Lake-Sumter
State College
Anatomy and Physiology II
BSC 2086 Lecture and Lab
Lab Manual
Spring 2017
BSC 2086 Lab Manual
Index
1. Circulatory System: Blood Smear and Cell Differentiation...P. 3
2. Heart: Gross Anatomy and Blood Flow...P. 12
3. Heart Dissection...P. 23
4. Circulatory System: Blood Vessels and Circulation...P. 32
5. Lymphatic System and Immunity: Lymphatic and Vascular Anatomy...P. 39
6. Respiratory System: Gross Anatomy...P. 48
7. Urinary System: Kidney Dissection...P. 60
8. Digestive System: Gross Anatomy and Comparative Anatomy...P. 73
9. Comprehensive Gross Anatomical Structure List...P. 82
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BSC 2086 Lab Manual
Blood Smear and Blood Cell Differentiation
Objectives:
1.Describe the components of blood
2.Identify and differentiate the formed elements of blood
3.Describe the form and major functions of blood cells
4.Categorize blood cells according to form and progeny
5.Observe blood smears under the microscope
6.Observe and describe select blood disorders under the microscope
Introduction:
Blood is vital for its roles in the transport of oxygen, food, and waste products, the maintenance of
homeostasis, and defending the body from disease. Hematology is the study of blood and its
components. Hematology is important as a foundation in human anatomy and physiology. It is also
used clinically as a tool of diagnosis.
For this lab you will examine the characteristics of blood under the microscope in order to differentiate
the appearance and function of red blood cells (RBCs) and the white blood cells (WBCs). You will
also conduct a white blood cell count to determine the relative proportions of the different types of
blood cells found in the blood under normal, healthy conditions. You will also examine blood smears
of select blood pathologies and describe the .
Materials:
1.Blood cell counter
2.Microscope
3.Slides:
1.Blood smear, wright’s stain
2.Bone marrow
3.Pernicious anemia (if available)
4.Human Infectious Mononucleosis (if available)
5.Erythroblastosis fetalis (if available)
6.Plasmodium malariae blood smear (if available)
7.Leukemias (if available):
a.Monocytic acute
b.Monocytic chronic
c.Myeloblastic acute
d.Myeloid acute
Part A: Blood Cell Classification and Identification
Methods:
After reviewing the text and notes, complete the following charts to classify each of the blood cell
types as white or red blood cell, as a myeloid or lymphoid cell, and as a granulocyte or
agranulocyte. In the space provided, include any notes that will help you with the identification of the
blood cells. You will be responsible for identifying blood cells listed for the Histology Practical Exam.
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BSC 2086 Lab Manual
1. Erythrocyte
Cell Classification
Red Blood Cell
White Blood Cell (Leukocyte)
Agranulocyte
✓Erythrocyte
Granulocyte
lymphocyte
neutrophil
monocyte
eosinophil
basophil
Location (Where it is):
Function (What it does):
Differentiation (How to tell what type of cell it is):
Identification (Special structures you need to identify, if any):
2. Lymphocyte
Cell Classification
Red Blood Cell
White Blood Cell (Leukocyte)
Agranulocyte
Erythrocyte
Granulocyte
✓lymphocyte
neutrophil
monocyte
eosinophil
basophil
Location (Where it is):
Function (What it does):
Differentiation (How to tell what type of cell it is):
Identification (Special structures you need to identify, if any):
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BSC 2086 Lab Manual
3. Neutrophil
Cell Classification
Red Blood Cell
White Blood Cell (Leukocyte)
Agranulocyte
Erythrocyte
Granulocyte
lymphocyte
✓neutrophil
monocyte
eosinophil
basophil
Location (Where it is):
Function (What it does):
Differentiation (How to tell what type of cell it is):
Identification (Special structures you need to identify, if any):
4. Eosinophil
Cell Classification
Red Blood Cell
White Blood Cell (Leukocyte)
Agranulocyte
Erythrocyte
Granulocyte
lymphocyte
neutrophil
monocyte
✓eosinophil
basophil
Location (Where it is):
Function (What it does):
Differentiation (How to tell what type of cell it is):
Identification (Special structures you need to identify, if any):
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BSC 2086 Lab Manual
5. Basophil
Cell Classification
Red Blood Cell
White Blood Cell (Leukocyte)
Agranulocyte
Erythrocyte
Granulocyte
lymphocyte
neutrophil
monocyte
eosinophil
✓basophil
Location (Where it is):
Function (What it does):
Differentiation (How to tell what type of cell it is):
Identification (Special structures you need to identify, if any):
6. Monocyte
Cell Classification
Red Blood Cell
White Blood Cell (Leukocyte)
Agranulocyte
Erythrocyte
Granulocyte
lymphocyte
neutrophil
✓monocyte
eosinophil
basophil
Location (Where it is):
Function (What it does):
Differentiation (How to tell what type of cell it is):
Identification (Special structures you need to identify, if any):
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BSC 2086 Lab Manual
7. Megakaryocyte
Cell Classification
Myeloid
Lymphoid
Erythrocyte
Lymphocyte
Granulocyte
✓Megakaryocyte
Location (Where it is):
Function (What it does):
Differentiation (How to tell what type of cell it is):
Identification (Special structures you need to identify, if any):
Part B: Blood Cell Count
Methods:
A white blood cell count is the total number of leukocytes per defined volume of fluid, typically
expressed as thousands of cells/µL. Healthy blood will have between 5,000-10,000 WBC’s per µL
Automated counters such as flow cytometry counters are most commonly used in medical
laboratories to scan and tally blood cells. Manual counts can also be performed accurately on blood
samples that have been diluted in a diluent fluid or on fluid samples that contain few cells, such as
cerebrospinal fluid. Perform a blood cell count by identifying and recording the number of
lymphocytes, neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils, and monocytes you identify with your cell counter.
1. Begin by observing a Wright’s stain blood smear under the microscope at 4x, 40x, and 100x.
2. Make your observations for counting under the 40x objective.
3. Scan your slide in search of white blood cells. When you observe a white blood cell, classify it and
record your findings in the chart below. Identify and record the first 100 leukocytes you come
across on your slide.
4. Calculate the relative proportions of the different types of blood cells. Based on healthy hematocrit
percent volumes, you can estimate the number of RBC’s to be +50,000 RBC’s per WBC.
Cell Classification
Leukocytes
Granulocytes
N
Number
Proportion
E
%
Agranulocytes
B
%
Lymphocyte
%
%
Monocyte
%
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BSC 2086 Lab Manual
Part C: Pathologies
Methods:
Observe blood smears of select pathologies. Note how the morphology or the affected cells and the
cell count are altered in the disease condition. You will be responsible for identifying a general
anemia or leukemia for the Histology Practical Exam.
1.Pernicious anemia
Blood cell/component affected:
Observations (how does this compare to healthy blood):
Possible causes and effects:
2.Human Infectious Mononucleosis
Blood cell/component affected:
Observations (how does this compare to healthy blood):
Possible causes and effects:
3.Erythroblastosis fetalis
Blood cell/component affected:
Observations (how does this compare to healthy blood):
Possible causes and effects:
4.Leukemias:
a. Monocytic acute and/or chronic
Blood cell/component affected:
Observations (how does this compare to healthy blood):
Possible causes and effects:
b. Myeloid acute
Blood cell/component affected:
Observations (how does this compare to healthy blood):
Possible causes and effects:
5. Bacteremia
Observations (how does this compare to healthy blood):
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BSC 2086 Lab Manual
Blood Cells
!
Images from The Sourcebook of Medical Illustration (The Parthenon Publishing Group, P. Cull, ed., 1989) and are
copyright-free as long as they are used for educational purposes.
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BSC 2086 Lab Manual
Activated Blood Cells
!
Images from The Sourcebook of Medical Illustration (The Parthenon Publishing Group, P. Cull, ed., 1989) and are
copyright-free as long as they are used for educational purposes.
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BSC 2086 Lab Manual
Name:_______________________________ Section: __________
Due Date:______________________________________
Blood Smear and Blood Cell Differentiation
Post Lab Questions:
1. How does an anemic blood smear differ from a normal, healthy blood smear?
2. How does a leukemic blood smear differ from a normal, healthy blood smear?
3. List the three granulocytes:
4. List the two agranulocytes:
5. Monocytes mature into:
What is their function?
6. B lymphocytes mature into:
What is their function?
7. List the blood cells in order of their relative proportions from highest to lowest.
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BSC 2086 Lab Manual
Gross Anatomy of the Heart and Blood Flow
Objectives:
1.Describe the anatomical location and position of the heart
2.Identify select gross anatomical structures of the heart
3.Describe the flow of blood through the heart
4.Describe the flow of blood to the heart
5.Define and discuss pathologies of the heart related to blood flow and supply
6.Observe and describe cardiac muscle under the microscope
Introduction:
The cardiovascular system is composed of the heart and blood vessels. The heart is a muscular
pump that drives blood through the pulmonary and systemic circuits. In this lab we will study the
gross anatomy of the heart and trace the flow of blood through and to the heart.
Materials:
1.Microscope
2.Stethoscope
3.Colored Pencils
4.Tissue Slides
a.heart
b.cardiac muscle
c.intercalated disk
d.cardiac infarction
Part A: External Location of Heart Areas
Introduction:
The following anatomical landmarks on the surface of the chest serve as reference points for heart
structures below. These points are used for clinical palpation and auscultation of the heart.
Methods:
Identify following heart areas using the associated anatomical landmarks on yourself or a willing lab
partner.
External Location of Heart Areas
Heart Area
1. Aortic Area
2. Pulmonic Area
3. Tricuspid Valve
4. Mitral Valve
Associated External Location
1.
2.
3.
4.
Second intercostal space, right sternal border
Second intercostal space, left sternal border
Left lower sternal border
Cardiac apex at the fifth intercostal space at the
midclavicular line
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Part B: Heart Sounds
Introduction:
When auscultating the heart, the characteristic ‘lub-dub’ heart sounds are produced by the closing of
the atrioventricular and semilunar valves. The ‘lub’ sound is designated as the first heart sound (S1)
and is produced by the closing of the atrioventricular valves caused by ventricular systole and high
pressure in the ventricles. The ‘dub‘ sound is designated as the second heart sound (S2) and is
produced by the closing of the semilunar valves caused by the higher blood pressure in the large
arteries. The opening of the valves is normally inaudible and will only be heard if a valve is damaged
or stenotic.
The time between the closure of the AV valves and the opening of the semilunar valves is the period
of isovolumetric contraction. When pressure in the right ventricle exceeds the pressure in the
pressure in the pulmonary artery, the pulmonary semilunar valve opens. A damaged or stenotic
pulmonary or aortic semilunar valve may produce an abnormal ‘snap’ sound during this period.
The time between the opening and closing of the semilunar valves is the period of ejection when
blood is ejected from the left and right ventricles through the aorta and pulmonary arteries
respectively via opening of the semilunar valves.
The time between the closing of the semilunar valves and the opening of the AV valves is the period
of isovolumetric relaxation. When pressure in the right and left atria exceeds the pressure in the
ventricles the tricuspid and mitral valves open respectively. A damaged or stenotic tricuspid or mitral
valve may produce an abnormal ‘snap’ sound during this period.
Proper auscultation requires quiet concentration and years of practice. The goal of heart auscultation
is to characterize heart sounds and note any usual sounds or timings of sounds. Auscultation can be
done at each of the four heart areas (aortic, pulmonic, tricuspid, and mitral) at four standard positions
to maximize listening.
Methods:
1. Auscultation should be performed on oneself or a willing lab partner in a quiet environment.
2. Press the diaphragm of the stethoscope firmly over each of the heart areas while assuming each
of the four standard positions:
1. Supine
1.Aortic Area: Second intercostal space, right sternal border
2.Pulmonic Area: Second intercostal space, left sternal border
3.Tricuspid Valve: Left lower sternal border
4.Mitral Valve: Cardiac apex at the fifth intercostal space at the
midclavicular line
2. Left Lateral Decubitus - Patient lying on their left side
• Listen at the apex for low-pitched diastolic murmurs that indicate a mitral stenosis
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3. Sitting Upright
1.Aortic Area: Second intercostal space, right sternal border
2.Pulmonic Area: Second intercostal space, left sternal border
3.Tricuspid Valve: Left lower sternal border
4.Mitral Valve: Cardiac apex at the fifth intercostal space at the
midclavicular line
4. Upright, Leaning Forward
• While upright and leaning forward, listen at the right and left second and third
intercostal spaces on a deep held inhalation. A high-pitched diastolic murmur may
indicate aortic regurgitation.
Part C: Anatomical Structures of the Heart
Methods:
Identify, label and color the external and internal structures of the heart as listed. You are responsible
for the listed structures of the heart for the Heart Dissection Practical Exam and the Gross Anatomical
Practical Exam.
1. External Structures
1. Anterior face
2. Posterior face
3. Base
4. Apex
5. Parietal pericardium
6. Pericardial sac (potential space between parietal and visceral pericardium)*
7. Epicardium (visceral pericardium)
8. Coronary fat
9. Myocardium
10.Endocardium
11.Pericardial cavity
12.Pericardial fluid
13.Right ventricle
14.Left ventricle
15. Right atrium
16. Left atrium
17. R and L auricles
18. Aortic arch
19. Ascending aorta
20. Ligamentum arteriosum
21. Superior vena cava
22. Inferior vena cava
23. Pulmonary trunk
24. R and L pulmonary arteries
25. Right and left pulmonary veins
26. Coronary sulcus
27. Anterior interventricular sulcus
28. Posterior interventricular sulcus
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BSC 2086 Lab Manual
2. Internal Structures
1. Interatrial septum
2. Right atrium
3. Left atrium
4. Right ventricle
5. Left ventricle
6. Interventricular septum
7. Fossa ovalis
8. Pectinate muscles
9. Right AV (Tricuspid) valve
10. Left AV (Bicuspid, Mitral) valve
11. Tendinous cords
12. Trabeculae carneae
13. Aortic valve
14. Pulmonary valve
15. Papillary muscles
3. Coronary Circulation
A. Ascending Aorta
• 2 proximal branches of ascending aorta deliver blood to the heart itself
1. Right Coronary Artery (RCA)
• 2 branches
a. Right marginal artery
• supplies right ventricle
b. Posterior interventricular artery
2. Left Coronary Artery (LCA)
• 2 branches
a. Anterior interventricular artery (LAD, Widow maker)
• supplies left ventricle
b. Left circumflex artery
B. Coronary Sinus
• veins draining the heart follow the arteries and converge at the coronary sinus
in the posterior coronary sulcus
• the coronary sinus returns blood from the heart to the right atrium
1. Left anterior interventricular vein (Great cardiac vein)
2. Posterior interventricular vein
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BSC 2086 Lab Manual
Anterior External Heart
!
Images from The Sourcebook of Medical Illustration (The Parthenon Publishing Group, P. Cull, ed., 1989) and are
copyright-free as long as they are used for educational purposes.
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BSC 2086 Lab Manual
Posterior External Heart
!
Images from The Sourcebook of Medical Illustration (The Parthenon Publishing Group, P. Cull, ed., 1989) and are
copyright-free as long as they are used for educational purposes.
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BSC 2086 Lab Manual
Anterior Internal Heart
!
Images from The Sourcebook of Medical Illustration (The Parthenon Publishing Group, P. Cull, ed., 1989) and are
copyright-free as long as they are used for educational purposes.
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BSC 2086 Lab Manual
Anterior Internal Heart: Cardiac Conduction System
!
Images from The Sourcebook of Medical Illustration (The Parthenon Publishing Group, P. Cull, ed., 1989) and are
copyright-free as long as they are used for educational purposes.
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BSC 2086 Lab Manual
Part C: Blood Flow Through the Heart and Coronary Circulation
Introduction:
By definition veins deliver blood to the heart and blood leaving the heart passes through the arteries.
The veins deliver blood to the atria of the heart and blood leaves the heart via the ventricles.
The right side of the heart comprises the pulmonary circuit which functions to receive
deoxygenation blood and deliver it to the lungs for gas exchange, depositing CO2 into the lungs to be
expired and picking up O2 from the lungs to be delivered to the body.
Deoxygenated (blue) blood from the body and coronary circulation enters the heart at the right atrium
via the superior and inferior vena cava and the coronary sinus. During atrial systole, blood in the right
atrium is forced through the right atrioventricular (tricuspid) valve and into the right ventricle.
Ventricular systole forces the blood through the pulmonary semilunar valve, into the pulmonary trunk
and then to the lungs via the right and left and pulmonary arteries.
Gas exchange occurs in the lungs and the now oxygenated blood (red) enters the systemic pump of
the left side of the heart. Blood returns to the left atrium via the right and left pulmonary veins. Atrial
systole forces the blood through the left atrioventricular (mitral, bicuspid) valve and into the left
ventricle. Ventricular systole forces blood through the aortic semilunar valve and through the aorta
and through to the system circulation.
As a very active muscular organ, the heart requires a large and steady blood supply. The heart is the
first organ to receive oxygenated blood from the aorta as the first branches of the aorta are the right
and left coronary arteries. These arteries deliver blood to the heart. The heart returns the
deoxygenated blood of coronary circulation to the right atrium with the blood from the rest of the body.
Coronary veins converge to form the coronary sinus on the posterior side of the heart. The coronary
sinus opens into the right atrium.
Methods:
Divide the heart into four chambers. Trace the path of blood through the heart as you sketch in and
label each of the chambers, valves, arteries and veins.
Internal Anterior Heart:
Blood Flow
(Not anatomically correct)
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Methods:
Trace the path of blood through the heart and label each of the chambers, valves, arteries, and veins.
Use blue colored pencils to represent the flow of deoxygenated blood and red colored pencils to
represent the flow of oxygenated blood.
Internal Anterior Heart: Blood Flow
!
Images from The Sourcebook of Medical Illustration (The Parthenon Publishing Group, P. Cull, ed., 1989) and are
copyright-free as long as they are used for educational purposes.
References:
Anatomy and Physiology: The Unity of Form and Function
Saladin 5th ed.
Textbook of Physical Diagnosis: History and Examination
Swartz, M. H. 5th ed.
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BSC 2086 Lab Manual
Name:_______________________________ Section: __________
Due Date:______________________________________
Gross Anatomy of the Heart and Blood Flow
Post Lab Questions:
1. What are the three openings into the right atrium?
2. Why are the pulmonary arteries blue?
3. What are first branches off of the aorta?
4. Compare the locations of the two atrioventricular and two semilunar valves in the heart.
5. How does the function of right side of the heart differ from that the left side of the heart. How does
the size of the left ventricle compare to that of the right ventricle and how does that relate to it the
function of the two ventricles?
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BSC 2086 Lab Manual
The Circulatory System: The Heart
Heart Dissection
Objectives:
1. Identify major structures of the heart.
2. Trace the path of the blood through the heart during the cardiac cycle.
3. Observe the functioning of the heart valves.
4. Compare the anatomy of the human heart to that of another mammalian heart.
Introduction:
The heart is located in the mediastinum of the thoracic cavity. It is superior to the diaphragm and
inferior to the major blood vessels most notably the aortic arch. The heart is protected anteriorly by
the sternum and it is located in the ribcage at the level of the second rib. The apex of the heart
extends past the level of the fifth rib on the left side of the body.
As part of the circulatory system, the heart functions as a muscular pump to support blood flow
through the pulmonary and systemic circuits. The heart also has its own coronary circulation to
provide blood flow to and from the myocardium. In this lab we will study the anatomical form and
functions of the mammalian heart.
Materials:
1. Preserved sheep heart
2. Dissection instruments kit
3. Dissection tray
4. Disposable gloves
5. Protective eyewear
6. Lab coat
7. Surface cleaner
Safety:
1. Close-toed shoes are required in lab
2. Stow belongings out of the walk ways and work area as directed
3. Wear gloves and eye protection when working in the lab
4. Dispose of the heart as instructed
5. Wash the dissection tools and trays
6. Wash surface
7. Wash hands thoroughly before leaving the lab
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BSC 2086 Lab Manual
Name:_______________________________ Section: __________
Due Date: Due the day of the dissection
The Circulatory System: The Heart
Heart Dissection
Pre-Lab Exercises:
Part A: Short Answer
Select the best directional term to complete the sentence.
1. The base of the heart is located (superior; inferior) to the coronary sulcus.
2. The apex of the heart is located (superior; inferior) to the coronary sulcus.
3. The aorta descends down the (ventral; dorsal) face of the heart.
4. The (right; left) ventricle is located at the apex of the heart.
5. The interventricular sulci divide the heart (transversely; sagittally)
Part B: Matching
____
1. AV valve muscles in ventricles
a. Coronary artery
____
2. Prevents back flow from right ventricle to right atrium
b. Pericardial fluid
____
3. Continuous with the endothelium of blood vessels
c. Left AV valve
____
4. Artery to the lungs
d. Papillary
____
5. Between the parietal and visceral pericardium
e. Right AV valve
____
6. Artery from the left ventricle
f. Epicardium
____
7. First branch of the aorta
g. Pulmonary trunk
____
8. Drains into the right atrium
h. Endocardium
____
9. Prevents back flow from left ventricle to left atrium
i. Aorta
____
10. Contains fat and the coronary blood vessels
j. Coronary sinus
End pre-lab
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BSC 2086 Lab Manual
Part C: For Review Before the Practical Exam
Describe the orientation of the heart in anatomical terms
Identify select anatomical features or blood vessels
Describe opening and closing of AV valves during cardiac cycle
Describe opening and closing of semilunar valves during cardiac cycle
Demonstrate path of blood flow through pulmonary circuit
Demonstrate path of blood flow through systemic circuit
Demonstrate path of blood flow through coronary circulation
Discuss and demonstrate effects of a valvular insufficiency
Discuss and demonstrate effects of defect in interatrial septum
Discuss and demonstrate pathway of impulse conduction through the heart
Methods: Dissection Protocol:
Working in groups of two:
1. Obtain a preserved heart and rinse thoroughly with water to remove preservative and flush
remaining blood clots out of the chambers and vessels.
2. Place the heart in the dissecting tray ventral surface up and identify the right and left atria and
ventricles and the major blood vessels.
3. The visceral pericardium appears as a thin, transparent membrane on the surface of the heart.
Note the adipose tissue and coronary blood vessels associated with this membrane.
4. Peel away the adipose tissue and locate the left and right coronary arteries and the anterior and
posterior interventricular arteries and great cardiac vein in the interventricular sulci. Find the
circumflex artery in the atrioventricular sulcus.
5. Peel or scrape away the visceral pericardium layer to expose the myocardium.
6. Examine the dorsal surface of the heart and identify the posterior atrioventricular and
interventricular sulci.
7. Locate the superior and inferior vena cava as they empty into the right atrium. Also locate the
coronary sinus.
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8. Open the right atrium. Use scissors to make an incision into the superior vena cava and cut
downward through the wall of the right atrium.
9. Open the chamber and identify the pectinate muscle, fossa ovalis, and the tricuspid valve. Find
the opening to the coronary sinus.
10. Run water through the tricuspid valve to fill the right ventricle. Gently squeeze the ventricle and
observe the functioning of the tricuspid valve.
11. Open the right ventricle. Continue your incision through the tricuspid valve and the right
ventricular wall to the apex of the heart.
12. Open the ventricle and identify the chordae tendineae, papillary muscles, and trabeculae carneae.
13. Find the opening to the pulmonary trunk and cut upwards through the wall of the ventricle until you
reach the pulmonary semilunar valve.
14. Open the left side of the heart by cutting through the wall of the left ventricle and continue your
incision down to the apex of the heart.
15. Open the left atrium. In the left atrium, find the openings of the pulmonary veins.
16. Find the bicuspid valve separating the left atrium and ventricle.
17. Note the thick myocardium of the left ventricle and find the aortic semilunar valve. Follow the
aorta and locate the openings to the left and right coronary arteries.
18. Clean-up/ Disposal:
1.Discard the gloves and heart in the trash.
2.Thoroughly rinse, wash, and return the dissection trays and tools.
3.Thoroughly wash your work surface.
4.Wash your hands before leaving the lab.
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Labeling Exercise
Cut out and use the provided labels and mounting pins to precisely tag each of the structures as you
locate them. Laminate the top side of the labels with a layer of tape before cutting them out. Fill out
the bottom half of the sheet and leave it next to your dissection so that your instructor can check your
labeling to give you credit for your dissection technique and adherence to protocol.
Printable Labels
Right Ventricle
Ligamentum Arteriosum
Pectinate Muscle
Left Ventricle
Pulmonary Trunk
Papillary Muscle
Right Atrium
Pulmonary Veins
Tricuspid Valve
Left Atrium
A. Interventricular Artery
Bicuspid Valve
Superior Vena Cava
Interatrial Septum
Aortic Valve
Inferior Vena Cava
Interventricular Septum
Pulmonary Valve
Aorta
Fossa Ovalis
Tendinous Cords
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
The Circulatory System: The Heart
Heart Dissection
Names and CRN of each member of the group:
Name: ______________________________ CRN: ___________
Name: ______________________________ CRN: ___________
Name: ______________________________ CRN: ___________
Date:__________________________________________
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BSC 2086 Lab Manual
Name:_______________________________ Section: __________
Due Date:Due one week after dissection
The Circulatory System: The Heart
Heart Dissection
Post Lab Exercises:
Part A: Discussion
1. Compare the location and structure of the tricuspid valve with that of the pulmonary
semilunar valve.
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
2. Describe the action of the tricuspid valve when the right ventricle contracts.
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
3. Describe the action of the aortic semilunar valve when the left ventricle contracts.
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
Post lab exercises continued on next page
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4.What is the significance of the difference in thickness of the myocardium of the right
ventricle and the left ventricle?
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
5. What is the significance of the difference in thickness of the wall of the aorta and the
vena cava?
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
6. What does the ligamentum arteriosum represent and what was its function?
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
7.List in order the major blood vessels, chambers, and valves, through which blood
must pass in traveling from the vena cava to the aorta.
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
End post lab
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The Circulatory System: The Heart
Heart Dissection
Lab Report
Grading:
Name:_________________________________________
Date:__________________________________________
Section:________________________________________
Pre-Lab:
Part A: Short Answer: _____ / 10
Part B: Matching: _____ / 10
Dissection:
Instructor Facilitated Inquiry: _____ / 30
Labeling: _____ / 20
Dissection Technique: _____ / 5
Adherence to Protocol/ Clean-up: _____ / 5
Post-Lab:
Part A: Discussion: _____ / 20
Total: _____ / 100
Letter Grade:
Instructor:_______________________________________
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The Circulatory System: The Heart
Heart Dissection
Instructor facilitated Inquiry
Grading:
Date:__________________________________________
Names and CRN of each member of the group:
Name: ______________________________ CRN: ___________
Name: ______________________________ CRN: ___________
Name: ______________________________ CRN: ___________
Three (3) points each:
_____ 1. Describe the orientation of the heart in anatomical terms
_____ 2. Identify select anatomical features or blood vessels
_____ 3. Describe opening and closing of AV valves during cardiac cycle
_____ 4. Describe opening and closing of semilunar valves during cardiac cycle
_____ 5. Demonstrate path of blood flow through pulmonary circuit
_____ 6. Demonstrate path of blood flow through systemic circuit
_____ 7. Demonstrate path of blood flow through coronary circulation
_____ 8. Discuss and demonstrate effects of a valvular insufficiency
_____ 9. Discuss and demonstrate effects of defect in interatrial septum
_____ 10. Discuss and demonstrate pathway of impulse conduction through the heart
from SA node through purkinje fibers
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The Circulatory System: Blood Vessels and Circulation
Objectives:
1. Reinforce concepts of heart anatomy and blood flow
2. Reinforce blood vessel anatomy and circulation through clinical application
3. Locate and palpate peripheral pulses
Materials:
1. Sphygmomanometer
2. Stethoscope
3. Pen light
4. Anatomical models: Torso, Arm, Leg
5. Tissue Slides:
a. Artery (aorta), arteriole
b. Vein, venule
c. Heart
Part A: Histology
Observe the histological slides or PowerPoint images for the following blood vessels. Identify the
three layers (tunicas) of the blood vessel walls: tunica interna, tunica media, and tunica externa. The
tunica media is the endothelia lining of the vessel lumen. The tunica media is middle layer of smooth
muscle, collagen, and elastic tissue. It is responsible for vasomotion. The tunica externa is the
superficial most layer of the blood vessel wall composed of loose connective tissue that carries
neighboring blood vessels, nerves, and lymphatic channels. Distinguish an artery and a vein by
comparing the vessel walls. Arteries and arterioles are patent and have a thick tunica media with lots
of elastic fibers to withstand the high pressure on the arterial side of the capillary. Veins and venules
have larger lumens with thinner, flaccid walls. Veins also have valves. You are responsible for
identifying an artery and a vein for the Histological Practical Exam.
A. Artery
1. Tunica interna
2. Tunica media
3. Tunica externa
Images from The Sourcebook of Medical Illustration (The Parthenon Publishing Group, P. Cull, ed., 1989) and are
copyright-free as long as they are used for educational purposes.
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B.Vein
1.
2.
3.
4.
Tunica interna
Tunica media
Tunica externa
Valve
Images from The Sourcebook of Medical Illustration (The Parthenon Publishing Group, P. Cull, ed., 1989) and are
copyright-free as long as they are used for educational purposes.
C. Capillary
• A tube of endothelium
Images from The Sourcebook of Medical Illustration (The Parthenon Publishing Group, P. Cull, ed., 1989) and are
copyright-free as long as they are used for educational purposes.
Part B: Determine the Cardiac Rate
Introduction:
The arterial pulse is produced by the pressure created by the ejection of blood from the left ventricle
into the aorta. Evaluation of the rate and strength of the arterial pulse provides information about the
rate and rhythm of the heart and the level of blood pressure in the artery.
Methods:
1. Standing in front of a willing lab partner, grasp both radial arteries (use only your second,
third, and fourth fingers to palpate the artery).
2. Count the pulse for thirty seconds and multiply the number of beats by two to obtain the
number of beats per minute.
3. Note any irregular beats. Palpate longer to identify if there is a ‘regular irregular’ beat.
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4. Record the Cardiac Rate for several trials:
Trial 1. _____ bmp
Trial 2. _____ bmp
Trial 3. _____ bmp
Part C: Jugular Venous Pulse
Introduction:
The jugular venous pulse provides information about the pressures in the right side of the heart. The
right atrium is continuous with the jugular venous system via the superior vena cava and the right
ventricle of the heart is continuous with the jugular venous system during diastole when the tricuspid
valve is open.
Methods:
1. Estimate the jugular venous pressure. Observe the right internal jugular vein as a willing lab
partner lays supine with his or her head turned slightly to the right and down. The trunk should be
slightly elevated with a pillow (25o) from the horizontal.
2. Standing on the right side, shine the pen light over the right side of the neck and observe the
pulsating shadow. Note: The pulse of the internal jugular vein is very slight and should not be
palpable. Neck veins should not be distended more than halfway between the sternal angle and
the jawline.
Part D: Arterial Blood Pressure
Introduction:
Arterial blood pressure is the pressure experienced by the peripheral arterial walls as blood pushes
laterally on the vessels walls. Blood pressure (BP) is a component of cardiac output (CO) and
peripheral vascular resistance (PR). Blood pressure is proportional to CO and and inversely
proportional to PR.
BP pushes laterally on vessel walls.
Images from The Sourcebook of Medical Illustration (The Parthenon Publishing Group, P. Cull, ed., 1989) and are
copyright-free as long as they are used for educational purposes.
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There are many physiological mechanisms that work to maintain a homeostatic blood pressure or
adjust blood pressure in response to a stimulus. This is necessary because blood pressure varies
greatly and can change rapidly in response to emotion or effector drugs or is modified slowly in
response to lifestyle or diet. Even breathing and bladder distention can affect blood pressure.
Systolic blood pressure is the peak arterial pressure which is reached during ventricular systole. This
pressure depends of stroke volume (SV) and compliance of the blood vessels. The normal range of
systolic blood pressure for a resting adult is up to 140 mm Hg. This the first number provided in a
blood pressure report.
Diastolic blood pressure is the lowest arterial pressure which is reached during cardiac diastole. The
normal range of diastolic blood pressure for a resting adult is up to 85 mm Hg. This the second
number provided in a blood pressure report. The difference between the systolic and diastolic blood
pressures is the pulse pressure.
Blood pressure is indirectly measured with a sphygmomanometer and the auscultory detection of the
Korotokoff sounds, low-pitched sounds originating from turbulence in the blood vessel. The
sphygmomanometer is used to compress and temporarily occlude the brachial artery. As the artery
becomes partially occluded, Korotokoff sounds from the brachial artery can be monitored with a
stethoscope distal to the in the sphygmomanometer cuff.
Methods:
1. Have your partner sit comfortably with his or her right arm supported at chest level.
2. Palpate the right brachial artery and place the cuff of the sphygmomanometer over the pulse.
3. Inflate the cuff to 20 mm Hg above the normal systolic pressure (no more than 150 mm Hg).
4. Place the diaphragm of the stethoscope in the antecubital fossa as close to the edge of the cuff
as possible.
5. Slowly release the pressure. Note the needle falling while listening to the Korotokoff sounds.
• The systolic pressure is noted when the first ‘tapping’ sounds are heard. This sound is
caused by blood rushing back into the occluded artery.
•
The diastolic pressure is noted by the disappearance of the Korotokoff sounds as blood
flow returns to the artery and turbulent flow is no longer present as the artery is no
longer compressed
•
Round your pressure findings to the nearest 5 mm Hg.
6. Record the systolic and diastolic arterial blood pressures for several trials:
Trial 1. Systolic:_____/ Diastolic:_____
Trial 2. Systolic:_____/ Diastolic:_____
Trial 3. Systolic:_____/ Diastolic:_____
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Part E: Peripheral Pulses
Introduction:
Examination of the peripheral vascular system involves a general inspection of the extremities and
palpation and comparison of the pulses. Pulses are typically evaluated bilaterally and are described
and graded by amplitude:
0 Absent
1 Diminished
2 Normal
3 Increased
4 Bounding
The extremities are evaluated for asymmetries in size, color, temperature and vascular patterns.
They should also be inspected for pigmentary abnormalities, ulcerations, edema, and cyanosis as
any of these can indicate vascular insufficiencies, disease. For example, a chronic venus stasis in
the lower extremities results in varicose veins, discoloration, and edema. A blood clot in a lower
extremity can cause the limb to be warm to the touch and erythemic (red).
Methods:
1. Locate and Palpate/Auscultate the following Peripheral Point Pulses on yourself or a willing lab
partner.
2. Note the locations and arteries that give rise to these pulses. You will be responsible for the
identification of the arteries listed for the Gross Anatomical Practical Exam.
3. Palpate two pulses at the same time, one distal peripheral point pulse, such as the radial pulse,
and one proximal point pulse, such as the common carotid pulse. Note how the proximal pulse is
felt first and note the delay between the proximal and peripheral pulse.
1. Carotid Pulse (Palpate and Auscultate)
a. Location:
b. Artery:
2. Radial Pulse
a. Location:
b. Artery:
3. Brachial Pulse
a. Location:
b. Artery:
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4. Abdominal Aorta (Palpate and Auscultate)
a. Location:
b. Artery:
5. Femoral Pulse
a. Location:
b. Artery:
6. Popliteal Pulse
a. Location:
b. Artery:
5. Dorsalis Pedis Pulse
a. Location:
b. Artery:
7. Posterior Tibialis Pulse
a. Location:
b. Artery:
References:
Anatomy and Physiology: The Unity of Form and Function
Saladin 5th ed.
Textbook of Physical Diagnosis: History and Examination
Swartz, M. H. 5th ed.
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Name:_______________________________ Section: __________
Due Date:______________________________________
The Circulatory System: Blood Vessels and Circulation
Post Lab Questions:
1. What does the systolic blood pressure represent?
2. What does the diastolic blood pressure represent?
3. How is cardiac output (CO) affected by an elevated peripheral vascular resistance?
4. Based on the information in Part D: Arterial Blood Pressure, develop a formula to describe the
relationship between blood pressure (BP), cardiac output (CO), and peripheral resistance (PR).
5. The jugular venous pulse is observed to determine the function of which circuit on which side of
the heart?
6. Describe three physiological mechanisms the body uses to adjust (increase or decrease) blood
pressure.
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Lymphatic System and Immunity:
Gross Lymphatic and Vascular Anatomy
Objectives:
1. Describe the locations and functions of select major blood vessels and lymphatic structures in the
human body.
Materials:
1. Anatomical models: torso, leg, arm
2. Light microscope
3. Tissue slides:
a.Lymph node section
b.Thymus section
c.Spleen section
d.Lymphatic vessel
Part A: Gross Anatomy of the Lymphatic System
Introduction:
The lymphatic system is composed of a network of thin-walled collecting vessels closely associated
with the vascular system which collect interstitial fluid (lymph) from the tissues. These collecting or
lymphatic vessels have one-way valves that direct the lymphatic fluid back towards the heart as they
converge to form six lymphatic trunks and two lymphatic ducts which return lymph to the
subclavian veins and back into cardiovascular circulation. Without proper lymphatic system function,
tissue fluids accumulate in the tissues, producing edema.
Images from The Sourcebook of Medical Illustration (The Parthenon Publishing Group, P. Cull, ed., 1989) and are
copyright-free as long as they are used for educational purposes.
The lymphatic system also has important immune functions. Along the lymphatic vessels are
lymphatic organs known as lymph nodes. Lymph nodes host populations of T and B lymphocytes
that search the lymph fluid for the presence of antigens. An immune response is elicited when
antigens are discovered by these sentinel cells.
The spleen is another lymphatic organ with immune functions. The spleen is composed of two
histological tissues known as white pulp and red pulp. The white pulp of the spleen is found
surrounding blood vessels as they pass through the splenic tissue. These arrangements of lymphatic
tissue around blood vessels are known as a peri-arterial lymphatic sheaths (PALS). White pulp
contains T and B lymphocytes that search the blood for antigens. The red pulp of the spleen is
composed of macrophages that filter out senescent red blood cells. Because the lymphatic system is
such an important component of the immune system, inspection of the lymphatic structures is an
important clinical tool of diagnosis.
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Methods:
1. Observe the following tissue slides for the lymph node section, thymus section, and spleen section
and note the following. You are responsible for identifying lymphatic tissues listed for the
Histology Practical Exam.
A.Lymph node
1. Capsule
2. Hilum
3. Afferent and Efferent Lymphatic Vessels
4. Trabeculae
5. Nodules
a. Cortex of B cell follicles and T cells
deeper
b. Medulla of plasma cells and
macrophages
6. Sinus between capsule and nodules
B. Thymus
1. Capsule of loose connective tissue
2. Septa dividing the thymus into lobules
3. Cortex of mature lymphocytes
4. Medulla of immature lymphocytes
C. Spleen
1. Capsule of dense connective tissue
2. Nodules of white pulp surrounding blood vessels
3. Nodules of red pulp
D. Lymphatic Vessel
1. Valve
Images from The Sourcebook of Medical Illustration (The Parthenon Publishing Group, P. Cull, ed., 1989) and are
copyright-free as long as they are used for educational purposes.
2. Identify the following Lymph node clusters located in each of the body regions on the anatomic
models. Palpate lymph nodes on yourself or an a willing partner.
A. Cervical Lymph Nodes:
1. Anterior and Posterior Auricular
2. Occipital
3. Posterior Cervical
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4. Submental
5. Submaxillary
6. Tonsilar
7. Supraclavicular
• Supraclavicular masses such as Virchow’s node in the left supraclavicular
fossa may be metastatic lesions from tumors of the abdomen
• Masses in the lateral upper neck may be metastatic lesions from tumors of
the head or neck
• Masses in the lateral lower neck may be metastatic lesions from tumors of the
breast or stomach
B. Axillary Lymph Nodes
• Axillary masses may be metastatic lesions from tumors of the breast.
C. Inguinal Lymph Nodes
D. Abdominal Cavity Lymph Nodes
E. Thoracic Cavity Lymph Nodes
3. Identify the thoracic (left lymphatic) duct as it empties into the left subclavian vein and the
right lymphatic duct as it empties into the right subclavian vein
Part B: Gross Anatomy of the Major Blood Vessels
Introduction:
The human cardiovascular system may be described as two main loops or circuits, the pulmonary
circuit and the systemic circuit. The pulmonary circuit sends blood to the lungs for gas exchange,
and delivers the blood back to the heart. The pump for the pulmonary circuit is the right side of the
heart. The systemic circuit sends blood to all other body systems, organs and tissues, including the
heart itself. The systemic system functions to deliver oxygen and nutrients to the tissues and return
blood back to the heart. The pump for the systemic circuit is the left side of the heart. This lab will
focus on the identification of select major blood vessels and lymphatic structures and describe the
functions of each and they pertain to circulation.
Methods:
1. Obtain an anatomical torso.
2. Remove the internal organs except for the heart and identify each of the listed blood vessels.
Note that some of the blood vessels described are identified in more than one location; be sure to
identify the vessels in all locations. You are responsible for these blood vessels and lymphatic
structures for the Gross Anatomical Practical Exam.
Part A: Pulmonary Circuit
Starting at the heart, identify the following:
1. Pulmonary Trunk (may be listed as pulmonary artery before it bifurcates)
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2. Right Pulmonary Artery (or right branch of the pulmonary artery)
• carries blood to right lung
3. Left Pulmonary Artery (check the lungs for additional locations)
• carries blood to left lung
4. Right Pulmonary Veins
• returns blood from right lung to left atrium
5. Left Pulmonary Veins
• returns blood from left lung to left atrium
Part B: Systemic Circuit
Starting at the heart, trace the flow of blood flowing away from the left ventricle. The aorta is divided
into four sections as it leaves the heart.
1. Ascending Aorta
• 2 early branches
A. Right Coronary Artery
B. Left Coronary Artery
2. Aortic Arch
• 3 branches of aortic arch deliver blood to the head and arms
1. Brachiocephalic Artery
• 2 branches
A. Right Common Carotid Artery
• Both the right and left common carotids branch into
internal carotid arteries and external carotid arteries.
Both branches may not be visible on both sides on the
torso.
a. Right Internal Carotid Artery
• carries blood to right side of head and brain
• enters skull through the foramen lacerum
b. Right External Carotid Artery
• carries blood to right side of head and face
B. Right Subclavian Artery
• travels under clavicle and carries blood to right arm
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2. Left Common Carotid Artery
A. Left Internal Carotid Artery
• carries blood to left side of head
• enters skull through the foramen lacerum
B. Left External Carotid Artery
• carries blood to left side of head and brain
3. Left Subclavian Artery
• carries blood to left arm
Sketch and label the aortic arch and associated branches:
3. Thoracic or Descending Aorta
• Arteries branching from the from the thoracic aorta carry blood to intercostal
muscles, the esophagus and thoracic bones
•
The thoracic aorta descends through the diaphragm to become the abdominal
descending aorta
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4. Abdominal Descending Aorta
• 4 branches supply blood to the muscles, bones and viscera of the abdominopelvic
cavity
1. Celiac Axis/Artery/Trunk
• Supplies blood to many organs of the upper abdomen through a complex
route. Arteries branch, loop around each other and re-join at several
locations which are difficult to trace in the anatomical torsos. A point where
blood vessels connect is called an anastimosis.
• 3 main branches of the celiac trunk:
a. Left Gastric Artery
• supplies blood to the stomach and lower esophagus
b. Splenic Artery (also look on large intestine)
• supplies blood to the spleen and pancreas
c. Common Hepatic Artery (liver and large intestine)
• supplies blood to liver; branches also supply stomach and
portions of the greater omentum
2. Superior Mesenteric Artery (also look on large intestine)
• branches from this artery supply blood to many lower abdominal organs such
as small intestine and large intestine as well as the large, fan-shaped
mesentery of connective tissue that binds the organs together.
3. Right and Left Gonadal Arteries
• supply blood to the gonads, ovaries or testes
4. Inferior mesenteric Artery
• branches from this artery supply blood to large intestine and rectum.
5. Right and Left Renal Arteries
• supply blood to the right and left kidneys
6. Right and Left Common Iliac Arteries
• these represent the end of the aorta at the level of the iliac crests and the
beginning of blood flow to the lower extremities
•
the right and left iliac arteries branch externally and internally as seen with the
common carotids
a. Right and Left Internal Iliac Arteries
b. Right and Left External Iliac Arteries
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Part C: Venous Return
Blood returning to the heart from the head, arms, neck and upper chest will pass through
progressively larger veins until reaching the Superior Vena Cava. Blood returning to the heart from
the abdomen and lower extremities will pass through progressively larger veins until reaching the
Inferior Vena Cava. Identify the major veins beginning from the superior and Inferior venae cavae.
1. Superior Vena Cava
• drains the upper body
• receives blood from both brachiocephalic veins and several smaller intercostal veins before
draining blood into the right atrium of the heart
A. Right and Left Brachiocephalic Veins
• receive blood from the subclavian veins and internal jugulars
a. Right and Left Subclavian Veins
• receive blood from the external jugulars and axillary veins
i. Right and Left External Jugular Veins
• drains blood from the top of the head and muscles of the
face
ii. Right and Left Axillary Veins
• drains blood from the arms
b. Right and Left Internal Jugular Veins
• drains blood from the brain, face and neck
2. Inferior Vena Cava
• The union of the common iliac veins forms the beginning of the inferior vena cava. Blood in
the IVC will move toward the right atrium of the heart, but will be joined along the way by
the merging of additional veins to the IVC.
A. Right and Left Common Iliac Veins
•
formed by the merging of external and internal iliac veins
a. Right and Left External Iliac Veins
• receive blood from the femoral and great saphenous veins
i. Right and Left Femoral Veins
ii. Right and Left Saphenous Veins
• drain blood from each leg
b. Right and Left Internal Iliac Veins
• drain blood from the gluteal muscles, urinary bladder, rectum,
and reproductive organs
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B. Right and Left Renal Veins
• drain blood from the kidneys and adrenal glands
C. Splenic Vein
• drains blood from spleen
D. Superior Mesenteric Vein
• drains blood from mesentery, small intestine, portions of the large intestine,
and stomach
E. Hepatic Portal Vein
• Forms from the junction of the superior mesenteric vein, splenic vein and
several other abdominal veins. Eventually all of the blood coming from the
abdominal digestive tract, pancreas, gall bladder and spleen drains into the
hepatic portal vein.
•
As the hepatic portal vein enters the liver, it rapidly diverges into small
vessels called hepatic sinusoids. (not shown) The blood is passed through
the liver and nutrients are absorbed for storage or metabolism. The blood
then drains into the hepatic vein which delivers the blood to the inferior vena
cava.
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Name:_______________________________ Section: __________
Due Date:______________________________________
Gross Lymphatic and Vascular Anatomy
Post Lab Questions:
1. Describe the source and composition of lymphatic fluid?
2. List in order the lymphatic vessels and blood vessels as they direct the flow of lymphatic fluid from
the tissues back to the heart.
3. What is the function of lymph nodes in immunity?
4. Lymphatic nodules are arranged with an outer cortex and inner medulla. What is found in the
cortex? What is found the medulla?
5. Compare and contrast the histology, structure, and functions of the red pulp and white pulp of the
spleen.
6. Based on what you know about the secondary immune response, provide some reasons why
hemolytic disease of the newborn affects the second pregnancy more than the first?
7. Based on what you know about B cell selection, how does the selection process for memory B
cells and affinity maturation contribute to a stronger secondary immune response?
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The Respiratory System
Objectives:
1. Describe the locations and functions of the major components of the respiratory system.
2. Describe the function on the respiratory system in the maintenance of blood pH in its role for gas
exchange and the removal of CO2.
3. Review of acid/base concepts and the pH scale.
Materials:
1. Text and associated lecture slides
2. Anatomical models: Torso, Throat, Lungs, Skull
3. Light microscope
4. Microscope slides:
a. epiglottis
b. trachea and respiratory epithelium
c. bronchioli
d. lung and alveoli
5. diH2O
6. pH indicator (Phenol Red)
7. Stir straws
Part A: Gross Anatomy of the Respiratory System
Introduction:
The respiratory system provides the mechanisms for the circulation of air to facilitate gas exchange.
The respiratory system is divided into an Upper Respiratory Tract and a Lower Respiratory Tract.
Methods:
1. Observe histological slides an PowerPoints of respiratory epithelium, trachea, and alveoli. You
are responsible for identifying the listed epithelia of the respiratory system on the Histology
Practical Exam.
2. Locate the following structures on the anatomical models and review their associated structures
and functions. Use the space provided for any notes. You are responsible for the listed structures
of the respiratory system for the Gross Anatomical Practical Exam.
Upper Respiratory Tract
1. Head Sinuses
Location: Maxilla, Ethmoid, Frontal, Sphenoid bones
Structures:
Epithelium: Pseudostratified columnar
Functions: Decrease weight of the skull; Phonation - Increasing resonance of the voice;
Insulation from temperature fluctuations; Tempering and humidification of inhaled air
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2. Nasal Cavity
Location: External nares to posterior nasal aperture
Structures:
Epithelium: Stratified squamous epithelium
Vestibule: Beginning of nasal cavity just inside nostrils
Vibrissae: Stiff guard hairs that block debris from entering nose
Nasal Conchae: Superior, middle, and inferior nasal conchae (turbinates)
Meatus: Narrow air passage beneath each concha
Functions: Clean, warm, and moisten air
3. Pharynx
Location: Muscular funnel from the posterior nasal aperture to the larynx
Three regions of the Pharynx:
A. Nasopharynx
Location: Region posterior to nasal apertures to the soft palate
Structures:
Epithelium: Pseudostratified columnar
Eustachian (Auditory) Tubes: drain middle ears to pharynx
Pharyngeal tonsils: lymphatic tissue
Functions: Passes only air; 90° downward turn traps large particles
B. Oropharynx
Location: Region between soft palate and epiglottis
Structures:
Epithelium: Stratified squamous
Palatine tonsils: lymphatic tissue
Functions: Pass air, food, and drink
C. Laryngopharynx
Location: Region from epiglottis to cricoid cartilage
Structures:
Epithelium: Stratified squamous
Esophagus: muscular tube to cardiac stomach
Functions: Pass air, food, and drink
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4. Larynx
Location: Epiglottis to the trachea
Structures:
Epithelium: Stratified squamous
Epiglottis: Flap of tissue that guards the superior opening of the larynx
Vestibular Folds: Folds of tissue on each side extending from thyroid cartilage
anteriorly to arytenoid cartilages posteriorly
a. Superior Vestibular Folds: Close the larynx during swallowing
b. Inferior Vestibular Folds (Vocal cords): Vocal ligaments
Glottis: Vocal cords and the space between them
Laryngeal Cartilages: Compose framework of larynx
a. Epiglottic Cartilage: Spoon-shaped supportive plate in epiglottis
b. Thyroid Cartilage: Largest, laryngeal prominence, Adam’s apple
c. Cricoid Cartilage: Connects larynx to trachea, ringlike
d. Arytenoid Cartilages (2): Posterior to thyroid cartilage
e. Corniculate Cartilages (2): attached to arytenoid cartilages
f. Cuneiform Cartilages (2):support tissue between arytenoids and epiglottis
Functions: Keep food and drink out of the airway; phonation
Lower Respiratory Tract
1. Trachea
Location: Anterior to esophagus from inferior larynx to carina of main bronchi
Structures:
Epithelium: Ciliated pseudostratified columnar
Middle tracheal layer: connective tissue beneath the tracheal epithelium
contains lymphatic nodules, mucous and serous
glands, and the tracheal cartilages
Adventitia: outermost layer of trachea composed of fibrous connective
tissue, blends into adventitia of other organs of mediastinum
Supportive Cartilage: C-shaped hyaline cartilage rings prevent collapse
Trachealis muscle: Spans opening in rings to adjust width of trachea
Carina: internal medial ridge in the lowermost tracheal cartilage
Functions: Direct and regulate airflow to the right and left main bronchi
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2. Bronchial Tree
Location: Carina to terminal bronchioles. Enter lungs at hilum.
Structures:
Epithelium: All bronchi lined with ciliated pseudostratified columnar epithelium.
Cells grow shorter and the epithelium becomes thinner distally.
Lamina propria: Has an abundance of mucous glands and lymphocyte
nodules - bronchus-associated lymphoid tissue, BALT positioned to intercept inhaled pathogens.
Elastic connective tissue: For recoil that expels air from lungs
Muscularis mucosae: layer of smooth muscle to regulate air flow
Pulmonary Artery: Branches closely follow the bronchial tree on their
way to the alveoli.
Bronchial Artery: arises from the aorta and services bronchial tree with
systemic blood.
Functions: A branching system of air tubes in each lung.
Three Branches of Bronchial Tree
A. Main (Primary) Bronchi:
Location: R and L branches from trachea.
Structures:
C-shaped hyaline cartilage rings: Support main bronchi
Functions: Direct airflow into right and left lungs. R. main
bronchus slightly wider and more vertical than left. Objects more easily aspirated
into R. main bronchus.
B. Lobar (Secondary) Bronchi:
Location: Three R. lobar bronchi – superior, middle, and inferior one to each lobe of the right lung. Two L. lobar bronchi superior and inferior one to each lobe of the left lung.
C. Segmental (Tertiary) Bronchi:
Location: 10 on right, and 8 on left
Structures:
Bronchopulmonary segment: Functionally independent
unit of the lung tissue
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!
Images from The Sourcebook of Medical Illustration (The Parthenon Publishing Group, P. Cull, ed., 1989) and are
copyright-free as long as they are used for educational purposes.
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3. Bronchioles
Location: Diverge from segmental bronchi and divide into terminal bronchioles.
Structures:
Epithelium: Ciliated cuboidal
Muscularis mucosae: Well developed layer of smooth muscle
Functions: Each bronchiole aerates one pulmonary lobule - portion of lung
ventilated by one bronchiole
4. Terminal Bronchioles
Location: Final branches of conducting division. Diverge to become respiratory
bronchioles.
Structures:
Cilia: Propels mucus draining back from mucociliary escalator
Lacks: mucous glands and goblet cells
Functions: Terminal bronchioles gives off two or more respiratory bronchioles
5. Respiratory Bronchioles
Location: The beginning of the respiratory division.
Structures:
Alveoli: Bud from walls, for gas exchange
Alveolar sacs: Grape-like clusters of alveoli arrayed around central atrium
Functions: Divide into 2-10 alveolar ducts
6. Alveoli
Location: Bud from walls of respiratory bronchioles, alveolar sacs open into atria
Structures:
Epithelium: Simple squamous
Respiratory Membrane: Barrier between the alveolar air and blood;
composed of alveolar cells, endothelial cells of capillary, basement membrane
Three Cell Types of the Alveolus:
1. Squamous (type I) alveolar cells: Thin, broad cells for rapid
gas diffusion between alveolus and bloodstream. Cover 95% of alveolus surface
area.
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2. Great (type II) alveolar cells: Round to cuboidal cells that cover
the remaining 5% of alveolar surface. Repair the alveolar epithelium. Secrete
pulmonary surfactant.
3. Alveolar macrophages (dust cells): Most numerous of all cells in the lung.
Keep alveoli free from debris by phagocytizing dust particles.
Functions: Provide about 70 m2 of surface for gas exchange
Images from The Sourcebook of Medical Illustration (The Parthenon Publishing Group, P. Cull, ed., 1989) and are
copyright-free as long as they are used for educational purposes.
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7. Lungs
Location: Conical organ with a broad, concave base, resting on the diaphragm,
and apex projecting slightly above the clavicle
Costal surface: pressed against the ribcage
Mediastinal surface: faces medially toward the heart
Structures:
Hilum: Slit through which the lung receives the main bronchus, blood
vessels, lymphatics and nerves - root of the lung
Right Lung: Shorter than left because the liver rises higher on the right.
Has three lobes: superior, middle, and inferior separated
by horizontal and oblique fissures.
Left Lung: Taller and narrower because the heart tilts toward the left and
occupies more space on this side of mediastinum. Gives way
to cardiac impression. Has two lobes: superior and inferior
separated by a single oblique fissure.
Visceral Pleura: Serous membrane that covers lungs
Parietal Pleura: Membrane adheres to mediastinum, inner surface of the
rib cage, and superior surface of the diaphragm
Pleural Cavity: Potential space between pleurae, contains a film of
slippery pleural fluid
8. Respiratory Muscles
Two classes of Respiratory Muscles:
1. Major Respiratory Muscles: For quiet respiration during inspiration
A. Diaphragm
Location: Divides thoracic and abdominal cavities
Function: Prime mover of respiration;
Contraction flattens diaphragm enlarging thoracic cavity and
pulling air into lungs; Relaxation allows diaphragm to bulge
upward again, compressing the lungs and expelling air
B. Internal and external intercostal muscles
Location: Between ribs
Function: Synergist to diaphragm;
Stiffen the thoracic cage during respiration and
prevents it from caving inward when diaphragm
descends; Contribute to enlargement and contraction of
thoracic cage
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C. Scalenes
Location: Originate from cervical vertebrae and insert at fist
and second ribs
Function: Synergist to diaphragm
Quiet respiration holds ribs 1 and 2 stationary
2. Accessory Muscles: Other muscles that facilitate breathing for forced
respiration and assist with breathing if deficient respiration
A. Accessory Muscles Include: Erector spinae,
sternocleidomastoid, pectoralis major, pectoralis minor, serratus anterior
muscles, and scalenes
Part B: Diaphragmatic Excursion
Introduction:
The diaphragm muscle separates the thoracic and abdominal cavities. The diaphragm is a major
muscle of respiration as it functions as to enlarge the thoracic cavity to bring air into the lungs. When
the diaphragm contracts it flattens increasing the volume of the thoracic cavity decreasing pressure
within the lungs to draw air in. During relaxation the elasticity of the lung tissue and cartilage of the
rib cage allows the diaphragm to bulge upward once again into the thoracic cavity compressing lungs
for passive expiration.
The technique for observing diaphragmatic excursion allows students and clinicians to study the
excursion (movement) of the diaphragm as it contracts during inhalation to expand the thoracic cavity
and relaxes to allow the thoracic cavity to constrict for expiration. In this exercise you will use
percussion (tapping) and listening techniques to observe the motion of the diaphragm through a cycle
of inspiration and expiration.
Percussion is a clinical tapping technique performed with the forefinger and middle finger of one hand
on the forefinger and middle finger of the other hand firmly pressed against the body. By listening to
the characteristic tones produced by percussing over the body, it is possible to diagnosis conditions
and monitor the motion of the diaphragm. The characteristic tone heard while percussing over the air
filled lungs within the expanded thoracic cavity is known as resonance. Resonance is a low-pitched,
drum-like tone obtained by percussing the surface of a large air-containing space (medicaldictionary.thefreedictionary.com).
Procedure:
1. Pair up with a willing lab partner. Each partner should take turns performing this exercise. This
exercise works best when performed through the fewest layers of clothing as possible.
2. Have your lab partner sit upright on a backless chair or desk top with his or her back towards you.
Have your partner take a deep inspiration and hold their breath.
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3. Begin your percussions by performing a couple of taps at the midline your partner’s the upper left
shoulder. Listen for the resonant tones of the thoracic cavity. You may want to do a couple of
practice swings to become familiar with the technique before your partner begins to hold their
breath.
4. Percuss on the upper right shoulder to the compare the tone of the lungs bilaterally. Continue this
process of bilateral percussions as you move inferiorly along the back.
5. As you continue to move inferiorly while listening to your percussion you will note a change in the
tone from resonance to a more muted tone. At this point you have percussed past the thoracic
cavity and are now percussing over the diaphragm.
6. Note the level where you heard this change in tone.
7. Have your partner passively exhale and hold their exhalation.
8. Starting at point on the lower back where you noted the end of the resonant tone, begin to percuss
back up your partner’s back. Continue to percuss superiorly until you hear muted tone change to
once again sound resonant. You are now back over the thoracic cavity and the lungs. Note the
point in the upper/middle back where you observed the return of the resonant tone.
9. Compare the heights of the two points where you noted tonal changes during inspiration and
expiration. The difference between the two points estimates the diaphragmatic excursion during a
respiratory cycle. This distance should be compared bilaterally.
Part C: Respiratory System and pH
Introduction:
Chemoreceptors respond to changes in pH of the cerebrospinal fluid and blood. pH reflects the CO2
level in the blood and CSF, and central respiratory centers regulate respiration rate and depth to
ensure stable CO2 concentrations in the body to maintain a stable pH. Most of the carbon dioxide
transported throughout the body is in the form of carbonic acid (H2CO3) is produced when CO2 reacts
with water in the blood plasma:
CO2 + H2O → H2CO3 → HCO3- + H+
In this reaction CO2 reacts with H2O to form carbonic acid (H2CO3) which dissociates to become
bicarbonate (HCO3-) as it releases a proton (H+) into solution. These liberated protons lower the pH
of the blood or CSF, i.e. making them more acidic:
pH = -log[H+]
CO2 is produced continuously in the body as a product of cellular respiration. Respiratory acidosis
and respiratory alkalosis are pH imbalances resulting from a mismatch between the rate of pulmonary
ventilation and the rate of CO2 production. Hyperventilation is a corrective homeostatic response to
acidosis. It is a “blowing off ” of CO2 faster than the body produces it. This physiological mechanism
reduces the concentration of carbonic acid to raise the blood pH towards normal. Hypoventilation is a
corrective homeostatic response to alkalosis. Slowed breathing allows CO2 to accumulate in the
body fluids to produce excess carbonic acid. This raises the [H+] concentration, lowering pH to
normal.
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The following exercise is a simple demonstration of the reaction of CO2 and H2O to produce carbonic
acid H2CO3. The pH indicator phenol red will change color from red to yellow as the pH of a solution
drops. In this exercise you will observe the change in pH of a solution as the CO2 you exhale reacts
with the H2O, just as the CO2 from your tissues reacts reacts with the H2O in your blood plasma.
Procedure:
1. Add drops of phenol red pH indicator to a small amount of diH2O until the solution is pink to red in
color.
2. Exhale through your straw into the solution and observe the change in color. How was the pH of
the solution affected?
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Name:_______________________________ Section: __________
Due Date:______________________________________
The Respiratory System
Post Lab Questions:
1. Describe how the epithelium changes through the lower respiratory tract and explain the
importance of this for the function of the respiratory system.
2. Describe four components of the immune system along the respiratory tract that protect the lungs
from infection.
3. Contraction of the the diaphragm provides the force for inhalation. What drives a relaxed
expiration?
4. What is the source of the carbon dioxide that must be removed from the blood by the respiratory
system?
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The Urinary System: The Kidney
Kidney Dissection
Objectives:
1. Identify major gross anatomical structures of the kidney
2. Observe histological slides of renal tissue to identify epithelia, nephron and microcirculatory
systems
3. Trace the path of glomerular filtrate through renal tubules for urine formation
4. Trace the path of renal circulation and perfusion
Introduction:
The urinary system is the principal means of waste removal for the body. Its function is closely
associated with the respiratory, skeletal, and circulatory systems for regulation of blood volume and
pressure, erythrocyte count, blood gases, blood pH, and electrolyte and acid base balance. The
urinary system also shares structures with the reproductive system and together they are considered
the urogenital system.
The urinary system is composed of six organs: two kidneys, two ureters, the urinary bladder, and the
urethra. Located retroperitoneally in abdominal cavity, the kidneys are the primary organs of the
urinary system and function to filter the blood and form urine.
The functional unit of the kidney is the nephron. Blood enters the nephron at the glomerular capillary
of the renal corpuscle where hydrostatic pressure forces filtrate out of the glomerular capillaries into
the Bowman’s capsule, which is continuous with the renal tubule. The filtrate is processed as it
passes through the renal tubules.
Much of the filtrate is reabsorbed into the renal parenchyma and returned to the bloodstream via
peritubular capillaries. Most of the water component of filtrate is also reabsorbed, conserving water
and concentrating the urine. Waste products in the filtrate and peritubule capillaries, such as
nitrogenous bi-products, metabolites, and excesses, travel through the renal tubule to be excreted as
urine.
Urine, the final product of renal filtration, reabsorption, and excretion, collects through a system of
converging calyces into the renal pelvis - a hollow, funnel-like structure at the center of the kidney.
The renal pelvis is lined with transitional (urinary) epithelium and is continuous with the ureters exiting
the hilum of the kidney. Urine passes through the ureters and is stored in the urinary bladder to be
excreted through the urethra, a process known as urination or micturition.
Materials:
Safety:
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Materials:
Safety:
1. Preserved pig kidney
1. Close-toed shoes are required in lab
2. Dissection instruments kit
2. Stow belongings out of work areas
3. Dissection tray
3. Wear gloves and eye protection
4. Disposable gloves
4. Dispose of the heart as instructed
5. Protective eyewear
5. Wash the dissection tools and trays
6. Lab coat
6. Wash surface
7. Anatomical models: Torso, Kidney
section, Nephron
8. Light microscope
9.Tissue slides:
a. Kidney, whole
b. Kidney section, human
c. Kidney section, cortex
d. Kidney section, medulla
e. Ureter
f. Urinary bladder
g. Urethra
10.Preserved sheep/pig kidney
11. Dissection instruments kit
12. Dissection trays
13. Disposable gloves
14. Protective eyewear
15. Lab coat/ apron
16. Surface cleaner
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Name:_______________________________ Section: __________
Due Date: Due the day of the dissection
The Urinary System: The Kidney
Kidney Dissection
Pre-Lab Exercises:
Part A: Short Answer
Select the best directional term to complete the sentence.
1. The the kidneys are located in which body cavity.
a. Pelvic
b. Abdominal
c. Thoracic
d. Epigastric
2. The kidneys are located at the level of __________.
a. C 7 - T 5
b. T 1 - T 12
c. T 12 - L 2
d. L 1 - L 5
3.The kidneys are located (anterior; posterior) to the parietal peritoneum.
4. The hilum is located at the (lateral; medial) border of the kidney.
5.The cortex of the kidney is (superficial; deep) to the medulla.
Pre-lab exercises continued on next page
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Part B: Matching
a. Medulla
1. _____ Fibrous connective tissue layer covering of the renal cortex
b. Cortex
c. Capsule
2. _____ Contains renal corpuscles
d. Mesangial
e. Podocyte
3. _____ Contains loop of Henle
4. _____ Cells of filtration membrane
5. _____ Cells of juxtaglomerular apparatus
Part C: Labeling
Write the letter next to the correct label
for each of the gross renal structures:
1.Fibrous capsule _____
2.Renal cortex _____
3.Renal papilla _____
4.Renal sinus _____
5.Renal pelvis _____
6.Renal column _____
7.Major calyx _____
8.Minor calyx _____
9.Renal Lobe _____
10.Medullary pyramid _____
11.Ureter _____
Images from The Sourcebook of Medical Illustration (The Parthenon Publishing Group, P. Cull, ed., 1989) and are
copyright-free as long as they are used for educational purposes.
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Label the structures of the nephron:
1.Peritubular capillary _____
6.Glomerulus _____
2.Juxtamedullary apparatus _____
7.Collecting duct _____
3.Afferent arteriole _____
8.Proximal Convoluted Tubule _____
4.Efferent arteriole _____
9.Distal Convoluted Tubule _____
5.Renal papilla _____
10.Bowman’s capsule _____
!
Images from The Sourcebook of Medical Illustration (The Parthenon Publishing Group, P. Cull, ed., 1989) and are
copyright-free as long as they are used for educational purposes.
End pre-lab
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Methods:
Part A: Histology
Observe the tissue slides for the kidney section and note the following:
A.Kidney, whole
1. Capsule
2. Cortex
3. Medulla
4. Pelvis
B.Kidney, section
1. Capsule of connective tissue
2. Hilum
3. Cortex
a.Glomerulus
b.Afferent and Efferent Blood Vessels
c. Peritubular capillaries
d.Bowman’s capsule
e.Capsular space
f.Proximal convoluted tubule
- simple cuboidal epithelium with prominent microvilli
- very long
a.Distal convoluted tubule
- simple cuboidal epithelium without microvilli
b. Collecting duct
- simple cuboidal epithelium
2. Medulla
a. Loop of Henle
b. Collecting duct
c. Peritbular capillaries of vasa recta
C. Ureter
1. Transitional epithelium
D. Urinary bladder
1. Transitional epithelium
2. Detrusor muscle
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Part B: Dissection Protocol:
Working in groups of two:
1. Obtain a preserved kidney and rinse thoroughly with water to remove preservative.
2. Remove any excess adipose tissue.
3. Place the kidney in the dissecting tray ventral surface up and identify the hilum on the medial
surface. Differentiate the renal artery and vein and the ureter.
4. Identify the adrenal gland on the apex of the kidney.
5. The renal fascia and perirenal fat capsule cover the superficial surface of the kidney.
6. Peel away the adipose tissue.
7. The fibrous capsule appears as a thin, transparent membrane covering the kidney.
8. Peel or scrape away a portion of the fibrous capsule to reveal the cortex.
9. Make a coronal (frontal) section through the kidney to a level just past the hilum.
10. Make a transverse section starting at lower level of your first section. Cut through the ventral face
of the kidney to the coronal section in order to remove the upper, ventral quadrant of the kidney.
11. At the hilum is the renal sinus which is the point of entry for the renal artery and vein, the ureter,
lymphatics, and nerves. The sinus is filled with adipose tissue.
12. Follow the branches of the renal artery and vein to trace the path of circulation through the kidney
tissue. The renal A/V divides into segmental A/V’s.
13. Observe the superficial cortex and the medulla deep to the cortex. Note the organization of the
cortex into renal columns and the organization of the medulla into medullary pyramids. Each
medullary pyramid has a broad base facing the cortex and comes to a point, renal papilla, facing
inward. Each renal papilla is composed of the ends of the collecting ducts which drain urine into
minor calyces - cup like structures surrounding each papilla. Note the organization of the kidney
into renal lobes composed of a medullary pyramid and the overlying cortex. Continue following
the segmental A/V’s as they branch to form interlobar A/V’s traveling through to the renal columns
to each lobe. Interlobar A/V’s branch and travel over the base the medullary pyramids at the
cortico-medullary junction to become arcuate A/V’s. The Arcuate A/V’s provide smaller, nearly
microscopic, branches upward into the cortex, interlobular A/V’s. The interlobular A/V’s give rise
to the afferent arterioles. Afferent arterioles form the glomerulus. The efferent arteriole exits the
glomerulus and branches to peritubular capillaries and vasa recta which converge at Interlobular
veins.
14. Minor calyces converge to form major calyces. The funnel-like center of the kidney is the renal
pelvis. The renal pelvis is formed by the convergence of major calyces.
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15. Note the intact inferior half the kidney to see how the each lobe empties urine into the funnelshaped pelvis via major and minor calyces.
16. The ureter drains the pelvis, carrying urine to the urinary bladder.
17. Clean-up/ Disposal:
1. Discard the gloves and heart in the trash.
2. Thoroughly rinse, wash, and return the dissection trays and tools.
3. Thoroughly wash your work surface.
4. Wash your hands before leaving the lab.
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Labeling Exercise
Cut out and use the provided labels and mounting pins to precisely tag each of the structures as you
locate them. Laminate the top side of the labels with a layer of tape before cutting them out. Fill out
the bottom half of the sheet and leave it next to your dissection so that your instructor can check your
labeling to give you credit for your dissection technique and adherence to protocol.
Printable Labels
* Tag the region where these structures are located as they are microscopic.
1. Fibrous capsule
8. Major calyx
15. Renal artery
2. Renal cortex
9. Renal pelvis
16. Renal vein
3. Renal medulla
10. Renal sinus
17. Segmental artery
4. Renal columns
11. Ureter
18. Interlobar artery
5. Medullary pyramid
12. Corpuscles, PCT, DCT*
19. Arcuate artery
6. Renal papilla
13. Loop, Collecting
ducts*
20. Interlobular artery*
7. Minor calyx
14. Ureter
---------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
The Urinary System: The Kidney
Kidney Dissection
Names and CRN of each member of the group:
Name: ______________________________ CRN: ___________
Name: ______________________________ CRN: ___________
Name: ______________________________ CRN: ___________
Date:__________________________________________
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Name:_______________________________ Section: __________
Due Date:Due one week after dissection
The Urinary System: The Kidney
Kidney Dissection
Post Lab Exercises:
Part A: Discussion
1. Describe the location, structure (histology) and primary function of the proximal convoluted tubule.
How does its structure relate to its function?
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
2. What are the three components of the filtration membrane at the glomerulus and how do they
affect filtration?
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
Post lab exercises continued on next page
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3. What types of substances pass through the filtration membrane? What types of substances do
not pass through the filtration membrane? Provide a few examples of each in your answer.
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
4. How does filtrate in the proximal convoluted tubule differ from filtrate in the distal convoluted
tubule? Compare/contrast the tonicity of the filtrate at these two sections of the renal tubule in
your answer and describe what happens to the filtrate between the PCT and DCT.
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
5. What is the function of the loop of Henle?
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
6. How does the salt gradient through the medulla facilitate water conservation through the collecting
tubule?
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
Post lab exercises continued on next page
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7. How does tubular reabsorption differ from tubular secretion?
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
8. Describe the three forces that contribute to filtration at the capsular space.
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
9. Describe the three factors that promote reabsorption by the peritubular capillaries.
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
____________________________________________________________________________________
End post lab
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The Urinary System: The Kidney
Kidney Dissection
Lab Report
Grading:
Name:_________________________________________
Date:__________________________________________
Section:_______________________________________
Pre-Lab:
Part A: Short Answer: _____ / 5
Part B: Matching: _____ / 5
Part C: Labeling: _____ / 20
Dissection:
Labeling: _____ / 20
Dissection Technique: _____ / 5
Adherence to Protocol/ Clean-up: _____ / 5
Lab/Post-Lab:
Part A: Discussion: _____ / 40
Total: _____ / 100
Letter Grade:
Instructor:_______________________________________
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Digestive System and
Comparative Anatomy
Objectives:
1. Identify segments and organs of the digestive tract by gross anatomical structure and histology
2. Relate the histology to the function of a portion of the digestive tract
3. Compare and contrast the structure and functions of the human digestive tract with a sheep
digestive tract
Introduction:
The human body can be described as a tube within a tube. During fetal development the embryo is
composed of three tissue layers: ectoderm, mesoderm and endoderm. The embryo folds over itself
to form a tube with the ectoderm tissue layer on the outside of the tube, the endoderm lining the
inside of the tube, and the mesoderm between the ectoderm and endoderm. In general, the
ectoderm will develop to become the epidermis of the skin and nervous tissue. The mesoderm gives
rise to bone and muscle tissue and many organs. The endoderm develops to become much of the
the digestive tract.
The digestive tract, or alimentary canal, is a long tube of hollow organs connected together beginning
at the mouth and ending at the anus. The alimentary canal, along with several accessory organs,
comprise the digestive system. This system functions in the physical and chemical digestion and
absorption of nutrients into the blood stream.
The digestive tract can be subdivided into sections including the mouth, esophagus, stomach, small
and large intestine, rectum, and anus. Each segment of the digestive tract has a specialized
epithelium and associated accessory organs and carries out a specific role in the digestive and
absorptive processes. The digestive tract is open to the outside environment at both ends and is
therefore lined with an extensive mucous membrane. In fact, anything passing through the digestive
tract is considered to be external to body until it is absorbed into the blood stream.
The mucous membrane transitions from a stratified squamous epithelium through the mouth and
esophagus to a simple cuboidal epithelium in the stomach to a simple columnar epithelium though the
intestines and back to a stratified squamous epithelium at the recto-anal junction. The histology
along each segment of the digestive tract describes its roles in digestion and absorption. The
majority of the digestive tract is lined with simple columnar epithelium with microvilli with a variable
number of goblet cells. This epithelium functions in contact digestion and absorption.
The accessory organs of the digestive system include the teeth, tongue, salivary glands, liver, gall
bladder, and pancreas. Each of these organs provide functions for physical and chemical digestion.
The teeth and tongue are necessary for mastication which increases surface area of food for
increased chemical and contact digestion. The salivary glands, liver, gall bladder, and pancreas
produce digestive chemicals that are secreted into the digestive tract to aid in chemical digestion.
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Materials:
1.Anatomical models: torso, liver, sagittal head
2.Light microscope
3.Sheep digestive tract (prosection)
4.Tissue slides:
a.Lip
b.Developing tooth
c.Vallate papillae
d.Sublingual gland
e.Parotid gland
f.Esophagus
g.Trachea and esophagus
h.Stomach and duodenum
i.Cardiac stomach
j.Fundic stomach
k.Pyloric stomach
l.Duodenum
m.Meissner’s copuscles
n.Jejunum
o.Ileum
p.Colon
q.Appendix
r.Recto-anal junction
s.Liver
t.Pancreas
Part A:Histology
Methods:
Observe the histological slides or PowerPoint images of the digestive system. You are responsible
for identifying histological samples of the digestive system listed for the Histological Practical Exam.
A.Lip
a.Stratified squamous epithelium keratinized
B.Developing tooth
a.Alveolar bone
b.Periodontal ligament
C.Tongue
a.Vallate papillae
b.Skeletal muscle fibers in many directions
c.Lingual salivary glands
D.Sublingual gland
a.Mixed gland with mucous cells and serous demilunes
E.Parotid gland
a.Pure serous gland
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F.Esophagus
a.Thick muscularis externa
b.Stratified squamous epithelium
G.Trachea and esophagus
a. Compare and contrast the epithelia and the tissue layers of the walls of the two tubes
H.Stomach and duodenum
a.Simple cuboidal epithelium of the stomach
b.Pyloric sphincter
c.Three layers of muscularis externa of the stomach
I.Cardiac stomach
a.Simple cuboidal epithelium
b.Gastric pits
J.Fundic stomach
a. Simple cuboidal epithelium
b.Gastric pits
K.Pyloric stomach
a.Simple cuboidal epithelium
b.Gastric pits with many mucous cells
L.Duodenum
a.Simple columnar epithelium with microvilli and goblet cells
M.Meissner’s copuscles
a.Parasympathetic nerve fibers in the submucosa
N.Jejunum
a.Mucosa
1.Muscularis mucosa
2. Simple columnar epithelium with microvilli (brush border) and goblet cells
b.Submucosa
c.Muscularis externa
d.Serosa
e.Villi
f.Plicae circulares
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O.Ileum
a.Mucosa
1.Muscularis mucosa
2. Simple columnar epithelium with microvilli (brush border) and goblet cells
b.Submucosa
c.Muscularis externa
d.Serosa
e.Villi
f.Plicae circulares
g.Peyer’s Patches
P.Colon
a.Simple columnar epithelium with microvilli (brush border) and goblet cells
b.Many goblet cells
c.Taenia coli
d.Haustra
e.GALT
Q.Appendix
a.Lymphatic tissue
R.Recto-anal junction
a.Note transition from simple columnar epithelium to stratified squamous
S.Liver
a.Hepatic lobule
1.Central vein
2.Hepatocyte
3.Hepatic sinusoids
b.Hepatic triad
1.Branch of hepatic portal vein
2.Branch of hepatic artery proper
3.Bile ductule
T.Pancreas
a.Pancreatic exocrine acinar cells
b.Islets of endocrine cells
c.Ducts
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Part B: Gross Anatomy
Methods:
After reviewing the text and notes, locate and identify each of the following structures on the
anatomical models. You are responsible for identifying the structures of the digestive system listed
for the Gross Anatomical Practical Exam.
Digestive Tract (Alimentary Canal)
1. Mouth
A. Lips (upper and lower)
B. Labial frenulum (superior and inferior)
C. Hard palate and rugae
D. Soft palate
E. Uvula
F. Palatine tonsils
2. Esophagus
A. Lower esophageal (cardiac) sphincter
3. Stomach
A.Cardiac region
B. Fundus
C. Body
D. Pyloric region
a. Pyloric sphincter
E. Gastric rugae
4. Parietal peritoneum
5. Mesenteries
A. Serosa*
B. Lesser omentum*
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C. Greater omentum
D. Mesocolon
6. Small intestine
A. Duodenum
B. Jejunum
C. Ileum
D. Ileocecal junction/valve
7. Large intestine (Colon)
A.Cecum
B. Ascending colon
C. Transverse colon
D. Descending colon
E. Sigmoid colon
F. Rectum
G. Anus
H. Appendix
I. Haustra
J. Taenia coli
Accessory Organs
1. Tongue
A. Lingual frenulum
2. Dentition
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3. Salivary glands and duct openings
A. Sublingual
B. Submandibular
C. Parotid
4. Liver
A. Four Lobes:
a. Right
b. Left
c. Quadrate
d. Caudate
B. Falciform ligament
C. Hepatic artery
D. Hepatic portal vein
E. Common hepatic duct
5. Gall bladder
A. Bile duct
B. Cystic duct
6. Pancreas
A. Pancreatic duct
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Part C: Comparative Anatomy
Methods:
Compare and contrast the gross anatomy of the human digestive tract with that of the sheep digestive
tract. Use the space provided to note any differences you observe and discuss how these differences
relate to function.
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Name:_______________________________ Section: __________
Due Date:______________________________________
Digestive System
Post Lab Questions:
1. Why does the digestive system require such an extensive system of submucosal lymphatic
tissues such as Peyer’s patches and GALT?
2. How does the histology of the Jejunum relate to its roles in digestion and absorption?
3. What are the three components of a hepatic triad?
4. Describe the hepatic portal system and its function.
5. Describe how blood enters and circulates through the liver.
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Comprehensive Gross Anatomical Structure List
Introduction:
This is a comprehensive list of the gross (macroscopic) anatomical structures studied in lab that are
testable material for the Gross Anatomical Practical Exam. Structures on this list marked with an
asterisk are not found on the anatomical models. Locate the structures on the anatomical models
and prosections. Use the space provided in the lab manual to record any notes that will help you as
you prepare for the exams and practicals.
I. Nervous System
1. Brain
A. Cerebrum
a. Cerebral cortex
b. Central sulcus
c. Precentral gyrus
d. Postcentral gyrus
e. Corpus callosum
f. Lateral ventricles
B. Brainstem
a. Midbrain
b. Pons
c. Medulla oblongata
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D. Meninges
a. Dura mater
b. Arachnoid mater
E. Cranial Nerves
a. CN I Olfactory
b. CN II Optic
c. CN III Oculuomotor
d. CN IV Trochlear
e. CN V Trigeminal
f. CN VI Abducens
g. CN VII Facial
h. CN VIII Vestibulocochlear
i. CN IX Glossopharyngeal
j. CN X Vagus
k. CN XI Accessory
l. CN XII Hypoglossal
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F. Spinal cord
a. Anterior horn
b. Posterior horn
c. Spinal nerve
d. Anterior root
e. Posterior root
f. Posterior root ganglion
g. Cauda equina
II. Endocrine System
3. Thalamus
A. Hypothalamus
B. Epithalamus
a. Pineal gland
2. Pituitary gland
3. Thymus*
4. Thyroid
5. Parathyroid glands
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6. Adrenal glands
A. Cortex*
B. Medulla*
7. Pancreas
8. Ovaries
9. Testes
II. Cardiovascular System: Blood
1. Red bone marrow*
III. Cardiovascular System: Heart
1. Anterior face
2. Posterior face
3. Base
4. Apex
5. Right ventricle
6. Left ventricle
7. Right atrium
8. Left atrium
9. Aortic arch
10. Ascending aorta
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11. Superior vena cava
12. Inferior vena cava
13. Pulmonary trunk
14. Right and left pulmonary arteries
15. Right and left pulmonary veins
16. Coronary Sinus
17. Left coronary artery
18. Right coronary artery
19. Anterior interventricular branch (LAD) of LCA
20. Posterior interventricular branch of RCA
21. Anterior interventricular vein (Great cardiac vein)
22. Posterior interventricular vein
23. Interventricular septum
24. Right AV (Tricuspid) valve
25. Left AV (Bicuspid, Mitral) valve
26. Aortic valve
27. Pulmonary valve
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IV. Cardiovascular System: Blood Vessels and Circulation
1. Ascending aorta
2. Aortic arch
A. Brachiocephalic artery and vein
a. Right common carotid artery
i. Right internal carotid artery
ii. Right external carotid artery*
b. Right subclavian artery and vein
B. Left common carotid artery
a. Left internal carotid artery*
b. Left external carotid artery
C. Left subclavian artery and vein
3. Brachial arteries and veins (right and/or left)
4. Radial arteries and veins (right and/or left)
5. Ulnar arteries and veins (right and/or left)
6. Thoracic (descending) aorta
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7. Abdominal aorta
A. Celiac axis/artery/trunk
a. Gastric artery
b. Splenic artery and vein (look on large intestine)
c. Common hepatic artery (liver, large intestine)
B. Superior mesenteric artery and vein (large intestine)
C. Renal arteries and veins (right and left)
D. Inferior mesenteric arteries and veins (right and left)
E. Gonadal arteries and veins (right and left)
F. Common Iliac arteries and veins (right and left)
a. Internal Iliac arteries and veins (right and left)
b. External Iliac arteries and veins (right and left)
G. Femoral arteries and veins (right and left)
H. Popliteal arteries and veins (right and left)
I. Anterior tibial arteries and veins (right and left)
J. Posterior tibial arteries and veins (right and left)
K. Fibular arteries and veins (right and left)
8. Superior vena cava
9. Inferior vena cava
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10.Internal jugular veins (right and left, medial branches of subclavian
veins, run with common carotid arteries)
11.External jugular veins (right and left, lateral branches of subclavian
veins, run with external carotid arteries)
12. Axillary veins (right and left)
V. Lymphatic and Immune Systems
1. Cervical lymph nodes:
A. Anterior and posterior auricular*
B. Occipital*
C. Posterior cervical*
D. Submental*
E. Submaxillary*
F. Tonsilar*
2. Supraclavicular*
3. Axillary lymph nodes
4. Inguinal lymph nodes
5. Abdominal cavity lymph nodes
6.Thoracic cavity lymph nodes*
7.Right* and Left Thoracic (left lymphatic) duct
8.Cisterna chyli*
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VI. Respiratory System
Upper Respiratory Tract
1. Nasal Cavity
A. External nares
B. Posterior nasal aperture
2. Pharynx
A. Nasopharynx
a. Auditory (Eustachian) tube
B. Oropharynx
a. Palatine tonsils
C. Laryngopharynx
3. Larynx
A. Epiglottis
B. Superior vestibular folds
C. Inferior vestibular folds (vocal cords)
D. Thyroid cartilage
E. Cricoid cartilage
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Lower Respiratory Tract
1. Trachea
2. Main (primary) bronchi (right and left)
3. Lobar (secondary) bronchi
4. Carina
5. Lungs (right and left)
A. Hilum
B. Visceral pleura
C. Parietal pleura
6. Diaphragm
VII. Urinary System
1. Kidney (right and left)
A. Hilum
B. Cortex
C. Medulla
D. Renal column
E. Renal pyramid
F. Renal papilla
G. Renal pelvis
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H. Major calyx
I. Minor calyx
2. Ureter (right and left)
3. Urinary bladder
A. Trigone
B. Detrusor muscle
4. Urethra
VIII. Digestive System
Digestive Tract (Alimentary Canal)
1. Mouth
A. Lips (upper and lower)
B. Labial frenulum (superior and inferior)
C. Hard palate and rugae
D. Soft palate
E. Uvula
F. Palatine tonsils
2. Esophagus
A. Lower esophageal (cardiac) sphincter
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3. Stomach
A.Cardiac region
B. Fundus
C. Body
D. Pyloric region
a. Pyloric sphincter
E. Gastric rugae
4. Parietal peritoneum
5. Mesenteries
A. Serosa*
B. Lesser omentum*
C. Greater omentum
D. Mesocolon
6. Small intestine
A. Duodenum
B. Jejunum
C. Ileum
D. Ileocecal junction/valve
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7. Large intestine (Colon)
A.Cecum
B. Ascending colon
C. Transverse colon
D. Descending colon
E. Sigmoid colon
F. Rectum
G. Anus
H. Appendix
I. Haustra
J. Taenia coli
Accessory Organs
1. Tongue
A. Lingual frenulum
2. Dentition
3. Salivary glands and duct openings
A. Sublingual
B. Submaxillary
C. Parotid
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4. Liver
A. Four Lobes:
a. Right
b. Left
c. Quadrate
d. Caudate
B. Falciform ligament
C. Hepatic artery
D. Hepatic portal vein
E. Common hepatic duct
5. Gall bladder
A. Bile duct
B. Cystic duct
6. Pancreas
A. Pancreatic duct
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IX. Male Reproductive System
1. Penis
A. Glans penis
B. Prepuce
C. Urethral opening
2. Testes
3. Epididymus
4. Vas deferens
5. Prostate gland
6. Seminal vesicle
X. Female Reproductive System
Internal Genitalia
1. Ovaries (right and left)
A. Ovarian ligament
B. Suspensory ligament
2. Uterine (Fallopian) tubes (right and left)
A. Fimbriae
3. Uterus
A. Cervix
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4. Vagina
A. Fornix
External Genitalia
1. Vulva
A. Mons pubis
B. Labia majora
C. Labia minora
D. Clitoris
E. Hymen
F. Urethral opening
G. Vaginal opening
Breast
A. Areola and nipple
B. Fatty and gland tissue
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