the
oppressed
and
disenfranchised,
i.e.
African
American communities.
Although the mission of social work seemingly has been to
improve the quality of life for targeted client systems, the
needs of African Americans have been ignored by “traditional”
social work theories and interventions which have been based
on the dominant culture’s values and ideals.
assessments
and
interventions
have
emerged
Consequently,
from
value
4
judgementS to the detriment of the African American client
system.
Traditional social work approaches have also ignored the
role of racism and oppression in the African American client’s
inability to function at an optimal level.
As a result, the
client’s “individual pathologies” would be diagnosed rather
than the ills of the injustices and inequities which plague
society.
The
CAUSSW
“Afrocentric
1992-1993
perspective”
Practicum
in
the
Manual
context
defines
of
the
the
CAUSSW
curriculum as follows:
The AfrocentriC perspective is grounded in humanistic
values, and is derived from the conceptual framework
that appreciates the experiences of African Americans in
problem definition and solution.4
In
the
context
of
CAUSSW,
the
Afrocentric
Perspective
“appreciates the experiences of African Americans” which would
include certain cultural nuances unique to African Americans,
i.e. role of family, religion, and education.
Perspective also considers
An AfrocentriC
the effects of systematic racism
and oppression on African Americans.
As stated in the Manual, the Afrocentric Perspective is
also
“grounded
in
humanistic
values.”
The
Statement
of
Rationale for CAUSSW’s Humanistic Values illustrates the close
link
between
social
work’s
Afrocentric Perspective.
humanistic
values
and
the
Both reflect the values predicated
on certain African philosophical assumptions,
for example:
5
“Cooperation as opposed to competition is a requisite for
developing human communities.”5
As
it
will
be
further
explored
in
this
paper,
an
Afrocentric Perspective proves to be very consistent with the
values and ethics put forth by the CAtJSSW specifically,
as
well as the social work profession in general, as articulated
by the National Association of Social Workers (NASW) Code of
Ethics.6
(NABSW)
The National Association of Black Social Workers
Code
of
Ethics
demonstrates
the
group’s
specific
commitment to the plight of the African American community.7
An Afrocentric Perspective to social work, therefore, can be
viewed as a very relevant approach to social work practice.
The CAUSSW recently
(March,
1993)
held a symposium to
address the
interpretation and utility of the Afrocentric
Perspective
along
practice.8
The
with
its
various
application
models
and
to
social
perspectives
of
work
the
Afrocentric Perspective that emerged from the symposium points
to its true complexity.
Furthermore,
the ideas that were
generated from the symposium, and from Afrocentric literature
are
based more
findings.
that
a
on
belief
systems,
rather
than
empirical
The varied literature on the subject also suggests
general
consensus
regarding
the
understanding
and
application of Afrocentricity does not exist.
This paper will attempt to explore the complexities of
the Afrocentric Perspective.
This researcher will present a
rationale for an Afrocentric Perspective followed by a review
6
of the three major paradigms of the Afrocentric Perspective as
discussed in the literature.
The researcher will then present
a study along with a qualitative summary of the knowledge
base, attitudes and perceptions of the Afrocentric Perspective
among CAUSSW MSW students.
Because empirical studies on this
topic do not exist, this paper will essentially serve as an
exploratory descriptive study of Afrocentric Perspective.
Significance/PurPose of Study
The significance and purpose of this study are
two—fold:
first, to integrate the various literature on the
Afrocentric Perspective with special attention given to the
works of those scholars addressing the application of the
Afrocentric Perspective in the human services;
second,
to
assess the attitudes and perceptions among CAUSSW Masters—
level students toward the Afrocentric Perspective and its role
in social work practice.
Both are an attempt to address the
viability of the Afrocentric
Perspective
application to social work practice.
in terms
of
its
The assessment of the
CAUSSW students attitudes and perceptions is also an attempt
to gage how an
students’
“Afrocentric”
knowledge
base
curriculum has
and
affected the
perspective
regarding
Afrocentricity and its applicability to social work practice.
The implications of an Afrocentric perspective applied to
the social work field hinge on the commitment, understanding
and
interpretation
of
its
conceptual
and
theoretical
7
frameworks.
Before social work practitioners, researchers,
instructors and students can apply this model, they must first
have an understanding of it.
This paper is not an attempt to
uncover a definitive answer to the question of Afrocentricity;
rather,
it
is
an
effort to
generate more
discussion
and
interest through an exploration of the theoretical frameworks
of the Afrocentric Perspective and its practical implications.
CHAPTER ONE
ENDNOTE S
1.
See Carter G. Woodson,
The MisEducation of the Negro.
Cheikh Anta Diop, The African Origin of Civilization:
Myth or Reality? Deborah Gray White, Ar’n’t I A Woman?:
Female Slaves in the Plantation South.
Malcolm X and
George Breitinan, Malcolm X Speaks.
2.
See Molefi Asante, Afrocentricity and Maulana Karenga,
Essays in Struggle.
3.
See Carter G. Woodson, The MisEducation of the Negro and
John Henrik Clarke,
Notes
for an African World
Revolution: Africans at the Crossroads.
4.
Practicum Manual for the Clark Atlanta University School
of Social Work, 1992, P. 7.
5.
Creigs C. Beverly, “Statement of Rationale for AUSSW’s
Humanistic Values,” in Practicum Manual of Clark Atlanta
University School of Social Work, 1991, AppendixC.
6.
In Dean H. Hepworth and Jo Ann Larsen, Direct Social Work
Practice: Theory and Skills. Appendices A2
A6.
—
7.
See Appendix B for a copy of the National Association of
Black Social Workers Code of Ethics.
8.
Clark Atlanta University School of Social Work, Symposium
on the “Afrocentric Perspective Revisited:
History,
Research and Practice,” 9 March 1993.
8
CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
The
literature
reflecting
an Afrocentric
Perspective
essentially reflects certain belief systems and attitudes,
rather
than
Afrocentric
extensive
scholars
empirical
have
Afrocentric perspective.
studies.
offered
A
number
rationales
for
of
an
As Useni Eugene Perkins observes:
(It is) important that (African American scholars) use
concepts which challenge the dogma of those European
scholars who feel that they are authorities on
(African American) people. What has been lacking, except
in
rare cases,
has been the
(African American)
scholar’s ability to develop new theories that are based
on Afrocentric, non—reactionary concepts.
In their
preoccupation with European thought, African American
scholars have ignored the vast amount of knowledge
inherent to African philosophy, tradition and culture.1
Carter
G.
Woodson
in
MisEducation
of
the
Negro
also
acknowledges the need for a “relevant” perspective:
(Why study) the record of those nations whose outstanding
achievement has been rapine, plunder and murder for
world power? Why not study the African background
from the point of new of anthropology and history, and
then take up sociology as it concerns the Negro peasant
or proletarian who is suffering ills to supply
laboratory work for the most advanced students of the
social order?
...
we should secure men of vision
to give them from the point of view of the people to
be served.2
Woodson’s statement demonstrates the need
for social work
curriculums to adopt a perspective that can be relevant to and
applied to those “people to be served.”
Molefi Asante in
Afrocentricity exposes the perils of an inappropriate and
9
10
irrelevant perspective:
The psychology of the African without Afrocentricity has
become a matter of great concern. Instead of looking out
from one’s own center, the non—Afrocentric person
operates in a manner that is negatively predictable.
The person’s images, symbols, lifestyles and manners
are contradictory and thereby destructive to personal
and collective growth and development.3
Asante
charges
that
an
irrelevant
perspective
can
be
counterproductive, even detrimental to the “collective growth
and development” of a people.
White Masks
demonstrates
Franz Fanon in Black Skin.
the constant
comparison
of the
African American with the dominant culture.
The (African American) is comparison.
That is, he is
constantly pre-occupied with self-evaluation, and with
the ego ideal. Whenever he comes into contact with
someone else, the question of value, of merit, arises.4
Fanon demonstrates how the African American may begin to
internalize these images and values which are contradictory to
her or his existence.
All of the aforementioned arguments
point to the critical need for a perspective that addresses
and validates the experiences of African Americans.
This researcher has defined the Afrocentric Perspective
in terms of three paradigms:
Historical Paradigm;
the Philosophical Paradigm;
and the Racial/Social Paradigm.
the
The
CAUSSW’s approach to the Afrocentric Perspective reflects the
latter paradigmatic expression:
the Racial/Social Paradigm
which also has been applied to the treatment and understanding
of African Americans in the majority of the social work and
11
social science literature in terms of their racial oppression
and
subordination.
John
Henrik
Clarke
refers
to
Afrocentricity as a way of looking at the world from the
“victim’s” point of view.5
Yet Afrocentricity represents more
than the racial and social realities of the African American:
it also encompasses certain value assumptions which are based
in African philosophy.
“Afrocentricity
for
Jerome H.
All”
Schiele,
suggests
that
in his piece,
Afrocentricity
“related” to African history and liberation;
is
but it is more
appropriately described in terms of its philosophical base.6
Philosophical Paradicnn
The Philosophical Paradigm examines the value systems
unique to an African orientation.
Even within this framework,
two different models have emerged.
The first model
is a
philosophical model, somewhat esoteric in nature, that focuses
on traditional African philosophical assumptions.
The other
view takes a philosophical, but a more nationalistic approach
focusing on the “struggle” for social and cultural liberation
of African peoples.
The
philosophical
base
of
Afrocentricity is comprised of a distinct set of cosmological,
ontological, epistemological and axiological attributes.
This
set of values is a means through which one’s world can be
viewed
and
interpreted.7
The
cosmological
perspective
stresses the interconnectedness of the earth’s elements which
12
are all viewed as one.
This includes both the material and
the spiritual elements.
The ontological view acknowledges the
spiritual
base
of
all
the
earth’s
elements.
The
epistemological perspective values the affective as well as
the cognitive.
emphasized.
The validity of emotions and
feelings
is
Finally, the axiological perspective stresses the
importance of interpersonal relationships.
The value of human
over material contact is underscored.
The Eurocentric model represents values and principles
which are diametrically opposed to those of the Afrocentric
model.
The basic principles defining the European American
woridview are
nature.”
“survival of the fittest”
and “control over
An emphasis is placed on individualism and control
over the environment which is achieved through competition,
aggression,
materialism,
domination,
power and oppression.8
Compared to the Eurocentric model which perceives individuals
as material and physical beings, the Afrocentric model values
the spiritual base of human beings.
For this reason,
the
Afrocentric model is viewed as a more “humanistic” model.
The premise of the more “nationalistic” model is that
people of African descent will be “free” only until they adopt
a value
system consistent with their African traditions.
Asante urges
Africans to adopt a perspective consistent with
their experience——
their
culture,
history and traditions.
According to Asante, this “centeredness” will facilitate the
personal and collective growth of African peoples.9
—
.._
C
C! ~__. !_.
—~
— _Li _C_
—
I
13
Robert Williams developed a value system referred to as
an “Afrocentric Philosophy.”10
Afrocentric Cosmology
African/Black Woridview that is
the foundation for our thinking, beliefs, perceptions
and values.
-
Afrocentric Axiology
foundation for what
struggle for.
—
A value system that serves as the
we believe and are willing to
Afrocentric
Ontology
Emphasizes
our
collective
identity, collective struggle and collective destiny.
—
AfrocefltriC Epistemology
Stresses the importance of
understanding our history, heritage and culture to
acquire the knowledge we need to develop our fullest
potential as a people and achieve liberation.
—
WEUSI
A theory for the development of a Collective
Black Mind.
-
Whereas the first approach within the Philosophical Paradigm
stresses the universality of Afrocentricity, Williams proposes
an Afrocentric Model in the context of the unique experiences
of Africans in the entire Diaspora.
He calls on people of
African descent to empower themselves with the knowledge of
their history and culture for the ultimate goal of liberation.
Maulana Karenga offers a systematic ideology, Kawaida,
which is based upon the Nguzo Saba, the seven principles of
African
nationhood:
umoja
(unity),
kujichagulia
(self
determination), ujima (collective work and responsibility),
ujamaa
(cooperative
(creativity)
and imani
economics),
(faith).’1
nia
and
spirituality.
kuumba
Nguzo Saba reflects the
fundamental values of African philosophy:
relationships
(purpose),
importance of human
Afrocentricity
in
this
14
context also acknowledges the need for self—determination.
Clarke
illustrates
this
need
through
the
comparison
of
Africans on “the continent,” and African Americans.
The reason for this (the African’s comfort level) is
that you are seeing people in the cultural incubator
that gave them birth, and they understand it, feel
comfortable with and are not rebelling against it.
We (African Americans) are like a body rejecting an
alien organ.12
Clarke stresses the need for African Americans to adopt a
value
system
existence.
that
Clarke
is
more
in
tune
further suggests
with
their
the terms
African
of African
American cultural liberation.
No
people
can
be
spiritually,
politically
or
psychologically free when they worship an image of God
assigned to them by another people.13
In order to achieve self—determination, African Americans must
adopt a philosophy relevant to their own experience.
The
embracing of the alternative systematically undermines social
and cultural uplift.
Furthermore, an Afroceritric perspective,
with its humanistic and spiritual underpinnings, can serve as
a viable alternative to a Eurocentric perspective which has
served as the dominant approach.
Historical Paradiqm
Because the history of Africans in this country began
with
their
enslavement,
the
historical
roles
of
African
Americans as projected by European Americans have been those
15
of servitude,
inferiority and subordination.
Naim Akbar in
Community of Self exposes the psychological ramifications of
the distortion of and lack of the knowledge that African
Americans have of themselves.
“...oppressed groups, when
restricted in knowledge of themselves, expend excessive energy
in pursuit of knowledge of their oppressors who they have
often come to value above themselves.”’4
Asante and Woodson are among those who have underscored
the importance of African Americans to know their
“pre—slavery”
obstacles.
Americans
bondage
history.
This
endeavor
can be
wrought with
Asante suggests that the social bondage of African
is
of
due to not
African
only the
Americans,
legacy of the physical
but
also
the
European’s
miscalculation and misinterpretation of history.15
Woodson demonstrates how Europeans have systematically
manipulated and skewed historic facts in order to reflect the
superiority of themselves to those of African descent.
One
attempt was to deny any connection that the African had to
classical civilization despite the scientific and physical
evidence which proved otherwise.
The sense of urgency of an
accurate historical account is reflected in Woodson’s
statement:
Unless something were done to rescue (African American)
people from history’s oversight, they would become a
negligible factor in the thought of the world.16
The
perception
of
a
people,
then,
is
based
on
an
16
interpretation of their historical experience.
Asante refers
to the distortion of historic fact as “European particularislu”
which
he
defines
as
“five—hundred
years
of
constant
propaganda, cultural exploitation, information distortion and
physical annihilation which has left the African world shocked
out
of
its
world.”17
own
historical
Asante
offers
reality
“Nijia”
and
purpose
which he
defines
in
the
as
the
collective expression of the Afrocentric worldview which is
grounded in the historical experience of African people as a
vehicle towards self-determination and self-affiriuation.18
A sense of pride and empowerment among African Americans
can emerge as long as they themselves can learn and embrace
their
“true”
history.
Many
Afrocentrists
urge
African
Americans to focus on Kemet, or Ancient Egyptian civilization,
as a frame of reference for African greatness.
Diop’s The African Origin of Civilization:
Cheikh Anta
Myth or Reality?
reconstructs cultural theory with Africa as the subject and
point of origin.19
Manu Ampim, in particular, suggests that
Kemet play the same role for the African as the Greco-Roman
culture plays for the Modern European.2°
Social/Racial Paradigm
The
images
of African Americans
based
on
inaccurate
accounts of history have permeated the minds of not only those
of European descent, but of those who are being oppressed by
these
negative
images,
hence
the
social
and
racial
17
implications.
Clarke describes the magnitude of the
European’s oppression over Africans.
Europe’s achievement during this period was not the
enslavement and the military conquest of the world.
The greatest achievement was the conquest of the minds
of most of the world.21
Clarke further suggests the consequences of the mental bondage
of African Americans.
He states:
ourselves often influences
“.
.
.what we see about
what we do about ourselves.”
22
Clarke suggests that these images can even result in a
self-fulfilling prophecy for African Americans.
The question
then arises as to who is ultimately responsible for one’s own
social
predicament.
Some
conservative
theorists
have
suggested that people, even the oppressed, have “choices” in
life—— choices regarding family structure, employment options,
etc.
George Gilder in “The Nature of Poverty” argues that
social and racial explanations of economic disparities only
serve as
hindrances
to the progress
of the
“underclass.”
Gilder describes his own formula for economic success.
The only dependable route from poverty is always work,
family, and faith. The first principle is that in order
to move up, the poor must not only work, they must work
harder than the classes above them. The second principle
is the maintenance of monogamous marriage and family.
(The third principle) is faith-- faith in man, faith
in the future, faith in the rising returns of giving,
faith in the mutual benefits of trade.. •23
Gilder contends that a strong “work ethic, family values, and
belief in God” can serve as panaceas to economic and social
distress.
systematic
This view not only invalidates the realities of
disadvantage
perpetuated
by
racist
policies,
18
procedures and the value systems of social institutions;
it
further
demonstrates
the
need
for
an
perspective—— a perspective that redefines
but
Afrocentric
a value system
based on the realities of the oppressed-— a perspective that
will not further perpetuate the social oppression of a people.
Philosophies such as that of Gilder’s also perpetuate the
“blame the victim” phenomenon.24
They suggest that poverty
results from moral “deficiencies.”
for
those
who
are
poverty—stricken
aforementioned values.
Gilder does not account
who
also
embrace
the
The obvious fact that poverty results
from the lack of resources, i.e. money is ignored.
Finally,
the belief that the poor should “work harder than the classes
above them” exposes the inherent injustice of his statement.
Ryan in “The Art of Savage Discovery” offers an rationale
for this practice of “blaming the victim.”
We cannot comfortably believe that we are the cause of
that which is problematic to us; therefore, we are
almost compelled to believe that they-- the problematic
ones—— are the cause and this immediately prompts us to
search for deviance. Identification of the deviance as
the cause of the problem is a simple step that ordinarily
does not even require evidence.2~
“Blaming the victim,” then, serves as a convenient means for
the
oppressor
to
escape
the
responsibility
for
social
injustices and inequities.
A number of social theorists have outlined Afrocentric
models to combat the “blame the victim” paradigm which are
based on the African American’s experience with oppression.
Barbara
B.
Solomon
in
Black
Empowerment:
Social
Work
in
19
O~ressed Communities theorizes that African Americans have
been subjected to negative valuations from the larger society
to such an extent that powerlessness in the group is pervasive
and crippling.26
Leon Chestang, in “Character Development in
a Hostile Environment” proposes that the character development
of African Americans results from their experience with three
concepts:
social
injustice,
personal impotence.27
societal
inconsistency,
He theorizes that depending on how the
African American processes
these
three
concepts
either
depreciated or transcendent character will emerge.
depreciated character exhibits
inadequacy,
and
and
impotence,”
a
the
sense
of
a
While the
“worthlessness,
transcendent
character
demonstrates “faith, hope and optimism.”28
Most
of
experience”
the
has
literature
focused
on
African Americans who have
on
the
“African
depreciated
perceived
American
character
of
as
“culturally
deprived,” succumbing to “social pathologies.”
The social
practices
been
the
of African Americans have been perceived to be
“deviant,” hence a value judgement affixed to the experiences
of African Americans.
These notions have lead to the negative
stereotyping of African Americans.
Reginald Jones in Black
Psychology states:
The (African American’s) interpersonal relations have
been described as reflecting low self—esteem,
self—hatred, low achievement motivation, confused
self—identity, and all manner of “marks of oppression.”
This oppression neurosis theme has frequently served
as a springboard for discussions of the personality
dynamics of (African Americans) •29
20
Joseph White in “Toward a Black Psychology” charges that this
“deficit model” is often used to explain the behavior patterns
and achievement levels of African Americans.
Most psychologists and social scientists view the
(African
American)
as
culturally
deprived
and
psychologically maladjusted because the environment
in which they were reared lacks the early exposure
to prepare them for excellence in school, appropriate
sex role behavior, and, generally speaking, achievement
within an Anglo middle—class frame of reference.30
Mwalimu
Lloyd
Yabura
Afrocentric Perspective:
and
Creigs
C.
Beverly
in
“The
Implications for Practice and Policy
Formation in the Human Services,” point out the pejorative use
of “culture” in reference to African Americans, i.e. “culture
of poverty” and “culturally deprived,” terms made popular by
Daniel Moynihan in his infamous 1960s report on the status of
African American families.31
Madison Foster and Lorraine R. Perry in “Self—valuation
Among Blacks” challenge the conclusions that African Americans
are self-hating people who lack self—esteem.32
They propose
that despite the racist practices which have been launched
against African Americans, their subordinate social status has
little or no impact on their self—valuation.
The authors
point out that the various studies which have suggested that
African Americans do in fact suffer from low self—esteem have
been inconclusive.
Much of this writing on (African Americans’)
self-valuation is based on small samples, laboratory
experiments, or anecdotal evidence that is less than
adequate to explain the complex behavior of (African
American) people in Axnerica.3~
21
Foster and Perry charge that numerous studies have also been
skewed due to the very narrow view researchers have adopted of
self—valuation
despite
recommend
in
that
order
its
for
conceptual
the
complexity.
research
accurate analysis of African Americans’
to
They
reflect
an
self—valuation, the
concept of self—valuation or “self—esteem” and its conceptual
framework must be re—evaluated.
Kwame Toure (formally Stokley Carmichael) and Charles V.
Hamilton authors of Black Power urge African Americans to
strive towards self—determination as
a
first step towards
liberation.
...We must first redefine ourselves. Our basic need is
to
reclaim our history and our identity from what must
be called cultural terrorism, from the depredation of
se1f-~ustifying white guilt. We shall have to struggle
for the right to create our own terms through which to
define ourselves and our relationship to the society, and
to have these terms recognized.
This is the first
necessity of a free people,
and the right any
oppressor must suspend.34
As mentioned in the beginning of this paper, a well-respected
African American historian referred to Afrocentricity as the
view from the “victim’s” perspective.
In order to encourage
the empowerment of oppressed groups, terms such as “victim”
must be eliminated.
Moreover, Toure and Hamilton, along with
other Afrocentrists, also urge that along with becoming more
knowledgeable about their ancient past, that African Americans
become Pan—Africanist in their perspective of their cultural
identity and social consciousness, and their connection with
African peoples in the entire Diaspora.
Toure and Hamilton
22
state, “We both believe that until Africa is free, no African
anywhere in the world will be free.”35
The projection of negative images of African Americans,
along with the practices of scapegoating and stereotyping,
continues to have a negative impact on social work practice
and other human services related fields such as psychology and
counseling. Although there has been a general consensus among
Afrocentric theorists that the external forces of racism and
oppression have impinged upon the development and perseverance
of the African American conununity,
Naim Akbar,
an African
American psychologist, suggests that African Americans address
internal issues as a means of uplifting the community.
The disastrous number of teenage pregnancies, divorces,
alcoholism, drug abuse, suicides, imprisonment of young
Black men, and even economic problems can be understood
as symptoms of African American lives out of control.
The group problem is no more than the individual problem
multiplied as the individual problem is the group problem
reduced...As serious as the (increasing decay of our
families) is, it remains only a symptom of the much more
serious problems of mental decay within ourselves.
The problems confronting our communities are all
indicators of some basic problems in our thinking.
By correcting them, we can eliminate the products of
defective thought, (i.e. child abuse, divorce, etc.)
The solution to our family and personal problems
rests in our recognition of the inner life of our
mental world where lies our true humanity and true
love.36
Akbar’s
paradigm
of
the
social
issues
which
the
African
American community confronts reflects the same explanations
and rationales as those of Gilder and Moynihan.
The only
fundamental difference between Akbar’s explanation and the
“tangle of pathology” is that Akbar refers to his approach as
23
“self—determination.”37
Akbar resorts to
an intra—psychic
perspective which overlooks the effects of external forces
such
as
institutional
racism
and
exploitation,
hence
the
oversimplification of complex social issues.
William A. Hayes in “Radical Black Behaviorism” discusses
the need for the development of a “Black Psychology” which
would combat the prevalent “deficit models” which oversimplify
the plight of African Americans.
His rationale could also be
applied to the need for an “Afrocentric Perspective” in social
work practice.
The development of a Black psychology has advanced
through two overlapping phases. The first phase
questioned the conclusions of white psychologists
whose research and theories inevitable specified
some deficit, deficiency and/or distortion in the
psychological makeup of Black people as compared
to whites. The second phase questioned the
assumptions upon which white psychologists based
their theories and research while indicating that
their biased results were partially a function
of these assumptions.38
The continued use of the intra—psychic and psychosocial models
of clinical social work which are based on the dominant values
systems
have
led
to
“blaming the victim.”
the perpetuation
of
the practice
of
Yabura and Creigs state:
Almost universally in social welfare services and
programs, plans have been developed and implemented
from the perspective of personal milieu/blaming the
victim; individual deficit/systems maintenance
models—— virtually to the exclusion of alternative,
more innovative perspectives... The practice domain of
social work is replete with glaring examples of
stereotypical thinking,
faulty reasoning,
cultural
ethnocentrism, xenophobia, erroneous information and
clinical/programmatic judgements that mitigate against or
prevent the delivery of appropriate services to consumers
at risk.39
24
Yabura and Creigs refer to the emergence of interventions that
are based on “deficit models” as the “social construction of
reality” in social work practice.4°
Inherent in the notion
of the “social construction of reality” is a contradiction of
social work values.
commitment
to
On one hand social work values dictate a
serving
“disenfranchised;
the
“disadvantaged”
and
the
but on the other hand, the dominant social
work theories and approaches foster the continued affixing of
pejorative
labels
“dysfunctional.”
such
as
“deviant,”
“pathological,”
and
African American clients, especially, have
been subjected to labeling practices.
Jewelle Taylor Gibbs
exposes the disproportionate number of pathological diagnoses:
Although there is considerable evidence that
(African Americans) are more frequently assigned to
less—experienced
mental
health
professional
and
paraprofessionals, they are more likely to receive more
pathological diagnoses, and less likely to be referred
for psychotherapy than
for
somatic
or custodial
treatment.. 41
Despite a clinical diagnoses which would suggest a need for
therapeutic
treatment,
the
African
American
clients
were
treated as if they were the problem.
Social workers,
traditionally,
have not been urged to
adopt a more holistic approach to addressing the complexities
of
oppressed
groups.
The
commitment
that
social
work
seemingly has to the disenfranchised has now been challenged,
even questioned.
The traditional approaches often ignore the
client’s environment or unique circumstances.
25
Overview of Ma-br Theoretical Orientations
The importance of an ecological approach, especially for
African American clients, cannot be stressed enough.
for
social
work
to
it
must
effectively,
begin
to
address
treat
their
African
social
In order
Americans
environment.
Ecological systems theory posits that individuals are engaged
in constant transactions with other human beings and with
other systems
in the environment,
and that these various
persons and systems reciprocally influence each other.42
Bronfenbrenner
microsystem,
refers to
these
“systems”
as
follows:
the system which has direct contact with the
client system;
mesosystem, which is the relationship between
and among microsystems;
exosystems, which are the settings
which do not have inunediate contact with the client system,
but directly influence the client system;
which
represents
institutions.43
the
values
and
and macrosystem
norms
of
social
According to systems theory, human needs and
problems, are generated by these transactions.
The
intra—psychic or medical model, which tends to locate problems
within the individual, ignores these constant social processes
which are taking place.
These
negative
“transactions”
influence
on
the
will
either
functioning
have
of
positive
people.44
or
A
positive interaction supports the growth and development of
the client system, while also strengthening the
life-supporting qualities of the environment.
A negative
26
interaction impacts the physical environment
(e.g.
air and
water pollution, emission of non—biodegradable material)
as
well as the social environment (e.g. poverty, discrimination
and all the “isms”).
These negative interactions hinder the
growth and the progress of the client system.
Social
work
has
primarily
focused
on
the
negative
interactions within one’s social environment (Although, issues
concerning the physical environment must also be addressed for
they too may impinge the growth of individuals).
beings
do
stimuli,
not
secure
information,
environment
at
the
the
appropriate
energy,
and
appropriate
nutriment
resources)
time,
If human
their
(input,
from
the
biological,
cognitive, emotional and social development may be retarded
and their functioning impaired.45
Alex Citterman offer a
Carel Germain and
“life model”
of practice which
is
centered on these negative transactions.
If people’s needs and problems are located in the
interface between person and environment, and defined as
iualadaptive transactions within the life space, then the
professional intervention is likely to be formulated in
terms of reciprocal adaptive processes on a life
model 46
In this
context of
a
life model,
stress
is
considered
a
psycho—social condition generated by discrepancies between
needs
and
capacities,
on
qualities, on the other.
mechanisms
in
dealing
one
The
with
life
hand,
client
cycle
and
environmental
system’s
coping
transitions,
and
environmental stressors determine its functioning level.
The
27
ecological model also considers the interactions among the
‘sub-systems within a mesosystem, (i.e. the family which is the
primary social system affecting the growth and development of
an individual).
the
family
Communication patterns, roles and rules of
should
be
addressed.
Thus,
the
goal
ecological approach to family therapy is two-fold:
strengthen
the
client’s
increasing
environmental
adaptive
capacities
responsiveness;
of
first, to
while
and
the
also
second,
to
address the interaction of the sub-systems within the family
system.
The ecological model encourages the social worker to
engage the client’s strengths.
strengths as
Mark Karpel refers to these
“family resources” which he defines as those
individual and systemic characteristics among family members
that promote coping and survival, limit destructive patterns
and
enrich
daily
life.47
According
to
Karpel,
resources may either be “personal” or “relational.”
family
Personal
resources refer to individual traits such as self-respect and
tolerance.
Relational
resources
characteristics of relationships
refer
such as
to
patterns
and
family pride and
flexibility.
Numerous Afrocentric social scientists have enumerated
the strengths of African American families in particular.
Akbar
praises
community.
the
perseverance
of
the
African
American
28
The African American experience stands as one of
the strongest examples of high human principles
being able to endure despite environments of
extreme opposition, and there is instruction in
what we can offer the world about being human.48
Gibbs
refers to the “adaptive responses” African American
families have had to their historical and social experiences
in American society.
These “adaptive responses” or cultural
values concern the importance of religion and the church;
extended family and kinship networks;
roles;
and
strengths
eduction.49
is
a
The
viable
flexibility of family
acknowledgement
alternative
to
the
of
use
family
of
the
“deficiency” model. It offers a more positive approach, while
also serving as a motivational force for the client system.
The ecological model must also incorporate a heightened
sensitivity to the stereotypical images and subordinate status
which have been imposed on African Americans by the dominant
group.
Jerald
Shapiro
Clients,”
suggests
commitment
to
the
disenfranchisement
in
to
Disenfranchised
social
work’s
methodological
disenfranchised
should
focus
as
context
for
that
the
“Commitment
primary
on
their
practice.5°
James Green in “Cross—Cultural Social Work,” proposes that
social workers become “ethnically competent” to better serve
diverse cultural groups.51
The
“traditional”
therapeutic
modalities,
i.e.
psychodynamic, humanistic and behavioral, have overlooked the
role of diversity of values, customs and experiences.
52
The
conceptual frameworks of these models largely have been based
29
on the experiences and realities of nuclear, in—tact, white
middle—class families.
The roles of ethnicity and culture
have been virtually ignored. The ecological approach, however,
appreciates
the
diverse
nature
of
client
systems.
Dean
Hepworth and Jo Ann Larsen state:
Cultural factors are vital in ecological assessment,
for personal and social needs and means of satisfying
them vary widely from culture to culture. Moreover,
resources that can be tapped to meet clients’ needs
also vary according to cultural contexts. ~
Andrew
Billingsley
in,
Black
Families
in
White
America,
suggests that the complexities of African American family be
considered.
The (African American) family cannot be understood in
isolation or by concentrating on its fragments, or on
particular forms of family life, or by concentration on
its negative functions. The (African American)
family can best be understood when viewed as a varied and
complex institution within the (African American)
community, which is in turn highly interdependent with
other institutions in the wider white society.54
Billingsley considers the diverse nature of African American
families within an ecological systems theoretical framework.
The ecological model also considers the constant struggle
between those groups which do not represent the “norm,” i.e.
single—parent families, homosexuals, and ethnic “minorities,”
and the values projected by the dominant group.
A number of
theoreticians have developed specific conceptual frameworks
for interventions with oppressed groups which are based on an
appreciation of the experiences and perspectives of diverse
30
groups.
In
Ethnicity
&
Family Therapy,
Monica
McGoldrick
points out the importance of adopting a relevant frame of
reference
when
working with
families.
She
suggests
the
following considerations:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
7.
What do they define as a problem?
What do they see as a solution to their problems?
To whom do they usually turn for help?
How have they responded to immigration?
What are the typical family patterns of the group?
How do they handle life cycle transitions?
What may be the difficulties for a therapist of the
same background or for a therapist of a different
background? ~
These considerations when dealing with families are determined
by
the
ethnicities
significant
role
of
in
the
family
throughout the life cycle.
families.
Ethnicity,
families.
life
Ethnicity
and personal
plays
a
development
It shapes the value systems of
then,
is
deeply tied to the
through which it is transmitted.
family
The two concepts are so
intertwined that it is hard to study one without the other,
and yet “helping professionals” have done just that.56
The
ecological model,
therefore,
represents
a viable
alternative to the traditional “intra—psychic” approach and to
the “medical model” of social work practice.
Afrocentric
theorists
in
the
social
work
A number of
and
psychology
arenas, however, argue that the ecological model demonstrates
an
inappropriate
environment.57
dichotomy
of
Afrocentric
the
client
thinkers
system
and
stress
its
the
interconnectedness of the person, social environment and the
physical environment, hence the need for a social work model
31
that not only addresses the social
realities of oppressed
groups, but one which reflects cosmological assumptions of an
Afrocentric value systems.
Gerald G. Jackson in “Black Perspective in Counseling”
infuses Afrocentric values
into an ecological
Three fundamental tenets guide his approach.
framework.58
First, the locus
of problems shifts from the individual to society.
The role
of the counselor would be to treat the macrosystem for its
problems which would result in a corresponding change in the
client
system.59
counseling.”
He
refers
Second,
to
this
approach
as
“system
counseling techniques and approaches
would be based on African American culture in order to address
the specific needs of the client.
And third, the approach
would be based on the client system’s strengths rather than
weaknesses,
hence a rejection of the widely used “deficit
model.”
Afrocentrists have also encouraged “helping” models which
address
the
focusing
itself
client
on
to
cognition.
providing
enrichment,
affect,
rather
An Afrocentric
models
for
than
perspective
feeling
food,
solely
lends
emotional
and self—expansion rather than to feeling bad,
self-containment,
Feelings
system’s
are
a
self-limitation
legitimate
and
and
rich
rigid
part
self—control.
of
the
human
experience, and therefore should be considered in the helping
relationship.6°
The psychologically healthy African American
is in touch with and open to his/her feelings.
An Afrocentric
32
perspective considers the value and essentiality of feelings,
impulses and emotions which adds a vital and missing link to
the
EurocentriC perspective.
Psychotherapy:
Frederick Phillips
An Afrocentric
Approach,”
refers
in
“NTU
to
this
affective approach as affective epistemology which refers to
the process and belief system of promoting awareness through
feeling or emotion.61
A number of Afrocentric theorists have adopted more of an
eclectic approach.
Gerald Jackson in “The African Genesis of
Black Perspective in Helping” acknowledges the strengths of
both the affective as well as the cognitive approach.
states,
“One
takes
primacy depending
on
the
He
situation.”62
Joseph White in “Toward a Black Psychology” suggests that not
all
Eurocentric
theory
is
“useless.”
He
proposes
that
existential theory with its recognition of pain and struggle
as an unavoidable condition is applicable to the realities of
African
Americans.
stress
the
63
White
importance
of
claims
that
understanding
“self-theorists”
the
client’s
experiential background, hence the ecological systems theory
which has already been discussed.
Gerald Jackson in “The
Emergence of a Black Perspective in Counseling,”.suggests that
counseling give instruction in African ideology and cultural
identity which embraces the social and political realities
involved in existing symbiotically with the larger culture.~
He proposes that this understanding be combined with the use
of
“traditional
approaches.”65
Finally,
Phillips
33
incorporates
core
principles
AfrocentriC world view,
culture,
of
ancient
Africa
and
an
nurtured through African American
and augmented by Western techniques of humanistic
psychology.
balance,
The core principles of NTU therapy are:
interconnectedness,
authenticity
and
harmony,
cultural
awareness .
In summary, various paradigmatic expressions regarding
the concept of Afrocentricity have emerged.
All point to the
need to “center” the understanding of African Americans on
their
social
realities
and
their
respect to the human services,
takes
a more humanistic
historical
past.
With
an. Afrocentric perspective
approach to
the
“problems”
which
people encounter with its emphasis on spirituality and human
relationships.
Definition of Terms
1.
Afrocentric Perspective
View of social, cultural and historical phenomena with
the African (American) and African philosophy at the
center of discussion and understanding.
2.
Afrocentrist
One
who
articulates,
Afrocentric Perspective.
practices
and
promotes
an
3.
Deficit Model
A limited view of phenomena in terms of weaknesses and
pathologies.
4.
Diversity
Cultural, historical, and social differences usually
determined by ethnic, racial, religious or national
origin.
34
5.
Dominant Culture
Those norms and values put forth by those persons in
power in a social or economic context.
6.
Ethnicity
Distinctiveness defined by race, religion, national
origin or geography.
It also involves conscious and
unconscious processes that fulfill a psychological need
for security, and identity.
7.
Eurocentric Perspective
A Westernized view of social, cultural and historical
realities.
In terms of its application, Eurocentricity
can also be synonymous with Ethnocentrism which is the
tendency to view the norms and values of one’s own
culture as absolute and universal and to use them as a
standard against which to judge and measure other
cultural realities.
8.
Family
A social system with assigned and ascribed roles of
persons who are related to each other by a variety of
means,
including biological ties, marriage,
formal
adoption, or informal adoption.
9.
Holistic
Emphasizing the view of phenomena in terms of interacting
wholes which are more than the mere sum of their parts.
In the context of the African American experience, an
appreciation and understanding of the effects of
environmental and social conditions, i.e. racism and
oppression,
on the social functioning of African
Americans.
10.
Institutional racism
Discriminatory acts and policies against a racial group
that pervade the major institutions of society, such as
the legal system, politics, the economy and education.
11.
Self-Determination
Freedom of choice of one’s own view of the world or
behavior in response to this view.
Self—Determination
can be related to the importance of Self-Affirmation,
especially for African Americans whose existence and
experiences have been defined by the dominant culture.
Both self-determination and self-affirmation are critical
to liberation of African peoples.
CHAPTER TWO
ENDNOTES
1.
Useni Eugene Perkins, Harvesting New Generations:
Positive Development of Black Youth, p. 43.
2.
Carter G. Woodson, MisEducation of the Negro, p. 9.
3.
Molefi Asante, Afrocentricitv, p. 1.
4.
Franz Fanon, Black Skin, White Masks, p. 211.
5.
John Henrik Clarke,
Notes
for an African
Revolution: Africans at the Crossroads, p. 347.
6.
Jerome H. Schiele, “Afrocentricity for All,” Black Issues
in Higher Education, 26, September 1991: p. 27.
7.
Ibid., p. 27.
8.
Naim Akbar, “Africentric Social Sciences for
Liberation,” Journal of Black Studies 14 (4):
pp. 395—414.
9.
See Molefi Asante, Afrocentricity.
10.
See Robert Williams, The Collective Black Mind:
Afro-Centric Theory of Black Personality.
11.
Maulana Karenga in Molefi Asante, Afrocentricity,
pp. 19—20.
12.
Clarke, p. 362.
13.
Ibid., p. 351.
14.
Naim Akbar, Community of Self, p. 34.
15.
Molefi Asante, Lecture on the Role of Afrocentricity in
Higher Education, Emory University, November 1991.
16.
Carter G. Woodson in Clarke, p. 73.
17.
Molefi Asante, Afrocentricity, p. 104.
18.
Ibid., p. 21.
19.
See Cheikh Anta Diop, The African Origin of Civilization:
Myth or Reality?
35
The
World
Human
An
36
20.
Manu Ainpin, The Current Africentric Movement in the U.S.:
The Centrality of Ancient Nile Valley Civilization, p. 4.
21.
Clarke, p. 321.
22.
Ibid., p. 326.
23.
George Gilder, Wealth and Poverty. pp. 50 -54.
24.
See William Ryan, Blaming the Victim.
25.
Ibid., p. 22.
26.
Barbara B. Solomon, Black Empowerment:
Oppressed Communities, p. 12.
27.
Leon W. Chestang, “Character Development in a Hostile
Environment,” University of Chicago School of Social
Service Administration, November 1972, p. 2.
28.
Ibid., pp. 8—11.
29.
Reginald Jones, ed. Black Psychology, p. 67.
30.
Joseph White, “Toward a Black Psychology,”
Psychology, ed. Reginald Jones, p. 5.
31.
Mwalimu Lloyd Yabura and Creigs C. Beverly,
“The
Afrocentric Perspective:
Implications for Practice and
Policy Formation,” in the Human Service p. 45
See Daniel P. Moynihan, The Negro Family: The Case for
National Action, March 1965.
32.
See Madison Foster and Lorraine R. Perry, “Self—valuation
Among Blacks,” Social Work and People of Color, January
1982:
60—66.
33.
Ibid., p. 61.
34.
Stokley Carmichael and Charles V. Hamilton, Black Power:
The Politics of Liberation, pp. 34—35.
35.
Ibid., p. x.
36.
Akbar, p. 21, 64.
37.
Ibid., p. 37.
38.
William A. Hayes, “Radical Black Behaviorism,” in Black
Psychology, ed. Reginald Jones, p. 37.
Social Work in
in
Black
37
39.
Yabura and Beverly, p. 6, 13. See Lloyd Yabura and Naomi
Ward, “Mobilizing the African American Community to
Improve the Permanency Planning Outcomes in Five Selected
Cities in the State of Georgia,” 1985, April 16, p. 8.
40.
Yabura and Beverly, p. 2. See Peter L. Berger and Thomas
Luckman, The Social Construction of Reality, and David
Reiss, The Family’s Construction of Reality.
41.
Jewelle Taylor Gibbs, “Treatment Relationships with Black
Clients: Interpersonal vs. Instrumental Strategies,” in
Advanced Clinical Social Work Practice, ed. Carel
Germain, pp. 184 —192.
42.
Dean H. Hepworth and Jo Ann Larsen, Direct Social Work
Practice: Theory and Skills, p. 16.
43.
See U. Bronfenbrenner, The Ecology of Human Development.
44.
Carel B. Germain and Alex Gitterman, The Life Model of
Social Work Practice, p. 5.
45.
Ibid., p. 6.
46.
Ibid., p. 12.
47.
Mark A. Karpel, Family Resources: The Hidden Partner in
Family Therapy, p. 176.
48.
Akbar, Community of Self, Preface.
49.
Jewelle Taylor Gibbs, “Black American Adolescents,” in
Children of Color: Psychological •Interventions with
Minority Youth, eds. Jewelle Taylor Gibbs and Lark Nahme
Huang, pp. 184—186. Also see Andrew Billingsley, Black
Families in White America.
Harriet McAdoo, “Family
Therapy in the Black Community,” American Journal of
Orthopsychiatry, pp. 75-79. Robert Staples, “The Black
American Family,” Ethnic Families in America: Patterns
and Variations, eds. C.H. Mindel and R.W. Habenstein.
Carol B. Stack, All Our Kin.
50.
Jerald Shapiro, “Commitment to Disenfranchised Clients,”
in Handbook of Clinical Social Work, Pp. 888-901.
51.
James Green, Cultural Awareness in the Human Services.
52.
Irene Goldenberg and Herbert Goldenberg, Family Therapy:
An Overview, pp. 28-31.
Gerald G. Jackson, “Black
Perspective in Counseling,” in Black Psychology, ed
Reginald Jones, p. 299.
38
53.
Hepworth and Larsen, p. 31.
54.
Andrew Billingsley,
Preface.
55.
Monica McGoldrick, John K. Pearce and Joseph Giordano,
eds. Ethnicity and Family Theratw. p. xv.
56.
Ibid., p. 3.
57.
See Jerome H. Schiele, “Organizational Theory from an
Afrocentric Perspective,” Journal of Black Studies,
December 1990, 21(2): 145-161. Maim Akbar, Africentric
Social Sciences for Human Liberation,” Journal of Black
Studies, 1984, 14(4): 395—414.
Wade Nobles, “African
Philosophy: Foundations for Black Psychology,” in Black
Psychology, ed. Reginald Jones.
58.
Jackson, pp. 299—300.
59.
Ibid., p. 299.
60.
Joseph White, Williams Parham and Thomas Parhain, “Black
Psychology: The Afro-American Tradition as a Unifying
Force for Traditional Psychology,” in Black Psychology,
ed. Reginald Jones, p. 62.
Also see Joseph Baldwin,
“Notes on an Africentric Theory of Black Personality,”
Western Journal of Black Studies, 1981, 5: 172—179.
Molefi Asante, Afrocentricity:
The Theory of Social
Change.
61.
Frederick
B.
Phillips,
“NTU
Psychotherapy:
An
Afrocentric Approach,” Journal of Black Psychology, 1990,
17(1), p. 58.
62.
Gerald G. Jackson, “The African Genesis of the Black
Perspective in Helping,” in Black Psychology, ed.
Reginald Jones, p. 317.
63.
Joseph White, “Toward a Black Psychology,” p. 8.
64.
Gerald G. Jackson, “The Emergence of A Black Perspective
in Counseling,” in Black Psychology, ed. Reginald Jones,
p. 295.
65.
Phillips, p. 56.
Black
Families
in White America,
CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY
Research Design
The
research
questionnaire
researcher.
design
study
is
a
developed
exploratory
and
descriptive
administered
by
the
The study is intended to reveal the CAUSSW MSW
students’ knowledge and attitudes regarding the “Afrocentric
Perspective,” and its applicability to social work practice.
S amp 1 ing
The nonprobability convenience sample was used.
sample
consisted
of
the
CAUSSW
MSW
students
This
who
were
convenient to the researcher, and willing to respond to this
researcher’s
questionnaire.
In
total,
forty—five
(45)
students participated in the study which included nineteen
(19)
of the first-year students and twenty-six (26)
of the
second—year students.
Data Collection
The
data
for
this
structured questionnaire.
Atlanta
University
Quarles/Washington
questionnaire,
this
study
were
obtained
by
using
a
The study was conducted at Clark
School
of
building.
Social
Before
researcher
Work
in
administering
obtained
permission
the
the
from
Professor Naomi Ward for her first-year students enrolled in
39
40
her Group Work course, and from Associate Dean Nellie Tate,
facilitator for the Integrative Seminar for the second—year
students.
The instruments utilized consisted of 44 questions.
The questionnaire contained four sections:
1.
2.
3.
4.
Demographics
Knowledge Inventory
Attitude Inventory
The Afrocentric Perspective and
Work Practice
Social
Subjects were asked to choose one response from a number of
predetermined
section.
electives
when
completing
the
Demographics
For the remaining three sections, respondents were
asked to choose one response from six response categories:
1.
2.
3.
4.
5.
6.
Strongly
Agree
Somewhat
Somewhat
Disagree
Strongly
Agree
Agree
Disagree
Disagree
Confidentiality and anonymity were ensured.
Persons were
given the option to refuse to participate in the study.
Each participant was informed that the questionnaire would
take approximately twenty minutes.
Expression of thanks was
given
The
to
all
of
the
subjects.
questionnaires
were
collected from the participants the same day of completion.
Data Analysis
The
collected
data
were
hand—coded,
tabulated
and
analyzed by this researcher with assistance from Mr. Michael
Trammell.
The descriptive statistics used to analyze the data
included frequency distribution, and percentage.
CHAPTER FOUR
PRESENTATION OF RESULTS
The objective of this study was to explore the knowledge
base and attitudes of the CAUSSW MSW students regarding the
Afrocentric Perspective.
In particular, the purpose of this
investigation was to obtain information about how CAUSSW’s
“Afrocentric Perspective” has influenced or affected the MSW
students’ perceptions of the Afrocentric Perspective.
section
will
categories:
Inventory;
be
divided
Demographics;
into
the
four
This
questionnaire
Knowledge Inventory;
Attitude
and the Afrocentric Perspective and Social
Work Practice.
Democrraphi Cs
In total, forty-five students participated in the survey.
Out
of
the
forty—five
students,
nineteen were
first—year
students, and twenty-six were second—year students.
majority or 82% of the participants
racially as
themselves
“African American.”
as
The vast
identified themselves
Seven percent identified
“European American.”
Nine—percent
or
four
students identified themselves as “African.” Out of the four
students, three students identified themselves as “Nigerian,”
and one as “South African.”
Two—percent
of
the
students
identified
themselves
as
“Other.”
Thirty-seven females and eight males participated in the
41
42
study.
be
Almost half of the participants reported their age to
in
the
22
-
25
years
participants were in the 26
in the 31
-
35 age range;
—
range.
One
30 age range.
four in the 36
—
quarter
40 age range;
five as
(See Table 1).
Table 3.
DEMOGRAPHIC FACTORS FOR SOCIAL WORK STUDENTS’
ATTITUDES AND PERCEPTIONS TOWARDS THE
AFROCENTRIC PERSPECTIVE
(N = 45)
FACTORS
FREQUENCIES
and
Thirty—five of
the participants identified themselves as “single;”
and five as “divorced.”
the
Six students were
two students were forty—one years and older.
“married;”
of
PERCENTAGE
Educational Status
First—Year
Second—Year
19
26
42.0
58.0
Total
45
100.0
African
African American
European American
Other
4
37
3
1
9.0
82.0
7.0
2.0
Total
45
100.0
Female
Male
37
8
82.0
18.0
Total
45
100.0
Race/Ethnicity
Gender
43
Table 1 (Cont.)
FACTORS
FREQUENCIES
PERCENTAGE
Years in Age
18
21
22
25
26
30
31
35
36—40
41—45
46
Older
0
22
11
6
4
1
1
0.0
49.0
25.0
13.0
9.0
2.0
2.0
Total
45
100.0
Never Married
Separated
Married
Divorced
Widowed
35
0
5
5
0
78.0
0.0
11.0
11.0
0.0
Total
45
100.0
None
1—2
3—4
5—6
More than 6
32
11
2
0
0
71.0
24.0
5.0
0.0
0.0
Total
45
100.0
—
—
—
—
—
Marital Status
Number of Children
44
Table 2. (Cont.)
FACTORS
FREQUENCIES
PERCENTAGE
Annual Income
Below $5000
$5000
$9999
$10,000
$14,999
$15,000
$19,999
$20,000
$24,999
$25,000
$29,999
$30,000
$34,999
Above $35,000
24
4
6
3
3
3
1
1
53.0
9.0
13.0
7.0
7.0
7.0
2.0
1.0
Total
45
100.0
ANE
Baptist
Catholic
Church of Christ
CME
Islam
Lutheran
Non-DenominatiOnal
Pentecostal
Seventh Day Adventist
United Methodist
Does not practice any
religion
Did not respond
1
15
5
1
1
1
1
3
3
3
7
2.0
33.0
11.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
2.0
7.0
7.0
7.0
16.0
3
1
7.0
2.0
Total
45
100.0
—
—
—
—
—
—
Religion
45
Table 1 (Cont.)
FACTORS
FREQUENCIES
PERCENTAGE
Geographical Region in Which you Spent Most of Life
United States
West Coast
Southwest
Mid—West
Southeast
Northeast
Foreign Country
Nigeria
South Africa
Total
4
5
8
16
8
9.0
11.0
18.0
35.0
18.0
3
1
7.0
2.0
45
100.0
The majority of the participants
they did not have any children.
that they had “1
“3
-
-
(62%)
Twenty-four percent responded
2” children, and 4% responded that they had
4” children.
More than half
(24)
of the participants
reported an annual income of “Below $5000;”
“$5000
—
$9,999;”
six
each reported “15,000
reported “$10,000
—
19,999,”
—
$29,999;”
“$30,000
—
$34,999” and “Above $35,000.”
three
specific religion.
$14,999;”
three
and one each reported
of the participants
identified with a
One-third or fifteen of the participants
practice the Baptist religion;
five are Catholic;
—
four reported
“$20,000 0— $24,999” and
“$25,000
All but
responded that
seven are United Methodist;
three or less of the participants practice
46
the
following
Pentecostal;
religions:
Lutheran;
ANE;
Church
Seventh Day Adventist;
of
Christ;
CME;
and
Non—Denominational.
Over one—third or sixteen of the participants have spent
most of their life in the Southeastern region of the United
States;
Eight have spent most of their life in the Mid-West
and the Northeast, respectively;
on the West Coast;
five in the Southwest;
three in Nigeria, Africa;
four
and one in
South Africa.
Knowl edc~e Inventory
This section will focus on the findings of three items
within the Knowledge Inventory section of the questionnaire.
See Appendix A for Tables for the results of the remaining
questions.
47
Table 2
SOCIAL WORK STUDENTS’ KNOWLEDGE BASE
OF THE AFROCENTRIC PERSPECTIVE
(N = 45)
Afrocentric Perspective Centered on African
Culture, Traditions, Values and Experiences.
RESPONSE
CATEGORIES
Strongly
Agree
Somewhat
Somewhat
Disagree
Strongly
FREQUENCIES
Agree
Agree
Disagree
Disagree
Total
(American)
PERCENTAGES
22
16
4
0
2
1
49.0
36.0
9.0
0.0
4.0
2.0
45
100.0
Almost half of the respondents strongly agreed that the
Afrocentric
traditions,
descent.
Perspective
values
and
is
centered
experiences
Thirty—six percent agreed;
disagreed and 2% disagreed.
of
on
the
those
of
culture,
African
9% somewhat agreed;
4%
48
Table 3
SOCIAL WORK STUDENTS’ KNOWLEDGE BASE
OF THE AFROCENTRIC PERSPECTIVE
(N = 45)
Basic Maxims and Tenets of Afrocentric Perspective Opposed to
Those of Eurocentric Perspective.
RESPONSE
CATEGORIES
Strongly
Agree
Somewhat
Somewhat
Disagree
Strongly
FREQUENCIES
Agree
Agree
Disagree
Disagree
Total
PERCENTAGES
9
10
14
4
6
2
20.0
22.0
31.0
9.0
13.0
5.0
45
100.0
Twenty percent indicated that they strongly agreed that
the basic maxims and tenets of the Afrocentric Perspective
were diametrically opposed to those of the Eurocentric
Perspective.
9%
Twenty—two percent agreed;
somewhat disagreed;
31% somewhat agreed;
13% disagreed; and 5% strongly
disagreed. More than half of the respondents strongly agreed
that ideals such as collectivity and cooperation are basic to
the Afrocentric Perspective.
somewhat agreed;
Twenty—nine percent agreed;
2% somewhat disagreed;
2% strongly disagreed.
5% disagreed;
11%
and
49
Table 4
SOCIAL WORK STUDENTS’ KNOWLEDGE BASE
OF THE AFROCENTRIC PERSPECTIVE
(N = 45)
Collectivity
Perspective.
and
RESPONSE
CATEGORIES
Strongly
Agree
Somewhat
Somewhat
Disagree
Strongly
Cooperation
Basic
to
the
FREQUENCIES
Agree
Agree
Disagree
Disagree
Total
Afrocentric
PERCENTAGES
23
13
5
1
2
1
51.0
29.0
11.0
2.0
50
2.0
45
100.0
Attitude Inventory
This section will focus on the findings of three items
within the Attitude Inventory section of the questionnaire.
See Appendix A for Tables for the results of the remaining
questions.
Only 4%
of the respondents
strongly agreed that the
Afrocentric Perspective can limit one’s view of the world.
Nine percent
disagreed;
agreed;
11%
47% disagreed;
somewhat
agreed;
7%
somewhat
and 22% strongly disagreed (see
50
Table 5
SOCIAL WORK STUDENTS’ ATTITUDES TOWARDS THE
AFROCENTRIC PERSPECTIVE
(N = 45)
Afrocentric Perspective Limits View of World.
RESPONSE
CATEGORIES
FREQUENCIES
PERCENTAGES
Strongly Disagree
2
4
5
3
21
10
4.0
9.0
11.0
7.0
47.0
22.0
Total
45
100.0
Strongly Agree
Agree
Somewhat Agree
Somewhat Disagree
Disagree
Twenty percent of the respondents strongly agreed that
the
Afrocentric
Perspective
African Liberation.
serves
as
a
vehicle
Thirty-six percent agreed;
agreed and somewhat disagreed, respectively;
7% strongly disagreed;
towards
13% somewhat
9% disagreed;
and 2% did not respond (See Table 6).
51
Table 6
SOCIAL WORK STUDENTS’ ATTITUDES TOWARDS THE
AFROCENTRIC PERSPECTIVE
(N = 45)
RESPONSE
CATEGORIES
FREQUENCIES
PERCENTAGES
Afrocentric Perspective Towards African Liberation.
Strongly Agree
Agree
Somewhat Agree
Somewhat Disagree
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
Did not respond
9
16
6
6
4
3
1
20.0
36.0
13.0
13.0
9.0
7.0
2.0
Total
45
100.0
Table 7
SOCIAL WORK STUDENTS’ ATTITUDES TOWARDS THE
AFROCENTRIC PERSPECTIVE
(N = 45)
Afrocentric Perspective and Educational Curriculums.
RESPONSE
CATEGORIES
Strongly
Agree
Somewhat
Somewhat
Disagree
Strongly
Total
Agree
Agree
Disagree
Disagree
FREQUENCIES
PERCENTAGES
26
9
4
1
4
1
58.0
20.0
9.0
2.0
9.0
2.0
45
100.0
52
Fifty-eight percent of the respondents strongly agreed
that an Afrocentric Perspe:ctive should always be incorporated
into educational
curriculums.
Twenty percent agreed;
somewhat agreed;
2% somewhat disagreed;
9% disagreed;
9%
and
2% strongly disagreed.
The Afrocentric Perspective and Social Work Practice
The fourth and final section will focus on the findings
of four items within the Afrocentric Perspective and Social
Work Practice section of the questionnaire.
See Appendix A
for Tables for the results of the remaining questions.
Table 8
SOCIAL WORK STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS OF THE
APPLICABILITY OF THE AFROCENTRIC PERSPECTIVE
TO SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE
(N = 45)
Similar Values and Philosophical Assumptions.
RESPONSE
CATEGORIES
FREQUENCIES
PERCENTAGE
Strongly Agree
11
24.0
Agree
Somewhat Agree
14
15
31.0
33.0
2
2
1
5.0
5.0
2.0
45
100.0
Somewhat Disagree
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
Total
53
Twenty—four percent of the respondents strongly agreed
that the Afrocentric Perspective and social work practice
share similar philosophical assumptions.
agreed;
33%
somewhat agreed;
5%
Thirty—one percent
somewhat disagreed and
disagreed, respectively; and 2% strongly disagreed (see Table
8).
Table 9
SOCIAL WORK STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS OF THE
APPLICABILITY OF THE AFROCENTRIC PERSPECTIVE
TO SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE
(N = 45)
Afrocentric Perspective and African American Client.
RESPONSE
CATEGORIES
Strongly
Agree
Somewhat
Somewhat
Disagree
Strongly
FREQUENCIES
Agree
Agree
Disagree
Disagree
Total
PERCENTAGE
11
10
13
5
5
1
25.0
22.0
290
11.0
11.0
2.0
45
100.0
Twenty—five percent of the respondents strongly agreed
that social worker working with an African American client
must
adopt
effective.
an
Afrocentric
Perspective
Twenty—two percent agreed;
11% somewhat disagreed and disagreed,
strongly disagreed (see Table 9).
in
order
to
be
29% somewhat agreed;
respectively;
and 2%
54
Table 10
SOCIAL WORK STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS OF THE
APPLICABILITY OF THE APROCENTRIC PERSPECTIVE
TO SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE
(N = 45)
Transition from Afrocentric Perspective to Practice.
RESPONSE
CATEGORIES
FREQUENCIES
PERCENTAGE
Strongly Agree
Agree
Somewhat Agree
Somewhat Disagree
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
Did not respond
9
12
13
4
6
0
1
20.0
27.0
29.0
9.0
13.0
0.0
2.0
Total
45
100.0
Twenty percent of the respondents strongly agreed that
that transition from Afrocentric concepts and theories to
practice
has
Twenty—seven
not
bee
percent
somewhat disagreed;
made
with
agreed;
respect
29%
13% disagreed;
to
somewhat
social
work.
agreed;
9%
and 2% did not respond
(see Table 10).
Eleven percent of the respondents strongly agreed that
the infusion of Afrocentric content into the CAUSSW curriculum
would detract from the “mainstream” content which is included
on social work licensure exams.
somewhat agreed;
Seven percent agreed;
18% somewhat disagreed;
27% disagreed;
15%
18%
strongly disagreed; and 4% did not respond (see Table 11).
55
Table 1].
SOCIAL WORK STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS OP THE
APPLICABILITY OF THE AFROCENTRIC PERSPECTIVE
TO SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE
(N = 45)
Afrocentric Perspective Detracts from “Mainstream” Content.
RESPONSE
CATEGORIES
FREQUENCIES
PERCENTAGE
Strongly Agree
Agree
Somewhat Agree
Somewhat Disagree
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
Did not respond
5
3
7
8
12
8
2
11.0
7.0
15.0
18.0
27.0
18.0
4.0
Total
45
100.0
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FL.
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CHAPTER FIVE
SUMMARY AND CONCLUSIONS
The researcher will offer a summary and some conclusions
regarding
the
results
questionnaire section:
Attitude
Inventory;
presented
in
Chapter
Demographics;
and
The
Four by
each
Knowledge Inventory;
Afrocentric
Perspective
and
Social Work Practice.
Demographics
The majority of the participants in the study are African
American females which is reflective of the graduate student
population at CAUSSW.
relatively “young”
The participants
graduate students.
in the study were
Almost half of the
students were in the 22 -25 year age range which indicates
that
many
of
undergraduate
the
students
studies
have
just
within the past
completed
three
years,
having somewhat limited professional experience.
highest response category was the 26
25%
Therefore,
almost
-
their
hence
The next
30 year age range at
three-quarters
or
75%
of
the
participants were under 30 years of age.
The Religion component of the demographics section is
significant due to the Afrocentric Perspective’s emphasis on
spirituality.
indicated
that
The vast majority (93 %) of the participants
they practiced
a
specific
religion.
The
majority of the respondents belong to what could be considered
“traditional” or “mainstream” religions:
and United Methodist.
56
Baptist, Catholic
57
Knowledge Inventory
The
majority
Afrocentric
of
the
Perspective
traditions,
values
and
respondents
is
believed
centered
experiences
on
of
that
the
those
the
culture,
of
African
descent, and that ideals such as collectivity and cooperation
are basic to the Afrocentric Perspective.
recognized
the
Afrocentric
perspective.
dichotomy
Perspective
between
versus
The students also
the
basic
those
of
The responses to these
tenets
a
items,
of
an
Eurocentric
among others,
indicate that the social work students are knowledgeable of
the
basic
principles
and
values
of
the
Afrocentric
Perspective.
Attitude Inventory
The social work students attitudes’
indicate a strong
belief that the Afrocentric Perspective is a necessary and
essential viewpoint to be considered and valued.
A strong
majority of the respondents to some degree disagreed that an
Afrocentric Perspective can limit one’s view of the world.
They believed that the Afrocentric Perspective can serve as a
vehicle towards African liberation, and that an Afrocentric
Perspective should always be incorporated into educational
curriculums.
The Afrocentric Perspective and Social Work Practice
A strong majority of the participants agreed that the
Afrocentric Perspective is in fact applicable to social work
58
practice, and that the Afrocentric Perspective and social work
practice share similar philosophical assumptions and values.
The social work students had apparently embraced CAUSSW’s
articulation of the humanistic values
social
work
practice
which
as
demonstrate
they pertain to
some
of
the
key
principles of the Afrocentric Perspective:
self—determination, cooperation and collectivity.
Most of the respondents believed that a social worker
working
with
an
African
American
client
must
adopt
Afrocentric Perspective in order to be effective.
an
The strong
belief among the respondents that the Afrocentric Perspective
can
serve
as
perspectives
a
vital
can
be
alternative
attributed
to
to
more
the
“traditional”
students’
keen
understanding that a social work approach must address the
client
from
a
environmental
holistic
issues
perspective,
which
may
hence
impinge
upon
addressing
the
social
functioning of the African American client.
Finally,
most
of
the
respondents
believed
that
the
transition from Afrocentric concepts and theories to practice
has not been made with respect to social work.
This belief
demonstrates the students’ awareness of the lack of research
on the Afrocentric Perspective in the context of social work
practice.
Limitations of the Study
As mentioned in the Introduction of this paper, empirical
studies
on
the
Afrocentric
Perspective
and
social
work
~LL
59
practice do not exist.
Much of the literature in the social
sciences in general addressing the Afrocentric Perspective
have offered essentially theories and belief systems, rather
than scientific observations.
Because of this gap in the
available literature, this researcher was unable to draw any
comparisons with any other studies similar to this study.
Another limitation of this study is this researcher’s
inability to correlate CAUSSW’s commitment to the Afrocentric
Perspective with the students’ attitudes and perceptions of
Afrocentric Perspective. This incapability can be due to the
possibility of some students’ understanding and awareness of
Afrocentricity
curriculum.
before
matriculating
through
the
CAUSSW
A comparative analysis of the first—year students
with the second-year students which was omitted in this study
may
have
provided
matriculation
at
a
correlation
CAUSSW
and
the
between
students’
the
length
attitudes
of
and
perceptions of the Afrocentric Perspective.
Suggested Research Directions
As the students in the study agreed, the transition from
Afrocentric theories and concepts to practice must be made
before social work practitioners
Perspective to their interventions.
can apply an Afrocentric
An understanding of and
appreciation of social oppression and discrimination and their
effects on social functioning are not sufficient.
Furthermore,
as
the
Chapter
Two’s
Literature
Review
60
demonstrated, an Afrocentric Perspective embodies more than
the African American’s social experience;
it encompasses a
set of beliefs and values predicated on African philosophy.
An Afrocentric intervention, therefore, must be developed by
the infusion of these principles along with the understanding
of
social
oppression.
Further
empirical
studies
on
the
Afrocentric Perspective must be completed before this critical
transition from theory to practice can be made.
CHAPTER SIX
IMPLICATIONS FOR SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE
The implications for social work practice regarding this
exploratory
addressed
study
from
of the Afrocentric
the
perspective
of
Perspective
practice,
will
theory
be
and
research.
Practice
An
Afrocentric
Perspective
can
serve
as
a
vital
alternative to more “traditional” perspectives in social work
practice.
It
lends
itself
to
a holistic
approach which
considers certain environmental issues which may impinge upon
the social functioning of client systems, especially those of
oppressed groups.
widely
used
An Afrocentric Perspective rejects the
deficit
model
approach,
and
focuses
on
the
strengths of client systems, which can serve as a motivational
tool for the client.
Theory
The Chapter Two’s Literature Review demonstrates that
conceptual
fact exist,
frameworks of the Afrocentric Perspective do in
contrary to much debate and skepticism.
With
respect to social work, the principles of the general systems
theory and the ecological model seem to coincide with the
basic tenets of the Afrocentric Perspective.
These approaches
consider the reciprocal relationship that client systems have
with their environment,
and the various systems with which
61
62
with their environment,
they interface.
needed
to
and the various systems with which
Further theory construction,
better
conceptualize
the
however,
transition
from
is
an
Afrocentric Perspective to practice.
Research
This paper served essentially as an exploratory study.
This researcher’s aim was to assess the interest level of
social work graduate students of the Afrocentric Perspective.
As
mentioned
in
Chapter
Four,
the
students
not
only
demonstrate a general grasp of Afrocentricity as a construct;
they also firmly believe that an Afrocentric Perspective can
serve as a viable tool in a social work setting.
Sinmuary
Further research including empirically based studies is
necessary
for
further
development
of
the
Afrocentric
Perspective,
and its role in social work practice.
researcher’s
aim was
to
encourage
further discussion
This
and
research on the topic so that social work practitioners can
begin adopt and fully embrace a perspective which can serve as
a very vital and necessary alternative to traditional social
work approaches.
This researcher’s hope is that social work
graduate students, especially, will continue to address and
challenge the Afrocentric Perspective,
cutting
edge
of
further
controversial topic.
research
and
and will be on the
insight
into
this
£9
~ xiat~a~~
~ ~
—-
64
Table 1A
SOCIAL WORK STUDENTS’ KNOWLEDGE BASE
OF THE AFROCENTRIC PERSPECTIVE
(N = 45)
Afrocentric Perspective Emerged During Black Power Movement.
RESPONSE
CATEGORIES
Strongly
Agree
Somewhat
Somewhat
Disagree
Strongly
FREQUENCIES
Agree
Agree
Disagree
Disagree
Total
PERCENTAGE
9
11
14
2
6
3
20.0
25.0
31.0
4.0
13.0
7.0
45
100.0
Table 2A
SOCIAL WORK STUDENTS’ KNOWLEDGE BASE
OF THE AFROCENTRIC PERSPECTIVE
(N = 45)
Historical Figures Were Afrocentric.
RESPONSE
CATEGORIES
Strongly
Agree
Somewhat
Somewhat
Disagree
Strongly
Total
Agree
Agree
Disagree
Disagree
FREQUENCIES
PERCENTAGE
17
17
7
2
1
1
38.0
38.0
16.0
4.0
2.0
2.0
45
100.0
65
Table 3A
SOCIAL WORK STUDENTS’ KNOWLEDGE BASE
OP THE AFROCENTRIC PERSPECTIVE
(N = 45)
Afrocentric Perspective View of the Oppressed.
RESPONSE
CATEGORIES
Strongly
Agree
Somewhat
Somewhat
Disagree
Strongly
FREQUENCIES
Agree
Agree
Disagree
Disagree
Total
PERCENTAGE
8
7
8
4
15
3
18.0
15.0
18.0
9.0
33.0
7.0
45
100.0
Table 4A
SOCIAL WORK STUDENTS’ KNOWLEDGE BASE
OF THE AFROCENTRIC PERSPECTIVE
(N = 45)
Individualism and Competition Basic to Afrocentric
Perspective.
RESPONSE
CATEGORIES
Strongly
Agree
Somewhat
Somewhat
Disagree
Strongly
Total
Agree
Agree
Disagree
Disagree
FREQUENCIES
PERCENTAGE
4
9
2
1
10
19
9.0
20.0
5.0
2.0
22.0
42.0
45
100.0
66
Table 5A
SOCIAL WORK STUDENTS’ KNOWLEDGE BASE
OF THE AFROCENTRIC PERSPECTIVE
(N = 45)
African Customs and Rituals.
RESPONSE
CATEGORI ES
FREQUENCIES
PERCENTAGE
Strongly Agree
Agree
Somewhat Agree
Somewhat Disagree
Disagree
strongly Disagree
Did not respond
8
15
15
1
2
3
1
18.0
33.0
33.0
2.0
5.0
7.0
2.0
Total
45
100.0
Table 6A
SOCIAL WORK STUDENTS’ KNOWLEDGE BASE
OF THE AFROCENTRIC PERSPECTIVE
(N = 45)
Knowledge of “Pre-Slavery” History.
RESPONSE
CATEGORIES
Strongly
Agree
Somewhat
Somewhat
Disagree
Strongly
Total
Agree
Agree
Disagree
Disagree
FREQUENCIES
PERCENTAGE
15
14
11
2
2
1
33.0
31.0
24.0
5.0
5.0
2.0
45
100.0
67
Table 7A
SOCIAL WORK STUDENTS’ KNOWLEDGE BASE
OP THE APROCENTRIC PERSPECTIVE
(N = 45)
Separation Prom Non—Africans.
RESPONSE
CATEGORIES
FREQUENCIES
PERCENTAGE
Strongly Agree
Agree
Somewhat Agree
Somewhat Disagree
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
Did not respond
2
6
10
8
14
4
1
5.0
13.0
22.0
18.0
31.0
9.0
2.0
Total
45
100.0
Table BA
SOCIAL WORK STUDENTS’ KNOWLEDGE BASE
OF THE APROCENTRIC PERSPECTIVE
(N = 45)
African American Church is Afrocentric.
RESPONSE
CATEGORIES
Strongly
Agree
Somewhat
Somewhat
Disagree
Strongly
Total
Agree
Agree
Disagree
Disagree
FREQUENCIES
PERCENTAGE
7
11
18
3
6
0
16.0
24.0
40.0
7.0
13.0
0.0
45
100.0
68
Table 9A
SOCIAL WORK STUDENTS’ KNOWLEDGE BASE
OF TEE AFROCENTRIC PERSPECTIVE
(N = 45)
Oneness With Nature.
RESPONSE
CATEGORIES
Strongly
Agree
Somewhat
Somewhat
Disagree
Strongly
FREQUENCIES
Agree
Agree
Disagree
Disagree
Total
PERCENTAGE
18
11
7
5
2
2
40.0
24.0
15.0
11.0
5.0
5.0
45
100.0
Table 1OA
SOCIAL WORK STUDENTS’ KNOWLEDGE BASE
OF THE AFROCENTRIC PERSPECTIVE
(N = 45)
African americans are Afrocentric.
RESPONSE
CATEGORIES
Strongly
Agree
Somewhat
Somewhat
Disagree
Strongly
Total
Agree
Agree
Disagree
Disagree
FREQUENCIES
PERCENTAGE
5
13
11
7
5
4
11.0
29.0
24.0
16.0
11.0
9.0
45
100.0
69
Table hA
SOCIAL WORK STUDENTS’ ATTITUDES TOWARDS THE
AFROCENTRIC PERSPECTIVE
(N = 45)
Afrocentric Movement Not Legitimate
RESPONSE
CATEGORIES
Strongly
Agree
Somewhat
Somewhat
Disagree
Strongly
Agree
Agree
Disagree
Disagree
Total
FREQUENCIES
PERCENTAGE
1
2
5
5
16
16
2.0
4.0
11.0
11.0
36.0
36.0
45
100.0
Table 12A
SOCIAL WORK STUDENTS’ ATTITUDES TOWARDS THE
APROCENTRIC PERSPECTIVE
(N = 45)
Simultaneous Afrocentric and Eurocentric Perspectives.
RESPONSE
CATEGORIES
Strongly
Agree
Somewhat
Somewhat
Disagree
Strongly
Total
Agree
Agree
Disagree
Disagree
FREQUENCIES
PERCENTAGE
2
5
8
11
13
6
5.0
11.0
18.0
24.0
29.0
13.0
45
100.0
70
Table 13A
SOCIAL WORK STUDENTS’ ATTITUDES TOWARDS THE
APROCENTRIC PERSPECTIVE
(N = 45)
Afrocentric Perspective Promotes Separatism.
RESPONSE
CATEGORIES
Strongly
Agree
Somewhat
Somewhat
Disagree
Strongly
Agree
Agree
Disagree
Disagree
Total
FREQUENCIES
PERCENTAGE
1
2
7
7
16
12
2.0
5.0
15.0
15.0
36.0
27.0
45
100.0
Table 14A
SOCIAL WORK STUDENTS’ ATTITUDES TOWARDS THE
AFROCENTRIC PERSPECTIVE
(N = 45)
European Americans Adopt Afrocentric Perspective.
RESPONSE
CATEGORIES
Strongly
Agree
Somewhat
Somewhat
Disagree
Strongly
Total
Agree
Agree
Disagree
Disagree
FREQUENCIES
PERCENTAGE
2
9
11
10
9
4
5.0
20.0
24.0
22.0
20.0
9.0
45
100.0
71
Table 15A
SOCIAL WORK STUDENTS’ ATTITUDES TOWARDS THE
AFROCENTRIC PERSPECTIVE
(N = 45)
Betraying Race and Culture.
RESPONSE
CATEGORIES
Strongly
Agree
Somewhat
Somewhat
Disagree
Strongly
Agree
Agree
Disagree
Disagree
Total
FREQUENCIES
PERCENTAGE
1
5
9
14
12
4
2.0
11.0
20.0
31.0
27.0
9.0
45
100.0
Table 16A
SOCIAL WORK STUDENTS’ ATTITUDES TOWARDS THE
AFROCENTRIC PERSPECTIVE
(N = 45)
Afrocentric Perspective Undermines Assimilation.
RESPONSE
CATEGORIES
FREQUENCIES
PERCENTAGE
Strongly Agree
Agree
Somewhat Agree
Somewhat Disagree
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
Did not respond
3
4
8
8
17
4
1
6.0
9.0
18.0
18.0
38.0
9.0
2.0
Total
45
100.0
72
Table 17A
SOCIAL WORK STUDENTS’ ATTITUDES TOWARDS THE
AFROCENTRIC PERSPECTIVE
(N = 45)
Afrocentric Perspective in Families.
RESPONSE
CATEGORIES
Strongly
Agree
Somewhat
Somewhat
Disagree
Strongly
Agree
Agree
Disagree
Disagree
Total
FREQUENCIES
PERCENTAGE
8
11
15
5
4
2
18.0
24.0
33.0
11.0
9.0
5.0
45
100.0
Table 1BA
SOCIAL WORK STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS OF THE
APPLICABILITY OF THE AFROCENTRIC PERSPECTIVE
TO SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE
(N = 45)
Working With African Americans Enhances Perspective.
RESPONSE
CATEGORIES
Strongly
Agree
Somewhat
Somewhat
Disagree
Strongly
Total
Agree
Agree
Disagree
Disagree
FREQUENCIES
PERCENTAGE
12
14
13
1
4
1
27.0
31.0
29.0
2.0
9.0
2.0
45
100.0
73
Table 19A
SOCIAL WORK STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS OF THE
APPLICABILITY OF THE AFROCENTRIC PERSPECTIVE
TO SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE
(N = 45)
Sensitize to Oppression and Disenfranchisement.
RESPONSE
CATEGORIES
Strongly
Agree
Somewhat
Somewhat
Disagree
Strongly
Agree
Agree
Disagree
Disagree
Total
FREQUENCIES
PERCENTAGE
14
13
13
1
3
1
31.0
29.0
29.0
2.0
7.0
2.0
45
100.0
Table 20A
SOCIAL WORK STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS OF THE
APPLICABILITY OF THE AFROCENTRIC PERSPECTIVE
TO SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE
(N = 45)
African American Worker Obligation to Afrocentric
Perspective.
RESPONSE
CATEGORIES
Strongly
Agree
Somewhat
Somewhat
Disagree
Strongly
Total
Agree
Agree
Disagree
Disagree
FREQUENCIES
PERCENTAGE
13
15
9
5
3
0
29.0
33.0
20.0
11.0
7.0
0.0
45
100.0
74
Table 21A
SOCIAL WORK STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS OF THE
APPLICABILITY OF THE AFROCENTRIC PERSPECTIVE
TO SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE
(N = 45)
NABSW Obligation to Afrocentric Perspective.
RESPONSE
CATEGORIES
FREQUENCIES
PERCENTAGE
Strongly Agree
Agree
Somewhat Agree
Soiriewhat Disagree
Disagree
Strongly Disagree
Did not respond
17
14
9
1
1
2
1
38.0
31.0
20.0
2.0
2.0
5.0
2.0
Total
45
100.0
Table 22A
SOCIAL WORK STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS OF THE
APPLICABILITY OF THE AFROCENTRIC PERSPECTIVE
TO SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE
(N = 45)
African American Family Course Requirement.
RESPONSE
CATEGORIES
Strongly
Agree
Somewhat
Somewhat
Disagree
Strongly
Total
Agree
Agree
Disagree
Disagree
FREQUENCIES
PERCENTAGE
28
13
2
0
1
1
62.0
29.0
5.0
0.0
2.0
2.0
45
100.0
75
Table 23A
SOCIAL WORK STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS OF THE
APPLICABILITY OF THE AFROCENTRIC PERSPECTIVE
TO SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE
(N = 45)
CAUSSW’s Curriculum Is Afrocentric.
RESPONSE
CATEGORIES
Strongly
Agree
Somewhat
Somewhat
Disagree
Strongly
Agree
Agree
Disagree
Disagree
Total
FREQUENCIES
PERCENTAGE
7
7
12
7
10
2
16.0
16.0
26.0
16.0
22.0
4.0
45
100.0
Table 24A
SOCIAL WORK STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS OF THE
APPLICABILITY OF THE AFROCENTRIC PERSPECTIVE
TO SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE
(N = 45)
Afrocentric Perspective Applicable to Social Work.
RESPONSE
CATEGORIES
Strongly
Agree
Somewhat
Somewhat
Disagree
Strongly
Total
Agree
Agree
Disagree
Disagree
FREQUENCIES
PERCENTAGE
18
20
4
0
1
2
40.0
44.0
9.0
0.0
2.0
5.0
45
100.0
76
Table 25A
SOCIAL WORK STUDENTS’ PERCEPTIONS OF THE
APPLICABILITY OP THE APROCENTRIC PERSPECTIVE
TO SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE
(N = 45)
CAUSSW’s Afrocentric Perspective Attracted Me.
RESPONSE
CATEGORIES
strongly
Agree
Somewhat
Somewhat
Disagree
Strongly
Total
Agree
Agree
Disagree
Disagree
FREQUENCIES
PERCENTAGE
14
11
5
6
3
6
31.0
25.0
11.0
13.0
7.0
13.0
45
100.0
LL
a xiai~zaaa~
SURVEY
DEMOGRAPHIC INFORMATION
Please check one response in each category.
1.
Education
CAUSSW MSW Student
Second Year
2.
Race/Ethnicity
(not African American)
please specify:.
European, European American, White
Other
3.
______________________
Gender
Female
4.
18
5.
Male
Age
—
21
____
22
—
25
____
Marital Status
78
26
—
30
79
6.
Children
More than 6
7.
Annual Income
8.
Religion
Baptist
____
Church of Christ
Jewish
____
Buddhist
____
Islam
Lutheran
United Methodist
(please specify) _______________________
9.
Geographics
I have spent most of my life in the following geographical
region:
United States
Foreign Country
Please specify:
80
The following items ask for your knowledge and opinions
regarding the Afrocentric Perspective. Answer each
statement by circling the number which corresponds with your
response. The following are the response categories:
1
2
3
4
5
6
—
-
Strongly
Agree
Somewhat
Somewhat
Disagree
Strongly
agree
agree
disagree
disagree
Please respond to all items.
KNOWLEDGE INVENTORY
1. The Afrocentric perspective is
centered on the culture, traditions,
values and experiences of those of
African descent.
1
2
3
4
5
6
2. The Afrocentric movement emerged in
1
the 1960s during the Black Power Movement.
2
3
4
5
6
3. Historical figures such as Sojourner
1 2 3
Truth, Carter G. Woodson and Marcus Garvey
could be considered “Afrocentric” even
though the term as such had not yet been coined.
4
5
6
4.
An Afrocentric perspective is a
viewpoint of the oppressed.
1
2
3
4
5
6
5.
Values such as individualism and
1
competition are basic to Afrocentricity.
2
3
4
5
6
6.
Afrocentrists stress the need for those 1 2 3
of African descent to practice customs and
rituals that are based in African culture(s).
4
5
6
7.
Afrocentrists stress the need for
those of African descent to become
knowledgeable of their “pre—slavery”
history as a means of empowerment.
1
2
3
4
5
6
8.
The basic maxims and tenets of
Afrocentricity are diametrically
opposed to those of Eurocentricity.
1
2
3
4
5
6
81
9.
AfrocentriSts urge African (Americans) 1 2
to separate themselves from non—Africans in
order to preserve African culture and
traditions.
3
4
5
6
10.
The African American church represents 1
Afrocentric values and ideals.
2
3
4
5
6
11.
Ideals such as collectivity and
1
cooperation are basic to Afrocentricity.
2
3
4
5
6
12.
The AfrocentriC Perspective stresses a 1
oneness with nature.
2
3
4
5
6
13.
By virtue of their racial and ethnic
1
status, African Americans as a group
have adopted an Afrocentric perspective.
2
3
4
5
6
ATTITUDE INVENTORY
1.
The Afrocentric movement is not
legitimate; it is dust a fad.
1
2
3
4
5
6
2.
An Afrocentric Perspective can limit
one’s view of the world.
1
2
3
4
5
6
3.
One cannot possibly adopt both an
1 2
Afrocentric and a Eurocentric perspective
simultaneously.
3
4
5
6
4.
An Afrocentric Perspective serves as a 1
vehicle towards African liberation.
2
3
4
5
6
5.
Afrocentricity promotes separatism of
the races.
1
2
3
4
5
6
6.
European (Americans) can and should
adopt an Afrocentric perspective.
1
2
3
4
5
6
7.
African Americans who do not adopt an 1 2
Afrocentric perspective are betraying their
race and culture.
3
4
5
6
8.
An Afrocentric perspective should
1
always be incorporated into educational
curricula.
2
3
4
5
6
9.
Afrocentricity undermines the need for 1
African (Americans) to fully assimilate
in the American culture.
2
3
4
5
6
82
10.
African (American) families have an
obligation to raise their children
in an Afrocentric home.
1
2
3
4
5
6
THE AFROCENTRIC PERSPECTIVE AND SOCIAL WORK PRACTICE
1.
The Afrocentric Perspective and social 1 2
work practice share similar philosophical
assumptions and values.
3
4
5
6
2.
A social worker working with an Africanl 2
American client must adopt an Afrocentric
perspective in order to be effective.
3
4
5
6
3.
Working with African American clients 1 2
can enhance a social worker’s Afrocentric
perspective regardless of the racial/ethnic
background of the practitioner.
3
4
5
6
4.
An Afrocentric perspective can
sensitize all social workers to the
plight of the oppressed and the
disenfranchised.
2
3
4
5
6
5.
The transition from Afrocentric
1 2
concepts and theories to practice has
not been made with respect to social work.
3
4
5
6
6.
African American social workers
1
especially have an obligation to apply
an Afrocentric perspective to their
interventions.
2
3
4
5
6
7.
The NABSW has an obligation to advocatel 2
for the infusion of Afrocentric principles
into social work practice.
3
4
5
6
8.
Social workers can apply an Afrocentricl 2
perspective to all client systems,
regardless of race or cultural background.
3
4
5
6
9.
The CAUSSW should require Afrocentric 1 2
courses such as the African American Family
in the curriculum.
3
4
5
6
10.
The infusion of Afrocentric content
1
into the CAUSSW curriculum would detract
from the “mainstream” content which is
included on social work licensure exams.
3
4
5
6
1
2
83
11.
CAUSSW’s curriculum could be
characterized as Afrocentric.
1
2
3
4
5
6
12.
The Afrocentric Perspective is
applicable to social work practice.
1
2
3
4
5
6
13.
CAUSSW’s stated commitment to the
Afrocentric perspective attracted me
to its MSW program.
1
2
3
4
5
6
84
CODE OF ETHICS
In America today, no Black person, save the selfish or
irrational, can claim to be neutral to the events taking
place in our society. Therefore, this is a statement of
ideals and guiding principles based on functionalism and not
professionalism, given the context of pain in our daily
lives as Black Americans practicing in thefield of social
welfare.
If a sense of community awareness is a precondition to
humanitarian acts, then we as social workers must look to
our own skills and commitment and translate that into
concrete benefits to the Black community. We will serve
mankind bast by serving our own people first. When we
address our expertise to the quality of life of Black people
in America, the appropriate roles for us must be guided by
Black consciousness and advocacy in addressing the security
and needs of the Black community.
As a black social worker, I commit myself to the
interests of my Black brethren and subscribe to the
following statements:
I regard as my primary obligation the welfare of the
Black individual, Black family and Black community, which
includes action for improving social conditions.
I give precedence to this mission over my personal
interests.
I adopt the concern of a Black extended family and
embrace all Black people as my brothers and sisters, making
no distinction between their destiny and my own.
I hold myself responsible for the quality and extent of
service I perform and the quality and extent of service
performed by the agency or organization in which I am
employed, as it relates to the Black community.
I accept the responsibility to protect the Black
community against unethical and hypocritical practice by any
individuals or organizations engaged in social welfare
activities.
I stand ready to supplement my paid or professional
advocacy with voluntary service in the Black public
interest.
I will consciously use my skills, and my whole being,
as an instrument for social change, with particular
attention directed to the establishment of Black social
institutions such as schools, hospitals and voluntary
agencies.
NATIONAL ASSOCIATION OF BLACK SOCIAL WORKERS CHICAGO CHAPTER
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