Who’s the
boss?
Strategies for increasing supervisors’ personal power
through informal channels
White paper | 4.10.12
Emily Durham
Contents
Executive summary
.....
2
Personal biography
.....
2
The effects of power within organisations
.....
3
Sources of organisational power
.....
3
Developing the personal power of supervisors
.....
4
Recruitment approaches
.....
5
Development approaches
.....
6
Minimising the drawbacks of organisational power
.....
7
Reference
.....
9
1
Emily Durham | Strategies for increasing supervisors’ personal power through informal
channels
Executive summary
This paper highlights the influence of power within the workplace. Different sources of power
are discussed, as well as the consequences of having employees who possess more informal
power than their supervisors. Recommendations are made to increase supervisors’ levels of
personal power, which can be implemented at both the recruitment stage and through
development of supervisors.
Personal biography
Emily Durham has a BA, majoring in Psychology and English, and is currently working towards
gaining a BA (Hons) with a focus in Industrial, Work and Organisational Psychology.
2
Emily Durham | Strategies for increasing supervisors’ personal power through informal
channels
The effects of power within organisations
Power can be defined as the ability to overcome adversity in the attempt to influence others’
behaviour and opinions, with the intention of obtaining desired results. 1 Organisational power
merits attention, as those with the ability to impact colleagues and work outcomes have the
potential to be a dominant force within the workplace.
While many of the advantages of being powerful tend to be personal, for example encountering
fewer social constraints from others2 or receiving more helpful behaviours from colleagues, 3
there are nonetheless advantages to the organisation. Powerful individuals hold influence over
their co-workers, and organisations may want to channel this influence to encourage positive
work behaviours. Additionally, it is the power of authority vested in senior positions that
enable these employees to take charge of those under them.
Sources of organisational power
Power can be derived from two sources: 4 Power arising from a legitimately superior position in
the organisation’s hierarchy is referred to as position power, while the power experienced by
individual’s with certain characteristics or skills is termed personal power. Personal power can
be problematical for organisations, as individuals high in this quality can become more
influential than official leaders such as supervisors, who often show lower levels of informal
power. 5 6
1
House, R. J (1988). Power and Personality in Complex Organizations. In B. M Staw & L. L. Cummins (Eds.).
Research in Organizational Behavior. (pp. 305-357). Connecticut: JAI Press.
2
Keltner, D. Gruenfeld, D. H., & Anderson, C. (2003). Power, approach and inhibition. Psychological Review, 110(2),
265-284.
3
Scott, B.A., & Judge, T.A. (2009). The popularity contest at work: who wins, why and what do they receive?
Journal of Applied Psychology, 94(1), 20-33.
4
Bass, B. M. (1960). Leadership, Psychology and Organizational Behavior. NY: Harper.
5
Spector, P. E. (2008). Industrial and Organizational Psychology (5 ed.). New Jersey: John Wiley & Sons, Inc.
th
3
Emily Durham | Strategies for increasing supervisors’ personal power through informal
channels
Despite its advantages, there are negative consequences associated with power. Powerful
individuals may be more likely to act in uncivil ways towards employees who do not enjoy the
same level of influence within the organisation. Such behaviour can cause withdrawal and
decreased job satisfaction from these less powerful individuals, 7 and may explain findings that
the ambiguous actions of powerful employees are apt to be interpreted in a more negative light
than similarly unclear behaviours from less influential workers. 8 Additionally, the disparate
levels of equality inherent in work groups containing powerful individuals can inhibit group
cohesion.9 While reduced unity could be considered a fair trade-off for the advantages of
having a specific group leader, few workplaces would consider it desirable that group cohesion
be impeded by the presence of individuals whose power is not formally recognised by the
organisation.
Developing the personal power of supervisors
One approach to redress this situation is to investigate ways to increase the personal sources of
power for formally recognised supervisors. These can be developed by considering the
antecedents to informal power, and can be implemented at both the recruitment stage and
during development.
One canonical model interprets power as being derived from six bases: Expert, referent,
legitimate, reward, coercive and informational. 10 Later authors classified these bases as falling
6
Peiró, J. M., & Meliá, J. L. (2003). Formal and informal interpersonal power in organisations: testing a bifactorial
model of power in role-sets. Applied Psychology, 52(1), 14–35.
7
Cortina, L. M., Magley, V. J., Williams, J. H., & Langhout, R. D. (2001). Incivility in the workplace: Incidence and
impact. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 6(1), 64-80.
8
Wayne, J. H. (2000). Disentangling the power bases of sexual harassment: Comparing gender, age, and position
power. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 57(3), 301-325.
9
Lawler, E. J. & Yoon. J. (1998). Network structure and emotion in exchange relations. American Sociological
Review, 63(6), 871-894.
10
Raven, B. H. (1992). A power/interaction model of interpersonal influence: French and Raven thirty years later.
Journal of Social Behavior & Personality, 7(2), 217-244.
4
Emily Durham | Strategies for increasing supervisors’ personal power through informal
channels
under the previously mentioned taxonomy of personal and formal power, with referent and
expert power being categorised as personal bases of power. 11 Looking at these, and
alternative, antecedents to informal power, it is possible to recommend ways in which they can
be either selected for or developed.
Recruitment approaches
One source of power within an organisation arises from person-organisation fit, referring to the
compatibility between an employee and their organisation. Employees who have inherent
characteristics or abilities that are valued in their particular organisation are likely to gain more
influence.12 There is evidence suggesting that individuals high in extroversion tend to be more
powerful in team-orientated organisations due to tasks requiring high levels of collaboration
with co-workers, while more conscientious individuals gain greater influence in organisations
that value focus and attention to detail. 13 This implies that supervisors who are a good “fit” for
the organisation will find it easier to tap into informal channels of power, separate from the
official power gained from their role. Prior to recruitment for supervisory roles, organisations
should determine which personal attributes and skills are widely recognised as being valued in
this area of the organisation, as individuals possessing these traits are likely to both suit the
organisation’s needs, and be respected for what they bring to the team. This initiative should
inform hiring practices, whether sourcing external candidates or promoting from within,
ensuring a smoother process, and increasing likelihood of the successful candidate being able
to effectively manage their team.
Another personal aspect to select for is the positivity of candidates’ core self-evaluations.
Referent power is derived from being liked, admired or respected by colleagues, as individuals
tend to be more easily influenced by people that that wish to emulate. 14 Research indicates
11
Peiró & Meliá (2003). Formal and informal interpersonal power in organisations.
Anderson, C., Spataro, S.C., & Flynn, F.J. (2008). Personality and organisational culture as determinants of
influence. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93(3), 702-710.
12
13
14
Ibid.
Raven (1992). A power/interaction model of personal influence.
5
Emily Durham | Strategies for increasing supervisors’ personal power through informal
channels
that employees who are popular and widely accepted by their colleagues experience more
discretionary helpful citizenship behaviours from co-workers. These popular individuals tend to
hold similarly positive beliefs about themselves, such as high levels of emotional stability and
self-esteem, as well as assessing that they are in control of events rather than having an
external locus of control. People with positive core self-evaluations are confident in the belief
that others will think equally highly of them, making them assertive and confident individuals,
whose outgoing interactions with colleagues indicates them as being among the more powerful
employees within the workplace. For organisations that incorporate psychometric tests of
personality into their hiring practices, selecting for these types of positive self-evaluations will
not only increase the likelihood of having supervisors high in referent power, but also the
probability that these employees’ co-workers will behave in helpful ways towards them. Due to
the added responsibilities of supervisors, the citizenship behaviours extended towards them
are likely to enhance team productivity. 15
Development approaches
Expert power refers to an individual’s ability to convince others that due to their heightened
level of comprehension and proficiency in a particular area, their directives should be complied
with. 16 Expert power may stem from actual expertise in an area, or the perception of
possessing it, aided by cues such as titles or qualifications. Aside from the obvious advantages
of a supervisor displays proficiency in their line of work, ensuring that supervisors are not only
skilled and knowledgeable, but widely accepted to be so will enhance their levels of expert
power. In addition to selecting for personal antecedents to informal power, supervisors should
be given the opportunities and training to enhance their expertise in areas relevant to the
organisation, and formal recognition of this in the form of certificates or official appellations.
Various studies have indicated that formally derived hierarchical authority is independent of
the use of various behavioural tactics intended to gain power and influence others. It is
15
Podsakoff, P. M., Ahearne, M., & MacKenzie, S. B. (1997). Organizational citizenship behavior and the quantity
and quality of work group performance. Journal of Applied Psychology 82(2), 262-270.
16
Raven (1992). A power/interaction model of personal influence.)
6
Emily Durham | Strategies for increasing supervisors’ personal power through informal
channels
conjectured that this is due to the legitimacy of the power inherent in occupying a higher
formal standing, mitigating the need to use behavioural tactics to convey the existence of this
authority. 17 Two behavioural strategies that may still be utilised by those in higher positions
are offering the exchange of resources or assistance, and assertive behaviour, for example
demanding compliance or expressing anger. If organisations embrace the concept of selecting
for positive self-beliefs in supervisors, these individuals are likely to already be highly assertive
at work. Conversely, those who are not senior within the organisation are more reliant on
behavioural tactics to gain influence. These can include the application of upward appeal to
gain support from superiors, the use of ingratiating behaviours such as politeness or praising
others, employing reason, logic and compromise to make persuasively rational arguments, or
forming coalitions with others. While some of these behaviours, such as petitioning superiors
for assistance, are unlikely to increase perceptions of a supervisor’s power, others could
feasibly be employed, with the intention of increasing supervisors’ informal power to match
that which is vested in their hierarchical position. There is much value and emphasis placed on
the use of rationality in many organisations, 18 therefore encouraging supervisors to engage in
the use of reason and logic when attempting to influence others is more likely to raise others’
opinion of their authority than reduce it.
Minimising the drawbacks of organisational power
The proposed strategies to increase supervisors’ personal sources of power involve investing
time into restructuring the recruitment process, and money into developing supervisors’
knowledge, skills and behaviours. It is ethical to reiterate some of the negative consequences
of power.
As mentioned, ambiguous acts performed by powerful workers are likely to be interpreted in a
negative light, particularly in the face of evidence that these employees can be prone to
instigating uncivil acts towards their less powerful colleagues. Supervisors already possess
17
Brass, D. J., & Burkhardt, M.E. (1993). Potential power and potential use: An investigation of structure and
behavior. Academy of Management Journal, 36(3), 441-470.
18
Ibid.
7
Emily Durham | Strategies for increasing supervisors’ personal power through informal
channels
legitimate authority, and it is possible that further increasing their power through informal
channels may encourage this type of behaviour to others. It would therefore be advisable to
find ways of promoting anti-harassment messages in the workplace, be it through seminars,
workshops or other means.
While unsupported by empirical evidence, integration of various studies suggests that
organisations high in power distance, where less powerful members are accepting of the
uneven distribution of power, increase the amount of control senior employees have over their
subordinates. It is posited that while the limited resistance from lower employees in these
types of organisation means that decisions can be make quickly, these faster verdicts may come
at the cost of good decision-making, due to limited input from those who are not in senior
positions. 19 If promoting supervisors’ personal power appears to coincide with decisions being
made without contribution from all the necessary employees, ways should be sought to
encourage participation from all members of the group.
19
Khatri, N. (2009). Consequences of power distance orientation in organizations. The Journal of Business
Perspective, 13(1), 1-9.
8
Emily Durham | Strategies for increasing supervisors’ personal power through informal
channels
References:
Anderson, C., Spataro, S.C., & Flynn, F.J. (2008). Personality and organisational culture as
determinants of influence. Journal of Applied Psychology, 93(3), 702-710.
Bass, B. M. (1960). Leadership, Psychology and Organizational Behavior. NY: Harper.
Brass, D. J., & Burkhardt, M.E. (1993). Potential power and potential use: An investigation of
structure and behavior. Academy of Management Journal, 36(3), 441-470.
Cortina, L. M., Magley, V. J., Williams, J. H., & Langhout, R. D. (2001). Incivility in the workplace:
Incidence and impact. Journal of Occupational Health Psychology, 6(1), 64-80.
House, R. J (1988). Power and Personality in Complex Organizations. In B. M Staw & L. L.
Cummins (Eds.). Research in Organizational Behavior. (pp. 305-357). Connecticut: JAI
Press.
Khatri, N. (2009). Consequences of power distance orientation in organizations. The Journal of
Business Perspective, 13(1), 1-9.
Keltner, D. Gruenfeld, D. H., & Anderson, C. (2003). Power, approach and inhibition.
Psychological Review, 110(2), 265-284.
Lawler, E. J. & Yoon. J. (1998). Network structure and emotion in exchange relations. American
Sociological Review, 63(6), 871-894.
Peiró, J. M., & Meliá, J. L. (2003). Formal and informal interpersonal power in organisations:
testing a bifactorial model of power in role-sets. Applied Psychology, 52(1), 14–35.
Podsakoff, P. M., Ahearne, M., & MacKenzie, S. B. (1997). Organizational citizenship behavior
and the quantity and quality of work group performance. Journal of Applied Psychology
82(2), 262-270.
9
Emily Durham | Strategies for increasing supervisors’ personal power through informal
channels
Raven, B. H. (1992). A power/interaction model of interpersonal influence: French and Raven
thirty years later. Journal of Social Behavior & Personality, 7(2), 217-244.
Scott, B.A., & Judge, T.A. (2009). The popularity contest at work: who wins, why and what do
they receive? Journal of Applied Psychology, 94(1), 20-33.
Spector, P. E. (2008). Industrial and Organizational Psychology (5th ed.). New Jersey: John Wiley
& Sons, Inc.
Wayne, J. H. (2000). Disentangling the power bases of sexual harassment: Comparing gender,
age, and position power. Journal of Vocational Behavior, 57(3), 301-325.
10
Emily Durham | Strategies for increasing supervisors’ personal power through informal
channels
11
Emily Durham | Strategies for increasing supervisors’ personal power through informal
channels